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{{legend|#e6550d|Country-wide school closures}}]]
{{legend|#e6550d|Country-wide school closures}}]]


Efforts to stem the spread of [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] through preventative measures such as [[Social distancing|social-distancing]] and [[Isolation (health care)|self-isolation]] has prompted the widespread closure of [[Primary school|primary]] and [[Secondary school|secondary schools]] as well as [[Tertiary education|post-secondary schools]] including [[College|colleges]] and [[University|universities]] in at least 61 countries.<ref name=":0" />
Efforts to stem the spread of [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] through non-pharmaceutical interventions and preventative measures such as [[Social distancing|social-distancing]] and [[Isolation (health care)|self-isolation]] has prompted the widespread closure of [[Primary school|primary]] and [[Secondary school|secondary schools]] as well as [[Tertiary education|post-secondary schools]] including [[College|colleges]] and [[University|universities]] in at least 61 countries.<ref name=":0" />

The majority of confirmed COVID-19 patients have been adults. Preliminary evidence may indicate that children are less susceptible to the virus, however it is assumed that children can spread the virus. School closures are generally considered an effective way to slow the spread of illness, however more data is needed to make a clear assessment of the impact.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://chalkbeat.org/posts/us/2020/03/09/coronavirus-school-closures-research/|title=Should schools close due to coronavirus? Here's what research says|last=Barnum|first=Matt|date=2020-03-09|website=Chalkbeat|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-03-15}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/11/health/coronavirus-children-sick/index.html|title=Children's coronavirus cases are not as severe, but that doesn't make them less serious|last=CNN|first=Mallory Simon|website=CNN|access-date=2020-03-15}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/11/health/coronavirus-lessons-from-ebola/index.html|title=Lessons from Ebola: The secret of successful epidemic response|last=Frieden|first=Dr Tom|website=CNN|access-date=2020-03-15}}</ref> In come cases, school closures have been found ineffective if implemented too late.<ref name=":8" /> As closures tend to occur concurrently with other interventions such as public gathering bans, it can be difficult to measure the specific impact of school closures.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Charlotte|last2=Vynnycky|first2=Emilia|last3=Hawker|first3=Jeremy|last4=Olowokure|first4=Babatunde|last5=Mangtani|first5=Punam|date=2013|title=School closures and influenza: systematic review of epidemiological studies|url=http://bmjopen.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmjopen-2012-002149|journal=BMJ Open|language=en|volume=3|issue=2|pages=e002149|doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2012-002149|issn=2044-6055|pmc=PMC3586057|pmid=23447463}}</ref>


School closures have significant negative impacts on low-income families who disproportionately lack access to technology, internet, nutritious food and childcare services, as well as students with disabilities who require [[Individualized Education Program|individualized education plans]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.seattletimes.com/education-lab/inslee-announces-all-washington-k-12-schools-to-close-in-an-effort-to-slow-the-spread-of-coronavirus/|title=Inslee expands coronavirus K-12 school closure, 250-person gathering ban, across Washington|last=Furfaro|first=Hannah|last2=O'Sullivan|first2=Joseph|date=2020-03-13|website=The Seattle Times|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-03-15|last3=Morton|first3=Neal|last4=Bazzaz|first4=Dahlia}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/health/2020/03/13/coronavirus-updates-us-testing-death-toll-stocks-school-closures/5032550002/|title=Coronavirus updates: Trump declares national emergency; schools in 12 states shut down; cruise lines halted|last=Stanglin|first=Grace Hauck and Doug|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-15}}</ref>
School closures have significant negative impacts on low-income families who disproportionately lack access to technology, internet, nutritious food and childcare services, as well as students with disabilities who require [[Individualized Education Program|individualized education plans]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.seattletimes.com/education-lab/inslee-announces-all-washington-k-12-schools-to-close-in-an-effort-to-slow-the-spread-of-coronavirus/|title=Inslee expands coronavirus K-12 school closure, 250-person gathering ban, across Washington|last=Furfaro|first=Hannah|last2=O'Sullivan|first2=Joseph|date=2020-03-13|website=The Seattle Times|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-03-15|last3=Morton|first3=Neal|last4=Bazzaz|first4=Dahlia}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/health/2020/03/13/coronavirus-updates-us-testing-death-toll-stocks-school-closures/5032550002/|title=Coronavirus updates: Trump declares national emergency; schools in 12 states shut down; cruise lines halted|last=Stanglin|first=Grace Hauck and Doug|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-15}}</ref>

== Background ==
Previous outbreaks of infectious diseases have prompted widespread school closings around the world, with varying levels of effectiveness.<ref name=":9" />

