Body identification: Difference between revisions
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Authorities will also compare supportive documents such as [[driver's license]], [[passport]], or other authoritative [[photo ID]] before accepting a personal identification with which to further their investigative and/or forensic purposes.<ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=The Medical Times and Gazette|date=1863|volume=2|publisher=J. & A. Churchill|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkCAAAAYAAJ|page=281|accessdate=6 April 2015}}</ref> |
Authorities will also compare supportive documents such as [[driver's license]], [[passport]], or other authoritative [[photo ID]] before accepting a personal identification with which to further their investigative and/or forensic purposes.<ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=The Medical Times and Gazette|date=1863|volume=2|publisher=J. & A. Churchill|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkCAAAAYAAJ|page=281|accessdate=6 April 2015}}</ref> |
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Any formal investigation should "reality check" additional forensic and scientific evidence to reinforce or question the supposed identity of the victim.<ref name="leelofland">{{cite web|url=http://www.leelofland.com/wordpress/?cat=12|title=Death Investigation - The Graveyard Shift|publisher=leelofland.com|accessdate=6 April 2015}}</ref> |
Any formal investigation should "reality check" additional forensic and scientific evidence to reinforce or question the supposed identity of the victim.<ref name="leelofland">{{cite web|url=http://www.leelofland.com/wordpress/?cat=12|title=Death Investigation - The Graveyard Shift|publisher=leelofland.com|accessdate=6 April 2015}}</ref> |
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These methods, including anthropometry, analysis of the skin, dental records and genetics, rely on the individuality of each body. Factors such as body size, weight, skin prints, and blood type all act as indicators of identity. Forensic scientists analyse these characteristics in their process of identifying of a body.<ref name="leelofland" /> |
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== History == |
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Traditional scientific identification methods developed in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries which allowed forensic scientists to identify a body without formal identification. These methods included dental analysis, [[anthropometry]] and [[Fingerprint|fingerprinting]]. Forensic dentistry was first used in 1776 by [[Paul Revere]], who identified the fallen soldier [[Joseph Warren]] by his false teeth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nola|first=Mike F.|date=2016-07|title=Paul Revere and Forensic Dentistry|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7205/milmed-d-16-00044|journal=Military Medicine|volume=181|issue=7|pages=714–715|doi=10.7205/milmed-d-16-00044|issn=0026-4075}}</ref> Anthropometry was first introduced in 1879 by [[Alphonse Bertillon]], who developed the Bertillon System based on physical measurements.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Bertillon, Alphonse, 1853-1914.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/28204242|title=Alphonse Bertillon's method for identification of criminals, anthropometric descriptions.|date=1887|publisher=Joliet Print. Co|oclc=28204242}}</ref> His findings were overtaken by the method of fingerprinting, which proved to be more accurate.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Frazer|first=Persifor|date=1909-04|title=Identification of human beings by the system of Alphonse Bertillon|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0016-0032(09)90082-5|journal=Journal of the Franklin Institute|volume=167|issue=4|pages=239–259|doi=10.1016/s0016-0032(09)90082-5|issn=0016-0032}}</ref> |
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Modern scientific identification techniques developed in the late twentieth century in response to the advancement of technology and research. These methods included the analysis of the skin’s various prints and [[DNA profiling]]. Scientists realised that there was more to the skin than just fingerprints, and that the use of palm and ear prints could also assist in the identification process.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Gowland|first=Rebecca|title=The skin|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139029988.003|work=Human Identity and Identification|pages=37–70|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-02998-8|access-date=2020-05-16|last2=Thompson|first2=Tim}}</ref> Forensic DNA has become popular in the forensic identification field. [[Alec Jeffreys]] was the first forensic scientist to use DNA analysis for the purpose of body identification in 1984.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Jeffreys|first=Alec J|date=2013|title=The man behind the DNA fingerprints: an interview with Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/2041-2223-4-21|journal=Investigative Genetics|volume=4|issue=1|pages=21|doi=10.1186/2041-2223-4-21|issn=2041-2223}}</ref> |
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==Military== |
==Military== |
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In many cases, people who have died while serving in military branches remain unidentified due to |
