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A '''biogenic substance''' is a product made by or of life forms. The term encompasses constituents, secretions, and metabolites of [[plants]] or [[animal]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=Biomedical Applications of Polymeric Materials and Composites|last1=Raju Francis|first1= D. |last2=Sakthi |first2=Kumar|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|date=2016}}</ref> In context of [[molecular biology]], biogenic substances are referred to as [[biomolecule|biomolecules]].
A '''biogenic substance''' is a product made by or of life forms. The term encompasses constituents, secretions, and metabolites of [[plants]] or [[animal]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=Biomedical Applications of Polymeric Materials and Composites|last1=Raju Francis|first1= D. |last2=Sakthi |first2=Kumar|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|date=2016}}</ref> In context of [[molecular biology]], biogenic substances are referred to as [[biomolecule|biomolecules]].

== History ==
In the 1930s German chemist Alfred E. Treib’s first detected biogenic substances in petroleum as part of his studies of porphyrins.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Albrecht|first=Pierre|last2=Ourisson|first2=Guy|date=1971|title=Biogenic Substances in Sediments and Fossils|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/anie.197102091|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English|language=en|volume=10|issue=4|pages=209–225|doi=10.1002/anie.197102091|issn=0570-0833|via=}}</ref> Based on this research, there was a later increase in the 1970s in the investigation of biogenic substances in sedimentary rocks as part of the study of geology.<ref name=":0" />

In 2008 it was observed that the phenomenon of plants sequestering metals, such as Au and Ag, could be encouraged in a lab environment. This revealed the potential for metallophytes and their biogenic substances to be used for the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Shukla|first=Ravi|last2=Nune|first2=Satish K.|last3=Chanda|first3=Nripen|last4=Katti|first4=Kavita|last5=Mekapothula|first5=Swapna|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Rajesh R.|last7=Welshons|first7=Wade V.|last8=Kannan|first8=Raghuraman|last9=Katti|first9=Kattesh V.|date=2008|title=Soybeans as a Phytochemical Reservoir for the Production and Stabilization of Biocompatible Gold Nanoparticles|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/smll.200800525|journal=Small|language=en|volume=4|issue=9|pages=1425–1436|doi=10.1002/smll.200800525|via=}}</ref>

== Biogenic Substances in the Environment ==
Through studying the transport of biogenic substances in the Tatar Strait in the Sea of Japan, a Russian team noted that biogenic substances can enter the marine environment due to input from either external sources, transport inside the water masses, or development by metabolic processes within the water.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Leonov|first=A. V.|last2=Pishchal’nik|first2=V. M.|last3=Arkhipkin|first3=V. S.|date=2011|title=Estimation of biogenic substance transport by water masses in Tatar Strait|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1134/S009780781006103X|journal=Water Resources|language=en|volume=38|issue=1|pages=72–86|doi=10.1134/S009780781006103X|issn=0097-8078|via=}}</ref> They can likewise be expended due to biotransformation processes, or biomass formation by microorganisms. In this study the biogenic substance concentrations, transformation frequency, and turnover were all highest in the upper layer of the water. Additionally, in different regions of the strait the biogenic substances with the highest annual transfer were constant. These were O<sub>2</sub>, DOC, and DISi, which are normally found in large concentrations in natural water.<ref name=":2" /> The biogenic substances that tend to have lower input through the external boundaries of the strait and therefore least transfer were mineral and detrital components of N and P. These same substances take active part in biotransformation processes in the marine environment and have lower annual output as well.<ref name=":2" />

Organic geochemists also have an interest in studying the diagenesis of biogenic substances in petroleum and how they are transformed in sediment and fossils.<ref name=":0" /> While 90% of this organic material is insoluble in common organic solvents – called kerogen – 10% is in a form that is soluble and can be extracted, from where biogenic compounds can then be isolated.<ref name=":0" /> Saturated linear fatty acids and pigments have the most stable chemical structures and are therefore suited to withstanding degradation from the diagenesis process and being detected in their original forms. However, macromolecules have also been found in protected geological regions.<ref name=":0" /> Typical sedimentation conditions involve enzymatic, microbial and physicochemical processes as well as increased temperature and pressure, which lead to transformations of biogenic substances.<ref name=":0" /> For example, pigments that arise from dehydrogenation of chlorophyll or hemin can be found in many sediments as nickel or vanadyl complexes. A large proportion of the isoprenoids in sediments are also derived from chlorophyll. Similarly, linear saturated fatty acids discovered in the Messel oil shale of the Messel Pit in Germany arise from organic material of vascular plants.<ref name=":0" />