During the [[Spanish flu|1918-1919 influenza pandemic]] in the United States, school closures and public gathering bans were associated with lower total mortality rates.<ref name=":8" /> Cities that implemented such interventions earlier had greater delays in reaching peak mortality rates.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Markel|first=Howard|last2=Lipman|first2=Harvey B.|last3=Navarro|first3=J. Alexander|last4=Sloan|first4=Alexandra|last5=Michalsen|first5=Joseph R.|last6=Stern|first6=Alexandra Minna|last7=Cetron|first7=Martin S.|date=2007-08-08|title=Nonpharmaceutical Interventions Implemented by US Cities During the 1918-1919 Influenza Pandemic|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/208354|journal=JAMA|language=en|volume=298|issue=6|pages=644–654|doi=10.1001/jama.298.6.644|issn=0098-7484}}</ref><ref name=":11" /> Schools closed for a median duration of 4 weeks according to a study of 43 US cities' response to the Spanish Flu.<ref name=":12" />

During the 2009 H1N1 Flu pandemic, multiple countries successfully slowed the spread of infection through school closures. School closures in the city of [[Ōita (city)|Oita]], Japan, were found to have successfully decreased the number of infected students at the peak of infection; however closing schools was not found to have significantly decreased the total number of infected students.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kawano|first=Shoko|last2=Kakehashi|first2=Masayuki|date=2015-12-15|title=Substantial Impact of School Closure on the Transmission Dynamics during the Pandemic Flu H1N1-2009 in Oita, Japan|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0144839|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=10|issue=12|pages=e0144839|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0144839|issn=1932-6203|pmc=PMC4682869|pmid=26669757}}</ref> Early school closures in the United States delayed the peak of the 2009 H1N1 Flu pandemic.<ref name=":9" /> Despite the overall success of closing schools, a study of school closures in Michigan found that "district level reactive school closures were ineffective."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davis|first=Brian M.|last2=Markel|first2=Howard|last3=Navarro|first3=Alex|last4=Wells|first4=Eden|last5=Monto|first5=Arnold S.|last6=Aiello|first6=Allison E.|date=2015-06-15|title=The Effect of Reactive School Closure on Community Influenza-Like Illness Counts in the State of Michigan During the 2009 H1N1 Pandemic|url=https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/60/12/e90/2462608|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=60|issue=12|pages=e90–e97|doi=10.1093/cid/civ182|issn=1058-4838}}</ref>

School closures may be effective at slowing the spread of illness when enacted promptly. When school closures occur late relative to an outbreak, they are less effective and may not have any impact at all.<ref name=":9" /> Additionally, in some cases, the reopening of schools after a period of closure has resulted in upticks in infection rates.<ref name=":11" /> Given low rates of COVID-19 infection among children, the effectiveness of school closures has been called into question.<ref name=":10" />


== Timeline ==
== Timeline ==

Revision as of 12:42, 15 March 2020

The 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic has affected educational systems worldwide, leading to the widespread closures of schools and universities. As of 13 March 2020, governments in 49 countries have announced or implemented school closures, including 39 countries which closed schools nationwide and 22 countries with localized school closures. Country-wide school closures have impacted over 421 million learners globally while localized school closures has put over 577 million learners potentially at risk.[1]

Learners affected by school closures caused by COVID-19 as of 13 March 2020[2][3]
  Localised school closures
  Country-wide school closures

Efforts to stem the spread of COVID-19 through non-pharmaceutical interventions and preventative measures such as social-distancing and self-isolation has prompted the widespread closure of primary and secondary schools as well as post-secondary schools including colleges and universities in at least 61 countries.[1]

The majority of confirmed COVID-19 patients have been adults. Preliminary evidence may indicate that children are less susceptible to the virus, however it is assumed that children can spread the virus. School closures are generally considered an effective way to slow the spread of illness, however more data is needed to make a clear assessment of the impact.[4][5][6] In come cases, school closures have been found ineffective if implemented too late.[4] As closures tend to occur concurrently with other interventions such as public gathering bans, it can be difficult to measure the specific impact of school closures.[7]

School closures have significant negative impacts on low-income families who disproportionately lack access to technology, internet, nutritious food and childcare services, as well as students with disabilities who require individualized education plans.[1][8][9]

Background

Previous outbreaks of infectious diseases have prompted widespread school closings around the world, with varying levels of effectiveness.[5]

During the 1918-1919 influenza pandemic in the United States, school closures and public gathering bans were associated with lower total mortality rates.[4] Cities that implemented such interventions earlier had greater delays in reaching peak mortality rates.[10][7] Schools closed for a median duration of 4 weeks according to a study of 43 US cities' response to the Spanish Flu.[10]

During the 2009 H1N1 Flu pandemic, multiple countries successfully slowed the spread of infection through school closures. School closures in the city of Oita, Japan, were found to have successfully decreased the number of infected students at the peak of infection; however closing schools was not found to have significantly decreased the total number of infected students.[11] Early school closures in the United States delayed the peak of the 2009 H1N1 Flu pandemic.[5] Despite the overall success of closing schools, a study of school closures in Michigan found that "district level reactive school closures were ineffective."[12]