In many cases, people who have died while serving in military branches remain unidentified. This is due to the destructive nature of their death and how long their remains went undiscovered. If unidentified bodies of service people are returned to their country, formal treatment is required in respect for the decedent. In the United States, servicemen from each branch of the military supervise the delivery and other transportation of the remains. While under examination, the unidentified person is placed in a white sheet until they are identified. After the person's body is identified, a funeral and burial takes place in accompaniment of members of the respective branch that the person served.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilcox|first1=Charlotte|title=Mummies, Bones & Body Parts|date=2000|publisher=San Val, Incorporated|location=Minneapolis, Minnesota|isbn=0613438531|page=48}}<!--|accessdate=25 December 2014--></ref> |
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== Traditional research methods == |
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=== Anthropometry === |
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[[File:Human body proportions.JPG|thumb|Human body proportions]] |
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Anthropometry involves examining the size, weight and dimensions of a body.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Kanchan|first=Tanuj|last2=Krishan|first2=Kewal|date=2011-01|title=Anthropometry of hand in sex determination of dismembered remains - A review of literature|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2010.11.013|journal=Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine|volume=18|issue=1|pages=14–17|doi=10.1016/j.jflm.2010.11.013|issn=1752-928X}}</ref> The physical aspects of the body contribute to its identification in forensic science by allowing for possible identification before any further scientific procedures take place. |
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==== Alphonse Bertillon ==== |
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[[File:Alphonse Bertillon 1913.jpg|thumb|Alphonse Bertillon 1913]] |
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Alphonse Bertillon's developed the Bertillon System in 1879. This system of identifying a body has three dimensions; anthropometric information, descriptive information and the description of particular marks.<ref name=":0" /> Anthropometric information incorporates the measurement of body parts, including the head, fingers, feet and arms. This process involves the use a different of tools. Caliper-copmasses measures the dimensions of the head. Sliding compasses measure the "foot, forearm, and middle and little fingers."<ref name=":0" /> Small sliding compasses measure the ear. A vertical measure is used to measure for height and a horizontal measure is used to measure for wingspan.<ref name=":0" /> Descriptive information includes aspects such as eye colour, hair colour and the structure of the nose. It is possible to find two individuals who have the same or anthropometric and descriptive information. Finding peculiarities in the human body, such as particular marks, allows forensic scientists to narrow down their identification process.<ref name=":0" /> The description of particular marks involves the assessment of unique marks on the body, such as scars and birthmarks.<ref name=":0" /> The marks of an individual are characterised by its "nature, direction, dimensions and situation."<ref name=":0" /> |
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==== Influences on anthropometry ==== |
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The process of anthropometry can be impacted by a variety of factors that influence the perception of a body, such as sex and gender. The determination of sex is one of the first steps in identifying an individual.<ref name=":3" /> The physical differences between the standard male and female body acts as an indicator of identity in the forensic field. Particular body parts, such as an individual's reproductive organs and the size of their breasts, are an indicator of sex.<ref name=":4">{{Citation|last=Gowland|first=Rebecca|title=Categories of identity and identification|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139029988.002|work=Human Identity and Identification|pages=15–36|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-02998-8|access-date=2020-05-16|last2=Thompson|first2=Tim}}</ref> Other more socially constructed ideas of gender, such as the length of one’s hair and the height of an individual also influence the process of body identification. These assumptions about gender are more complicated in our contemporary society, where [[intersex]] and [[transgender]] individuals are becoming increasingly common. <ref name=":4" /> |
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=== Skin === |
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The skin provides forensic scientists with ways to identify a body. |
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[[File:Personal identification; methods for the identification of individuals, living or dead (1918) (14767570952).jpg|thumb|Fingerprint identification]] |
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==== Skin prints ==== |