Additionally, alkanes and isoprenoids are found in soluble extracts of Precambrian rock, indicating the probable existence of biological material more than three billion years ago.<ref name=":0" /> However, there is the potential that these organic compounds are abiogenic in nature, especially in Precambrian sediments. While Studier et al.’s simulations of the synthesis of isoprenoids in abiogenic conditions did not produce the long-chain isoprenoids used as biomarkers in fossils and sediments, traces of C<sub>9</sub>-C<sub>14</sub> isoprenoids were detected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Studier|first=Martin H.|last2=Hayatsu|first2=Ryoichi|last3=Anders|first3=Edward|date=1968|title=Origin of organic matter in early solar system—I. Hydrocarbons|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S001670376880002X|journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta|language=en|volume=32|issue=2|pages=151–173|doi=10.1016/S0016-7037(68)80002-X|via=}}</ref> It is also possible for polyisoprenoid chains to be stereoselectively synthesised using catalysts such as Al(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)<sub>3</sub> – VCl<sub>3</sub>.<ref>Natta, G.; Porri, L.; Corradini, P.; Morero, D. (1967), "Crystalline Butadiene Polymer With an Isotactic 1,2-Enchainment", ''Stereoregular Polymers and Stereospecific Polymerizations'', Elsevier, pp. 102–103, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-1-4831-9883-5|978-1-4831-9883-5]], retrieved 2020-10-14</ref> However, the probability of these compounds being available in the natural environment is unlikely.<ref name=":0" />

== Measuring Biogenic Substances ==
The different biomolecules that make up a plant’s biogenic substances – particularly those in seed exudates - can be identified by using different varieties chromatography in a lab environment.<ref name=":3">Lukman, A. (2014). ''Biogenic Synthesis of Ag and Au Nanoparticles Using Aqueous Seed Exudates'' (Master’s thesis). The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.</ref> For metabolite profiling, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry is used to find flavonoids such as quercetin.<ref name=":3" />

When it comes to measuring biogenic substances in a natural environment such as a body of water, a hydroecological<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leonov|first=A. V.|last2=Chicherina|first2=O. V.|last3=Semenyak|first3=L. V.|date=2011|title=Mathematical modeling of marine environment pollution processes by petroleum hydrocarbons and their degradation in Caspian Sea ecosystem|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1134/S0097807811040075|journal=Water Resources|language=en|volume=38|issue=6|pages=774–798|doi=10.1134/S0097807811040075|issn=0097-8078|via=}}</ref> CNPSi model can be used to calculate the spatial transport of biogenic substances, in both the horizontal and vertical dimensions.<ref name=":2" /> This model takes into account the water exchange and flow rate, and yields the values of biogenic substance rates for any area or layer of the water for any month. There are two main evaluation methods involved: measuring per unit water volume (mg/m<sup>3</sup> year) and measuring substances per entire water volume of layer (t of element/year).<ref name=":2" /> The former is mostly used to observe biogenic substance dynamics and individual pathways for flux and transformations and is useful when comparing individual regions of the strait or waterway. The second method is used for monthly substance fluxes and must take into account that there are monthly variations in the water volume in the layers.<ref name=":2" />

In the study of geochemistry, biogenic substances can be isolated from fossils and sediments through a process of scraping and crushing the target rock sample, then washing with 40% hydrofluoric acid, water, and benzene/methanol in the ratio 3:1.<ref name=":0" /> Following this, the rock pieces are ground and centrifuged to produce a residue. Chemical compounds are then derived through various chromatography and mass spectrometry separations.<ref name=":0" /> However, extraction should be accompanied by rigorous precautions to ensure there is no amino acid contaminants from fingerprints,<ref>Eglinton, G.; Scott, P.M.; Belsky, T.; Burlingame, A.L.; Richter, W.; Calvin, M. (1966), "Occurrence of Isoprenoid Alkanes in a Precambrian Sediment", ''Advances in Organic Geochemistry 1964'', Elsevier, pp. 41–74, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0-08-011577-1|978-0-08-011577-1]], retrieved 2020-10-14</ref> or silicone contaminants from other analytical treatment methods.<ref name=":0" />