School closures may be effective at slowing the spread of illness when enacted promptly. When school closures occur late relative to an outbreak, they are less effective and may not have any impact at all.[5] Additionally, in some cases, the reopening of schools after a period of closure has resulted in upticks in infection rates.[7] Given low rates of COVID-19 infection among children, the effectiveness of school closures has been called into question.[6]

Timeline

On 26 January, China instituted measures to contain the COVID-19 outbreak which included extending the Spring Festival holiday to contain the outbreak. Universities and schools around the country closed.[13]

On 23 February, Iran’s Ministry of Health announced the closure of universities, higher educational institutions and schools in several cities and provinces.[14]

On 4 March, the Italian government ordered the full closure of all schools and universities nationwide as Italy reached 100 deaths.[15]

On 5 March, UNESCO reported that the majority of learners affected by COVID-19 emergency measures were located in China, with 233 million learners affected, followed by Japan at 16.5 million and Iran at 14.5 million.[16]

Consequences of School Closures

School closures in light of COVID-19 have shed a light on numerous issues affecting access to education, as well as broader socio-economic issues.[1]

Socio-economic impact

See also: Socio-economic impact of the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic

Lack of access to technology or fast, reliable internet access can prevent students in rural areas and from disadvantaged families.[17]

To aid in slowing the transmission of COVID-19, hundreds of libraries have temporarily closed. In the United States, numerous major cities announced public library closures, including Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, and New York City, affecting 221 libraries.[9]

Learning Outcomes

School closures negatively impact student learning outcomes.[17]

Student dropout rates tend to increase as an effect of school closures due to the challenge of ensuring all students return to school once school closures ends.[16][17]

Special Education Services

Under United States federal law, students with disabilities are guaranteed the right to "free and appropriate" public education, however school closures and reliance on distance learning jeopardizes equal access for students with disabilities.[8]

Access to childcare

School closures puts a strain on parents and guardians to provide childcare and manage distance learning while children are out of school.[16]

Nutrition and Food Insecurity

Many children worldwide rely on free or discounted meals at schools.[16]

In Alabama, where state-wide school closures as of 18 March have affected over 720,000 students, the state Superintendent announced that staff in schools disproportionately affected by poverty would create meal distribution networks to provide food for students who rely on school lunches[18]

In Washington State, around 45% of the states 1.1 million students enrolled in traditional public and charter schools qualify for subsidized school meals. At least 520,000 students and their families may be impacted by food insecurity as a result of school closures.[8]

Impact by Country

See also: 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic by country and territory

United States

See also: 2020 coronavirus pandemic in the United States

As of 13 March, 2020, over 22,000 public schools in the United States had closed, affecting over 15 million students. Thirteen states and Washington D.C. have implemented statewide school closures. States with state-wide school closures as of 14 March include Ohio, Maryland, New Mexico, Michigan, Oregon, Washington, West Virginia, Louisiana, Illinois, Florida, Virginia, Pennsylvania and Kentucky.[18] Major metropolitan school districts which have closed include Atlanta, Denver, San Francisco, San Diego, Washington, D.C. and Austin.[9]

On 18 March, Alabama Governor Kay Ivey announced state-wide school closures impacting 1,400 schools and 720,000 students. All 23 community colleges in Alabama have ceased on-campus activities and have moved to online teaching. Numerous 4-year colleges and universities including Auburn University, the University of Alabama, Alabama A&M and Tuskegee University have followed suit.[18]

As of 13 March, Washington State has instated the longest period of school closures, extending at least through 24 April by order of Governor Jay Inslee and impacting over 1.1 million students.[9][8]

US President Donald Trump announced his intention to waive all federal student load interest, however little further information has been shared providing details on the plan.[9]

China

See also: 2020 coronavirus pandemic in China

China was the first country to mandate school closures.[19] Following the Spring Festival holiday, China asked its nearly 200 million students to stay home and continue their educations online.[20] According to UNESCO, as of 13 March China has started reopening schools although the majority remain closed.[1]

Japan

See also: 2020 coronavirus pandemic in Japan

On 27 February 2020, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe requested that all Japanese elementary, junior high, and high schools close until early April to help contain the virus.[21][22] This decision came days after the education board of Hokkaido called for the temporary closure of its 1,600 public and private schools.[23] Nursery schools were excluded from the nationwide closure request.[21] As of 5 March, 98.8 percent of all municipally run elementary schools have complied with Abe's request, resulting in 18,923 school closures.[24]

Italy

See also: 2020 coronavirus pandemic in Italy

Italy closed all schools and universities until at least March 15.[19]