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The skin has a variety of prints that are unique to the individual. [[Fingerprint|Fingerprints]] are the most common form of print analysis in the process of body identification. The analysis of [[Palm print|palm prints]] is similar to that of fingerprints. However, they also provide information on the dominant hand and age of the individual, which are both key indicators of identity. [[Ear print analysis|Ear prints]] can also be assessed in the process of body identification.<ref name=":1" /> The accuracy of skin prints can be influenced by a variety of external factors, such as temperature, humidity, time and “natural skin shedding.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sampson|first=W|date=2015|title=Recovery of Latent Prints from Human Skin|url=|journal=Journal of Forensic Identification|volume=|pages=638-661|via=}}</ref> These components are considered when using skin prints as a form of identification. If there is any doubt, further scientific research will take place.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Churchill|first=J|date=1863|title=The Medical Times and Gazette|url=|journal=|volume=|pages=81|via=}}</ref> |
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==== Skin defects ==== |
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The skin can have defects that help identify a body, including scars, birthmarks, tattoo, moles and blemishes.<ref name=":1" /> |
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==== Age ==== |
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The deterioration of skin over time is physically obvious to the eye. A young and fit individual typically has firm and thick skin. However, when individuals age, particularly into their 60s and 70s, they experience sagging and thinning of the skin. The appearance of one’s skin can be an indicator of their age, which is a significant characteristic of a person’s identity.<ref name=":1" /> Sun exposure and lifestyle choices are additional factors that forensic scientists consider alongside age when analysing the skin of an individual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Giacomoni, Paolo U, Professor Jori, Giulio Professor Hader, Donat P, Professor|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/837807590|title=Biophysical and Physiological Effects of Solar Radiation on Human Skin|isbn=1-84755-795-3|oclc=837807590}}</ref> |
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==== Gender ==== |
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Gender also affects the perception of one's skin. Common cultural and social constructs can influence a forensic scientist’s determination of gender. These include the expectations of facial and body hair and the length of one’s nails.<ref name=":1" /> |
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==== Race ==== |
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An individual's race can also act as an indicator of identity. The colour of one’s skin is a visual identifier of their race.<ref name=":1" /> |
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[[File:OPG w56J -.jpg|thumb|Dental radiograph]] |
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=== Dental === |
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Dental examination is a method of body identification that involves the comparison of antemortem and postmortem dental records, such as radiographs and photographs. The jaw is analysed to detect any peculiarities in the teeth or any diseases '''(Foran & Berman, 2014).''' In the scenario where skin prints are unable to assist in the process of identification, dental examination can be used. The Forensic Dentistry and Anthropology Center of the Dental Faculty of Piracicaba analysed [[radiographs]] and dental records of a "surgically implanted [[orthopedic plate]]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Matoso|first=Rodrigo Ivo|last2=Benedicto|first2=Eduardo de Novaes|last3=de Lima|first3=Silas Henrique Rabelo|last4=Prado|first4=Felippe Bevilacqua|last5=Daruge|first5=Eduardo|last6=Daruge|first6=Eduardo|date=2013-06|title=Positive identification of a burned body using an implanted orthopedic plate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.04.001|journal=Forensic Science International|volume=229|issue=1-3|pages=168.e1–168.e5|doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.04.001|issn=0379-0738}}</ref> to identify a burned body. The success of dental identification can be tainted if the individual has endured a physically traumatic experience that has caused damaged to their teeth and jaw.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How Experts Identify Crash Victims Through Dental Records|url=http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/health/2013/12/02/how-experts-identify-crash-victims-through-dental-records|last=News|first=A. B. C.|website=ABC News|language=en|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> In this scenario, DNA identification becomes prominent in the process of body identification. |
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<br /> |
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== Modern research methods == |
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[[File:Alec Jeffreys -2008.jpg|thumb|Alec Jeffreys 2008]] |
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=== Genetics === |