== Applications ==
Metabolites produced by marine algae have been found to have many antimicrobial properties.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Bhadury|first=Punyasloke|last2=Wright|first2=Phillip C.|date=2004-06-24|title=Exploitation of marine algae: biogenic compounds for potential antifouling applications|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00425-004-1307-5|journal=Planta|volume=219|issue=4|pages=|doi=10.1007/s00425-004-1307-5|issn=0032-0935|via=}}</ref> These characteristics then have the potential to be utilised in man-made materials, such as making anti-fouling paints without the environment-damaging chemicals. Environmentally safe alternatives are needed to TBT (tin-based antifouling agent) which releases toxic compounds into water and environment and has been banned in several countries.<ref name=":4" /> Current research also aims to produce these biogenic substances on a commercial level using metabolic engineering techniques.<ref name=":4" />

In the field of paleochemotaxonomy the presence of biogenic substances in geological sediments is useful for comparing old and modern biological samples and species.<ref name=":0" /> These biological markers can be used to verify the biological origin of fossils and serve as paleo-ecological markers. For example, the presence of pristane indicates that the petroleum or sediment is of marine origin, while biogenic material of non-marine origin tends to be in the form of polycyclic compounds or phytane.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blumer|first=M.|last2=Snyder|first2=W. D.|date=1965-12-17|title=Isoprenoid Hydrocarbons in Recent Sediments: Presence of Pristane and Probable Absence of Phytane|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.150.3703.1588|journal=Science|language=en|volume=150|issue=3703|pages=1588–1589|doi=10.1126/science.150.3703.1588|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> The biological markers also provide valuable information about the degradation reactions of biological material in geological environments.<ref name=":0" /> Comparing the organic material between geologically old and recent rocks shows the conservation of different biochemical processes.

Another application of biogenic substances is in the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles.<ref name=":3" /> The current chemical and physical production methods for nanoparticles used are costly and produce toxic waste and pollutants in the environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gardea-Torresdey|first=J. L.|last2=Parsons|first2=J. G.|last3=Gomez|first3=E.|last4=Peralta-Videa|first4=J.|last5=Troiani|first5=H. E.|last6=Santiago|first6=P.|last7=Yacaman|first7=M. Jose|date=2002|title=Formation and Growth of Au Nanoparticles inside Live Alfalfa Plants|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/nl015673+|journal=Nano Letters|volume=2|issue=4|pages=397–401|doi=10.1021/nl015673+|issn=1530-6984|via=}}</ref> Additionally, the nanoparticles that are produced can be unstable and unfit for use in the body.<ref name=":1" /> Using plant-derived biogenic substances aims to create an environmentally-friendly and cost-effective production method.<ref name=":3" /> The biogenic phytochemicals used for these reduction reactions can be derived from plants in numerous ways, including a boiled leaf broth <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nune|first=Satish K.|last2=Chanda|first2=Nripen|last3=Shukla|first3=Ravi|last4=Katti|first4=Kavita|last5=Kulkarni|first5=Rajesh R.|last6=Thilakavathy|first6=Subramanian|last7=Mekapothula|first7=Swapna|last8=Kannan|first8=Raghuraman|last9=Katti|first9=Kattesh V.|date=2009|title=Green nanotechnology from tea: phytochemicals in tea as building blocks for production of biocompatible gold nanoparticles|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=b822015h|journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry|language=en|volume=19|issue=19|pages=2912|doi=10.1039/b822015h|issn=0959-9428|pmc=PMC2737515|pmid=20161162}}</ref>, biomass powder <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Canizal|first=G.|last2=Schabes-Retchkiman|first2=P.S.|last3=Pal|first3=U.|last4=Liu|first4=Hong Bo|last5=Ascencio|first5=J.A.|date=2006|title=Controlled synthesis of Zn0 nanoparticles by bioreduction|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0254058405005560|journal=Materials Chemistry and Physics|language=en|volume=97|issue=2-3|pages=321–329|doi=10.1016/j.matchemphys.2005.08.015|via=}}</ref>, whole plant immersion in solution <ref name=":1" />, or fruit and vegetable juice extracts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Canizal|first=G.|last2=Ascencio|first2=J.A.|last3=Gardea-Torresday|first3=J.|last4=Yacamán|first4=M. José|date=2001|title=Multiple Twinned Gold Nanorods Grown by Bio-reduction Techniques|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/A:1012578821566|journal=Journal of Nanoparticle Research|volume=3|issue=5/6|pages=475–481|doi=10.1023/A:1012578821566|via=}}</ref> ''C. annuum'' juices have been shown to produce Ag nanoparticles at room temperature when treated with silver ions and additionally deliver essential vitamins and amino acids when consumed, making them a potential nanomaterials agent.<ref name=":3" /> Another procedure is through the use of a different biogenic substance: the exudate of germinating seeds. When seeds are soaked, they passively release phytochemicals into the surrounding water, which after reaching equilibrium can be mixed with metal ions to synthesise metallic nanoparticles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Odunfa|first=V. S. Ayo|date=1979|title=Free amino acids in the seed and root exudates in relation to the nitrogen requirements of rhizosphere soil Fusaria|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02277944|journal=Plant and Soil|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=491–499|doi=10.1007/BF02277944|issn=0032-079X|via=}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> ''M. sativa'' exudate in particular has had success in effectively producing Ag metallic particles, while ''L. culinaris'' is an effective reactant for manufacturing Au nanoparticles.<ref name=":3" /> This process can also be further adjusted by manipulating factors such as pH, temperature, exudate dilution and plant origin to produce different shapes of nanoparticles, including triangles, spheres, rods, and spirals. These biogenic metallic nanoparticles then have applications as catalysts, glass window coatings to insulate heat, in biomedicine, and in biosensor devices.<ref name=":3" />