Iran

See also: 2020 coronavirus pandemic in Iran

On 23 February, Iran’s Ministry of Health announced the closure of universities, higher educational institutions and schools in several cities and provinces.[25]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e "COVID-19 Educational Disruption and Response". UNESCO. 2020-03-13. Retrieved 2020-03-15.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  2. ^ Cite error: The named reference UNESCO2020 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ^ U.S. News & World Report (11 March 2020). "Poland Shuts All Schools, Museums, Cinemas for Two Weeks Due to Coronavirus | World News | US News". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
  4. ^ a b c Barnum, Matt (2020-03-09). "Should schools close due to coronavirus? Here's what research says". Chalkbeat. Retrieved 2020-03-15.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  5. ^ a b c d CNN, Mallory Simon. "Children's coronavirus cases are not as severe, but that doesn't make them less serious". CNN. Retrieved 2020-03-15. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  6. ^ a b Frieden, Dr Tom. "Lessons from Ebola: The secret of successful epidemic response". CNN. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
  7. ^ a b c Jackson, Charlotte; Vynnycky, Emilia; Hawker, Jeremy; Olowokure, Babatunde; Mangtani, Punam (2013). "School closures and influenza: systematic review of epidemiological studies". BMJ Open. 3 (2): e002149. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-002149. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 3586057. PMID 23447463.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  8. ^ a b c d Furfaro, Hannah; O'Sullivan, Joseph; Morton, Neal; Bazzaz, Dahlia (2020-03-13). "Inslee expands coronavirus K-12 school closure, 250-person gathering ban, across Washington". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 2020-03-15.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  9. ^ a b c d e Stanglin, Grace Hauck and Doug. "Coronavirus updates: Trump declares national emergency; schools in 12 states shut down; cruise lines halted". USA TODAY. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
  10. ^ a b Markel, Howard; Lipman, Harvey B.; Navarro, J. Alexander; Sloan, Alexandra; Michalsen, Joseph R.; Stern, Alexandra Minna; Cetron, Martin S. (2007-08-08). "Nonpharmaceutical Interventions Implemented by US Cities During the 1918-1919 Influenza Pandemic". JAMA. 298 (6): 644–654. doi:10.1001/jama.298.6.644. ISSN 0098-7484.
  11. ^ Kawano, Shoko; Kakehashi, Masayuki (2015-12-15). "Substantial Impact of School Closure on the Transmission Dynamics during the Pandemic Flu H1N1-2009 in Oita, Japan". PLOS ONE. 10 (12): e0144839. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144839. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4682869. PMID 26669757.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  12. ^ Davis, Brian M.; Markel, Howard; Navarro, Alex; Wells, Eden; Monto, Arnold S.; Aiello, Allison E. (2015-06-15). "The Effect of Reactive School Closure on Community Influenza-Like Illness Counts in the State of Michigan During the 2009 H1N1 Pandemic". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 60 (12): e90–e97. doi:10.1093/cid/civ182. ISSN 1058-4838.
  13. ^ 李雪晴. "China's State Council extends Spring Festival holiday - Chinadaily.com.cn". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
  14. ^ "Iran Announces Closure Of Universities, Schools As Coronavirus Death Toll Rises". RFE/RL. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
  15. ^ Palermo, Angela Giuffrida Lorenzo Tondo in; Beaumont, Peter (2020-03-04). "Italy orders closure of all schools and universities due to coronavirus". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
  16. ^ a b c d "Coronavirus update: 290 million students now stuck at home". UN News. 2020-03-05. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
  17. ^ a b c "Adverse consequences of school closures". UNESCO. 2020-03-10. Retrieved 2020-03-15.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  18. ^ a b c Powell Crain, Trisha (2020-03-13). "Alabama closes all K-12 schools, first COVID-19 case confirmed in Jefferson County". al. Retrieved 2020-03-15.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  19. ^ a b Inc, Reuters. "Coronavirus deprives nearly 300 million students of their schooling: UNESCO | The Telegram". www.thetelegram.com. Retrieved 2020-03-15. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  20. ^ "Japan to close all schools to halt virus spread". BBC News. 2020-02-27. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
  21. ^ a b NEWS, KYODO. "PM Abe asks all schools in Japan to temporarily close over coronavirus". Kyodo News+. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
  22. ^ Chappell, Bill. "Coronavirus Updates: Italy Reports 650 Cases And 17 Deaths". NPR.org. Retrieved 2020-03-15.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  23. ^ NEWS, KYODO. "Hokkaido eyes temporary shutdown of all schools to fight coronavirus". Kyodo News+. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
  24. ^ "Almost 99% of Japan's public elementary schools shut as COVID-19 spreads". The Japan Times Online. 2020-03-05. ISSN 0447-5763. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
  25. ^ "Iran Announces Closure Of Universities, Schools As Coronavirus Death Toll Rises". RFE/RL. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
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