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Alec Jeffreys is known as the "founding father of DNA identification”.<ref name=":2" /> He invented [[DNA Fingerprinting|DNA fingerprinting]] to help identify bodies in the 1980s. Since then, the method of DNA typing in forensic science has advanced and many techniques to identify [[microRNA]] markers in bodily fluids have developed. DNA analysis involves the comparison of DNA profiles and DNA samples. Testing methods include analysing the impact of time and sensitivity on the appearance of microRNAs and determining how well they can be detected in different bodily fluids.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zubakov|first=Dmitry|last2=Boersma|first2=Anton W. M.|last3=Choi|first3=Ying|last4=van Kuijk|first4=Patricia F.|last5=Wiemer|first5=Erik A. C.|last6=Kayser|first6=Manfred|date=2010-02-10|title=MicroRNA markers for forensic body fluid identification obtained from microarray screening and quantitative RT-PCR confirmation|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00414-009-0402-3|journal=International Journal of Legal Medicine|volume=124|issue=3|pages=217–226|doi=10.1007/s00414-009-0402-3|issn=0937-9827}}</ref> The fluids that are most commonly used in the process of DNA identification are menstrual blood, venous blood, semen, saliva and vaginal secretion.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Choi|first=Ajin|last2=Shin|first2=Kyoung-Jin|last3=Yang|first3=Woo Ick|last4=Lee|first4=Hwan Young|date=2013-09-20|title=Body fluid identification by integrated analysis of DNA methylation and body fluid-specific microbial DNA|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00414-013-0918-4|journal=International Journal of Legal Medicine|volume=128|issue=1|pages=33–41|doi=10.1007/s00414-013-0918-4|issn=0937-9827}}</ref> |
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[[File:Dna-test-in-the-lab-a-laboratory-technician-with-a-dispenser-in-his-hands-is-conducting-dna-analysis-in-a-sterile-laboratory-behind-glass-R19GFB.jpg|thumb|Dna testing]] |
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==== DNA profiling ==== |
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The process of DNA profiling includes DNA extraction, DNA quantification and the use of PCR technology.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Linacre|first=Adrian|last2=Templeton|first2=Jennifer E. L.|date=2014-08|title=Forensic DNA profiling: state of the art|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/rrfms.s60955|journal=Research and Reports in Forensic Medical Science|pages=25|doi=10.2147/rrfms.s60955|issn=2230-2476}}</ref> Common methods of DNA extraction include Phenol, Chelex, Silica, and Magnetic beads.<ref name=":5" /> The Phenol process is toxic and is not open to automation. This method is primarily used to extract, from the cells, the nucleic acids necessary for purification.<ref name=":5" /> The Chelex process is safe and is not open to automation. This method connects ions in order to clarify other compounds. This is also the cheapest method. The Silica process is safe and is open to automation. This method binds DNA molecules with silica exteriors. This is also the most expensive method.<ref name=":5" /> The magnetic beads process is safe and is open to automation.<ref name=":5" /> Following the binding of DNA, this process involves a magnetic field paralysing beads and allowing for DNA washing. The extracted DNA must be quantified to “ensure the optimal amount of DNA template is added to a PCR”.<ref name=":5" /> PCR, Polymerase chain reaction, is the technology used for the purpose copying particular DNA in a test tube.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/probe/docs/techpcr/|website=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> This method includes three steps; denaturation, annealing, extension.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is PCR?|url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2347-what-is-pcr|website=Science Learning Hub|language=en|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> |
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==== DNA markers ==== |
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DNA markers are used to identify specific DNA characteristics that allow for the distinction between different individuals.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is a Genetic Marker?|url=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/lifesci/research/vegin/geneticimprovement/geneticmarker/|website=warwick.ac.uk|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> These markers are analysed by forensic scientists when identifying and unknown body. DNA markers are either genotype or a phenotype.<ref name=":5" /> A genotype is a set of genes in an organism. A phenotype is an organism’s characteristics that are determined by its genes and environment.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Genotype versus phenotype|url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/genovspheno_01|website=evolution.berkeley.edu|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> |
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==== Next generation sequencing ==== |
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Next generation sequencing (NGS) is the most recent body identification method in relation to genetics. The process of NGS includes three fundamental steps; “library preparation, sequencing, and data interpretation”.<ref name=":5" /> Its success is due to its ability to “target a larger number of PCR amplicons in a single assay”'''.'''<ref name=":5" /> |
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<br /> |
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== See also == |
== See also == |
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Revision as of 01:52, 16 May 2020