==Examples==
==Examples==

Revision as of 03:11, 2 November 2020

A biogenic substance is a product made by or of life forms. The term encompasses constituents, secretions, and metabolites of plants or animals.[1] In context of molecular biology, biogenic substances are referred to as biomolecules.

History

In the 1930s German chemist Alfred E. Treib’s first detected biogenic substances in petroleum as part of his studies of porphyrins.[2] Based on this research, there was a later increase in the 1970s in the investigation of biogenic substances in sedimentary rocks as part of the study of geology.[2]

In 2008 it was observed that the phenomenon of plants sequestering metals, such as Au and Ag, could be encouraged in a lab environment. This revealed the potential for metallophytes and their biogenic substances to be used for the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles.[3]

Biogenic Substances in the Environment

Through studying the transport of biogenic substances in the Tatar Strait in the Sea of Japan, a Russian team noted that biogenic substances can enter the marine environment due to input from either external sources, transport inside the water masses, or development by metabolic processes within the water.[4] They can likewise be expended due to biotransformation processes, or biomass formation by microorganisms. In this study the biogenic substance concentrations, transformation frequency, and turnover were all highest in the upper layer of the water. Additionally, in different regions of the strait the biogenic substances with the highest annual transfer were constant. These were O2, DOC, and DISi, which are normally found in large concentrations in natural water.[4] The biogenic substances that tend to have lower input through the external boundaries of the strait and therefore least transfer were mineral and detrital components of N and P. These same substances take active part in biotransformation processes in the marine environment and have lower annual output as well.[4]

Organic geochemists also have an interest in studying the diagenesis of biogenic substances in petroleum and how they are transformed in sediment and fossils.[2] While 90% of this organic material is insoluble in common organic solvents – called kerogen – 10% is in a form that is soluble and can be extracted, from where biogenic compounds can then be isolated.[2] Saturated linear fatty acids and pigments have the most stable chemical structures and are therefore suited to withstanding degradation from the diagenesis process and being detected in their original forms. However, macromolecules have also been found in protected geological regions.[2] Typical sedimentation conditions involve enzymatic, microbial and physicochemical processes as well as increased temperature and pressure, which lead to transformations of biogenic substances.[2] For example, pigments that arise from dehydrogenation of chlorophyll or hemin can be found in many sediments as nickel or vanadyl complexes. A large proportion of the isoprenoids in sediments are also derived from chlorophyll. Similarly, linear saturated fatty acids discovered in the Messel oil shale of the Messel Pit in Germany arise from organic material of vascular plants.[2]

Additionally, alkanes and isoprenoids are found in soluble extracts of Precambrian rock, indicating the probable existence of biological material more than three billion years ago.[2] However, there is the potential that these organic compounds are abiogenic in nature, especially in Precambrian sediments. While Studier et al.’s simulations of the synthesis of isoprenoids in abiogenic conditions did not produce the long-chain isoprenoids used as biomarkers in fossils and sediments, traces of C9-C14 isoprenoids were detected.[5] It is also possible for polyisoprenoid chains to be stereoselectively synthesised using catalysts such as Al(C2H5)3 – VCl3.[6] However, the probability of these compounds being available in the natural environment is unlikely.[2]

Measuring Biogenic Substances

The different biomolecules that make up a plant’s biogenic substances – particularly those in seed exudates - can be identified by using different varieties chromatography in a lab environment.[7] For metabolite profiling, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry is used to find flavonoids such as quercetin.[7]