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Body identification is a subfield of forensic science wherein investigators need to identify a body. Forensic (literally, "for the courts") purposes are served by rigorous scientific forensic identification techniques, but these are generally preceded by simply asking bystanders or other persons for the victim's name.[1]
If a body is not badly decomposed or damaged, two persons (or one) who knew the deceased well should visually confirm the identity.[2]
Authorities will also compare supportive documents such as driver's license, passport, or other authoritative photo ID before accepting a personal identification with which to further their investigative and/or forensic purposes.[3]
Any formal investigation should "reality check" additional forensic and scientific evidence to reinforce or question the supposed identity of the victim.[4]
These methods, including anthropometry, analysis of the skin, dental records and genetics, rely on the individuality of each body. Factors such as body size, weight, skin prints, and blood type all act as indicators of identity. Forensic scientists analyse these characteristics in their process of identifying of a body.[4]
History
Traditional scientific identification methods developed in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries which allowed forensic scientists to identify a body without formal identification. These methods included dental analysis, anthropometry and fingerprinting. Forensic dentistry was first used in 1776 by Paul Revere, who identified the fallen soldier Joseph Warren by his false teeth.[5] Anthropometry was first introduced in 1879 by Alphonse Bertillon, who developed the Bertillon System based on physical measurements.[6] His findings were overtaken by the method of fingerprinting, which proved to be more accurate.[7]
Modern scientific identification techniques developed in the late twentieth century in response to the advancement of technology and research. These methods included the analysis of the skin’s various prints and DNA profiling. Scientists realised that there was more to the skin than just fingerprints, and that the use of palm and ear prints could also assist in the identification process.[8] Forensic DNA has become popular in the forensic identification field. Alec Jeffreys was the first forensic scientist to use DNA analysis for the purpose of body identification in 1984.[9]
Military
In many cases, people who have died while serving in military branches remain unidentified. This is due to the destructive nature of their death and how long their remains went undiscovered. If unidentified bodies of service people are returned to their country, formal treatment is required in respect for the decedent. In the United States, servicemen from each branch of the military supervise the delivery and other transportation of the remains. While under examination, the unidentified person is placed in a white sheet until they are identified. After the person's body is identified, a funeral and burial takes place in accompaniment of members of the respective branch that the person served.[10]
Traditional research methods
Anthropometry
Anthropometry involves examining the size, weight and dimensions of a body.[11] The physical aspects of the body contribute to its identification in forensic science by allowing for possible identification before any further scientific procedures take place.
Alphonse Bertillon
Alphonse Bertillon's developed the Bertillon System in 1879. This system of identifying a body has three dimensions; anthropometric information, descriptive information and the description of particular marks.[6] Anthropometric information incorporates the measurement of body parts, including the head, fingers, feet and arms. This process involves the use a different of tools. Caliper-copmasses measures the dimensions of the head. Sliding compasses measure the "foot, forearm, and middle and little fingers."[6] Small sliding compasses measure the ear. A vertical measure is used to measure for height and a horizontal measure is used to measure for wingspan.[6] Descriptive information includes aspects such as eye colour, hair colour and the structure of the nose. It is possible to find two individuals who have the same or anthropometric and descriptive information. Finding peculiarities in the human body, such as particular marks, allows forensic scientists to narrow down their identification process.[6] The description of particular marks involves the assessment of unique marks on the body, such as scars and birthmarks.[6] The marks of an individual are characterised by its "nature, direction, dimensions and situation."[6]
Influences on anthropometry
The process of anthropometry can be impacted by a variety of factors that influence the perception of a body, such as sex and gender. The determination of sex is one of the first steps in identifying an individual.[11] The physical differences between the standard male and female body acts as an indicator of identity in the forensic field. Particular body parts, such as an individual's reproductive organs and the size of their breasts, are an indicator of sex.[12] Other more socially constructed ideas of gender, such as the length of one’s hair and the height of an individual also influence the process of body identification. These assumptions about gender are more complicated in our contemporary society, where intersex and transgender individuals are becoming increasingly common. [12]
Skin
The skin provides forensic scientists with ways to identify a body.