When it comes to measuring biogenic substances in a natural environment such as a body of water, a hydroecological[8] CNPSi model can be used to calculate the spatial transport of biogenic substances, in both the horizontal and vertical dimensions.[4] This model takes into account the water exchange and flow rate, and yields the values of biogenic substance rates for any area or layer of the water for any month. There are two main evaluation methods involved: measuring per unit water volume (mg/m3 year) and measuring substances per entire water volume of layer (t of element/year).[4] The former is mostly used to observe biogenic substance dynamics and individual pathways for flux and transformations and is useful when comparing individual regions of the strait or waterway. The second method is used for monthly substance fluxes and must take into account that there are monthly variations in the water volume in the layers.[4]

In the study of geochemistry, biogenic substances can be isolated from fossils and sediments through a process of scraping and crushing the target rock sample, then washing with 40% hydrofluoric acid, water, and benzene/methanol in the ratio 3:1.[2] Following this, the rock pieces are ground and centrifuged to produce a residue. Chemical compounds are then derived through various chromatography and mass spectrometry separations.[2] However, extraction should be accompanied by rigorous precautions to ensure there is no amino acid contaminants from fingerprints,[9] or silicone contaminants from other analytical treatment methods.[2]

Applications

Metabolites produced by marine algae have been found to have many antimicrobial properties.[10] These characteristics then have the potential to be utilised in man-made materials, such as making anti-fouling paints without the environment-damaging chemicals. Environmentally safe alternatives are needed to TBT (tin-based antifouling agent) which releases toxic compounds into water and environment and has been banned in several countries.[10] Current research also aims to produce these biogenic substances on a commercial level using metabolic engineering techniques.[10]

In the field of paleochemotaxonomy the presence of biogenic substances in geological sediments is useful for comparing old and modern biological samples and species.[2] These biological markers can be used to verify the biological origin of fossils and serve as paleo-ecological markers. For example, the presence of pristane indicates that the petroleum or sediment is of marine origin, while biogenic material of non-marine origin tends to be in the form of polycyclic compounds or phytane.[11] The biological markers also provide valuable information about the degradation reactions of biological material in geological environments.[2] Comparing the organic material between geologically old and recent rocks shows the conservation of different biochemical processes.

Another application of biogenic substances is in the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles.[7] The current chemical and physical production methods for nanoparticles used are costly and produce toxic waste and pollutants in the environment.[12] Additionally, the nanoparticles that are produced can be unstable and unfit for use in the body.[3] Using plant-derived biogenic substances aims to create an environmentally-friendly and cost-effective production method.[7] The biogenic phytochemicals used for these reduction reactions can be derived from plants in numerous ways, including a boiled leaf broth [13], biomass powder [14], whole plant immersion in solution [3], or fruit and vegetable juice extracts.[15] C. annuum juices have been shown to produce Ag nanoparticles at room temperature when treated with silver ions and additionally deliver essential vitamins and amino acids when consumed, making them a potential nanomaterials agent.[7] Another procedure is through the use of a different biogenic substance: the exudate of germinating seeds. When seeds are soaked, they passively release phytochemicals into the surrounding water, which after reaching equilibrium can be mixed with metal ions to synthesise metallic nanoparticles.[16][7] M. sativa exudate in particular has had success in effectively producing Ag metallic particles, while L. culinaris is an effective reactant for manufacturing Au nanoparticles.[7] This process can also be further adjusted by manipulating factors such as pH, temperature, exudate dilution and plant origin to produce different shapes of nanoparticles, including triangles, spheres, rods, and spirals. These biogenic metallic nanoparticles then have applications as catalysts, glass window coatings to insulate heat, in biomedicine, and in biosensor devices.[7]

Examples

Abiogenic (opposite)

An abiogenic substance or process does not result from the present or past activity of living organisms. Abiogenic products may, e.g., be minerals, other inorganic compounds, as well as simple organic compounds (e.g. extraterrestrial methane, see also abiogenesis).