_(14767570952).jpg)
Skin prints
The skin has a variety of prints that are unique to the individual. Fingerprints are the most common form of print analysis in the process of body identification. The analysis of palm prints is similar to that of fingerprints. However, they also provide information on the dominant hand and age of the individual, which are both key indicators of identity. Ear prints can also be assessed in the process of body identification.[8] The accuracy of skin prints can be influenced by a variety of external factors, such as temperature, humidity, time and “natural skin shedding.”[13] These components are considered when using skin prints as a form of identification. If there is any doubt, further scientific research will take place.[14]
Skin defects
The skin can have defects that help identify a body, including scars, birthmarks, tattoo, moles and blemishes.[8]
Age
The deterioration of skin over time is physically obvious to the eye. A young and fit individual typically has firm and thick skin. However, when individuals age, particularly into their 60s and 70s, they experience sagging and thinning of the skin. The appearance of one’s skin can be an indicator of their age, which is a significant characteristic of a person’s identity.[8] Sun exposure and lifestyle choices are additional factors that forensic scientists consider alongside age when analysing the skin of an individual.[15]
Gender
Gender also affects the perception of one's skin. Common cultural and social constructs can influence a forensic scientist’s determination of gender. These include the expectations of facial and body hair and the length of one’s nails.[8]
Race
An individual's race can also act as an indicator of identity. The colour of one’s skin is a visual identifier of their race.[8]
Dental
Dental examination is a method of body identification that involves the comparison of antemortem and postmortem dental records, such as radiographs and photographs. The jaw is analysed to detect any peculiarities in the teeth or any diseases (Foran & Berman, 2014). In the scenario where skin prints are unable to assist in the process of identification, dental examination can be used. The Forensic Dentistry and Anthropology Center of the Dental Faculty of Piracicaba analysed radiographs and dental records of a "surgically implanted orthopedic plate"[16] to identify a burned body. The success of dental identification can be tainted if the individual has endured a physically traumatic experience that has caused damaged to their teeth and jaw.[17] In this scenario, DNA identification becomes prominent in the process of body identification.
Modern research methods
Genetics
Alec Jeffreys is known as the "founding father of DNA identification”.[9] He invented DNA fingerprinting to help identify bodies in the 1980s. Since then, the method of DNA typing in forensic science has advanced and many techniques to identify microRNA markers in bodily fluids have developed. DNA analysis involves the comparison of DNA profiles and DNA samples. Testing methods include analysing the impact of time and sensitivity on the appearance of microRNAs and determining how well they can be detected in different bodily fluids.[18] The fluids that are most commonly used in the process of DNA identification are menstrual blood, venous blood, semen, saliva and vaginal secretion.[19]
DNA profiling
The process of DNA profiling includes DNA extraction, DNA quantification and the use of PCR technology.[20] Common methods of DNA extraction include Phenol, Chelex, Silica, and Magnetic beads.[20] The Phenol process is toxic and is not open to automation. This method is primarily used to extract, from the cells, the nucleic acids necessary for purification.[20] The Chelex process is safe and is not open to automation. This method connects ions in order to clarify other compounds. This is also the cheapest method. The Silica process is safe and is open to automation. This method binds DNA molecules with silica exteriors. This is also the most expensive method.[20] The magnetic beads process is safe and is open to automation.[20] Following the binding of DNA, this process involves a magnetic field paralysing beads and allowing for DNA washing. The extracted DNA must be quantified to “ensure the optimal amount of DNA template is added to a PCR”.[20] PCR, Polymerase chain reaction, is the technology used for the purpose copying particular DNA in a test tube.[21] This method includes three steps; denaturation, annealing, extension.[22]
DNA markers
DNA markers are used to identify specific DNA characteristics that allow for the distinction between different individuals.[23] These markers are analysed by forensic scientists when identifying and unknown body. DNA markers are either genotype or a phenotype.[20] A genotype is a set of genes in an organism. A phenotype is an organism’s characteristics that are determined by its genes and environment.[24]
Next generation sequencing
Next generation sequencing (NGS) is the most recent body identification method in relation to genetics. The process of NGS includes three fundamental steps; “library preparation, sequencing, and data interpretation”.[20] Its success is due to its ability to “target a larger number of PCR amplicons in a single assay”.[20]
See also
References
- ^ Burnt Beyond Recognition[permanent dead link] coronerstories
- ^ Hallam, E.; Hockey, J.L.; Howarth, G. (1999). Beyond the Body: Death and Social Identity. Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 9780415182928. Retrieved 6 April 2015.
- ^ The Medical Times and Gazette. Vol. 2. J. & A. Churchill. 1863. p. 281. Retrieved 6 April 2015.
- ^ a b "Death Investigation - The Graveyard Shift". leelofland.com. Retrieved 6 April 2015.
- ^ Nola, Mike F. (2016-07). "Paul Revere and Forensic Dentistry". Military Medicine. 181 (7): 714–715. doi:10.7205/milmed-d-16-00044. ISSN 0026-4075.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c d e f g Bertillon, Alphonse, 1853-1914. (1887). Alphonse Bertillon's method for identification of criminals, anthropometric descriptions. Joliet Print. Co. OCLC 28204242.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Frazer, Persifor (1909-04). "Identification of human beings by the system of Alphonse Bertillon". Journal of the Franklin Institute. 167 (4): 239–259. doi:10.1016/s0016-0032(09)90082-5. ISSN 0016-0032.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c d e f Gowland, Rebecca; Thompson, Tim, "The skin", Human Identity and Identification, Cambridge University Press, pp. 37–70, ISBN 978-1-139-02998-8, retrieved 2020-05-16
- ^ a b Jeffreys, Alec J (2013). "The man behind the DNA fingerprints: an interview with Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys". Investigative Genetics. 4 (1): 21. doi:10.1186/2041-2223-4-21. ISSN 2041-2223.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Wilcox, Charlotte (2000). Mummies, Bones & Body Parts. Minneapolis, Minnesota: San Val, Incorporated. p. 48. ISBN 0613438531.
- ^ a b Kanchan, Tanuj; Krishan, Kewal (2011-01). "Anthropometry of hand in sex determination of dismembered remains - A review of literature". Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. 18 (1): 14–17. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2010.11.013. ISSN 1752-928X.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b Gowland, Rebecca; Thompson, Tim, "Categories of identity and identification", Human Identity and Identification, Cambridge University Press, pp. 15–36, ISBN 978-1-139-02998-8, retrieved 2020-05-16
- ^ Sampson, W (2015). "Recovery of Latent Prints from Human Skin". Journal of Forensic Identification: 638–661.
- ^ Churchill, J (1863). "The Medical Times and Gazette": 81.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Giacomoni, Paolo U, Professor Jori, Giulio Professor Hader, Donat P, Professor. Biophysical and Physiological Effects of Solar Radiation on Human Skin. ISBN 1-84755-795-3. OCLC 837807590.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Matoso, Rodrigo Ivo; Benedicto, Eduardo de Novaes; de Lima, Silas Henrique Rabelo; Prado, Felippe Bevilacqua; Daruge, Eduardo; Daruge, Eduardo (2013-06). "Positive identification of a burned body using an implanted orthopedic plate". Forensic Science International. 229 (1–3): 168.e1–168.e5. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.04.001. ISSN 0379-0738.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ News, A. B. C. "How Experts Identify Crash Victims Through Dental Records". ABC News. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
{{cite web}}:|last=has generic name (help) - ^ Zubakov, Dmitry; Boersma, Anton W. M.; Choi, Ying; van Kuijk, Patricia F.; Wiemer, Erik A. C.; Kayser, Manfred (2010-02-10). "MicroRNA markers for forensic body fluid identification obtained from microarray screening and quantitative RT-PCR confirmation". International Journal of Legal Medicine. 124 (3): 217–226. doi:10.1007/s00414-009-0402-3. ISSN 0937-9827.
- ^ Choi, Ajin; Shin, Kyoung-Jin; Yang, Woo Ick; Lee, Hwan Young (2013-09-20). "Body fluid identification by integrated analysis of DNA methylation and body fluid-specific microbial DNA". International Journal of Legal Medicine. 128 (1): 33–41. doi:10.1007/s00414-013-0918-4. ISSN 0937-9827.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Linacre, Adrian; Templeton, Jennifer E. L. (2014-08). "Forensic DNA profiling: state of the art". Research and Reports in Forensic Medical Science: 25. doi:10.2147/rrfms.s60955. ISSN 2230-2476.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ "Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
- ^ "What is PCR?". Science Learning Hub. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
- ^ "What is a Genetic Marker?". warwick.ac.uk. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
- ^ "Genotype versus phenotype". evolution.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
External links
- ""Naming the Dead: The final stages of DVI"" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-02. (551 Kb) The Police Association Journal, May 2009, pp. 16–17. Retrieved 28 February 2011
- "Disaster Victim Identification" INTERPOL
- ""Forensic Odontology"" (PDF).
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