See also

References

  1. ^ Raju Francis, D.; Sakthi, Kumar (2016). Biomedical Applications of Polymeric Materials and Composites. John Wiley & Sons.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Albrecht, Pierre; Ourisson, Guy (1971). "Biogenic Substances in Sediments and Fossils". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 10 (4): 209–225. doi:10.1002/anie.197102091. ISSN 0570-0833.
  3. ^ a b c Shukla, Ravi; Nune, Satish K.; Chanda, Nripen; Katti, Kavita; Mekapothula, Swapna; Kulkarni, Rajesh R.; Welshons, Wade V.; Kannan, Raghuraman; Katti, Kattesh V. (2008). "Soybeans as a Phytochemical Reservoir for the Production and Stabilization of Biocompatible Gold Nanoparticles". Small. 4 (9): 1425–1436. doi:10.1002/smll.200800525.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Leonov, A. V.; Pishchal’nik, V. M.; Arkhipkin, V. S. (2011). "Estimation of biogenic substance transport by water masses in Tatar Strait". Water Resources. 38 (1): 72–86. doi:10.1134/S009780781006103X. ISSN 0097-8078.
  5. ^ Studier, Martin H.; Hayatsu, Ryoichi; Anders, Edward (1968). "Origin of organic matter in early solar system—I. Hydrocarbons". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 32 (2): 151–173. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(68)80002-X.
  6. ^ Natta, G.; Porri, L.; Corradini, P.; Morero, D. (1967), "Crystalline Butadiene Polymer With an Isotactic 1,2-Enchainment", Stereoregular Polymers and Stereospecific Polymerizations, Elsevier, pp. 102–103, ISBN 978-1-4831-9883-5, retrieved 2020-10-14
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Lukman, A. (2014). Biogenic Synthesis of Ag and Au Nanoparticles Using Aqueous Seed Exudates (Master’s thesis). The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
  8. ^ Leonov, A. V.; Chicherina, O. V.; Semenyak, L. V. (2011). "Mathematical modeling of marine environment pollution processes by petroleum hydrocarbons and their degradation in Caspian Sea ecosystem". Water Resources. 38 (6): 774–798. doi:10.1134/S0097807811040075. ISSN 0097-8078.
  9. ^ Eglinton, G.; Scott, P.M.; Belsky, T.; Burlingame, A.L.; Richter, W.; Calvin, M. (1966), "Occurrence of Isoprenoid Alkanes in a Precambrian Sediment", Advances in Organic Geochemistry 1964, Elsevier, pp. 41–74, ISBN 978-0-08-011577-1, retrieved 2020-10-14
  10. ^ a b c Bhadury, Punyasloke; Wright, Phillip C. (2004-06-24). "Exploitation of marine algae: biogenic compounds for potential antifouling applications". Planta. 219 (4). doi:10.1007/s00425-004-1307-5. ISSN 0032-0935.
  11. ^ Blumer, M.; Snyder, W. D. (1965-12-17). "Isoprenoid Hydrocarbons in Recent Sediments: Presence of Pristane and Probable Absence of Phytane". Science. 150 (3703): 1588–1589. doi:10.1126/science.150.3703.1588. ISSN 0036-8075.
  12. ^ Gardea-Torresdey, J. L.; Parsons, J. G.; Gomez, E.; Peralta-Videa, J.; Troiani, H. E.; Santiago, P.; Yacaman, M. Jose (2002). "Formation and Growth of Au Nanoparticles inside Live Alfalfa Plants". Nano Letters. 2 (4): 397–401. doi:10.1021/nl015673+. ISSN 1530-6984.
  13. ^ Nune, Satish K.; Chanda, Nripen; Shukla, Ravi; Katti, Kavita; Kulkarni, Rajesh R.; Thilakavathy, Subramanian; Mekapothula, Swapna; Kannan, Raghuraman; Katti, Kattesh V. (2009). "Green nanotechnology from tea: phytochemicals in tea as building blocks for production of biocompatible gold nanoparticles". Journal of Materials Chemistry. 19 (19): 2912. doi:10.1039/b822015h. ISSN 0959-9428. PMC 2737515. PMID 20161162.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  14. ^ Canizal, G.; Schabes-Retchkiman, P.S.; Pal, U.; Liu, Hong Bo; Ascencio, J.A. (2006). "Controlled synthesis of Zn0 nanoparticles by bioreduction". Materials Chemistry and Physics. 97 (2–3): 321–329. doi:10.1016/j.matchemphys.2005.08.015.
  15. ^ Canizal, G.; Ascencio, J.A.; Gardea-Torresday, J.; Yacamán, M. José (2001). "Multiple Twinned Gold Nanorods Grown by Bio-reduction Techniques". Journal of Nanoparticle Research. 3 (5/6): 475–481. doi:10.1023/A:1012578821566.
  16. ^ Odunfa, V. S. Ayo (1979). "Free amino acids in the seed and root exudates in relation to the nitrogen requirements of rhizosphere soil Fusaria". Plant and Soil. 52 (4): 491–499. doi:10.1007/BF02277944. ISSN 0032-079X.


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