Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero: Difference between revisions

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→‎International scientific collaboration in geodesy and calls for an international standard unit of length: Additon of information about USA, Mexico, Chile, Argentina and Japan accession to International Geodetic Association.
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Copies of the Spanish standard were also made for France and Germany. These standards would be used for the most important operations of European geodesy.<ref name="Guillaume 1906 242–263"/> Indeed, Louis Puissant had declared in 1836 to the [[French Academy of Sciences]] that [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre]] and [[Pierre Méchain]] had committed an error in the measurement of the [[Paris meridian|Paris meridian arc]], which had served for determining the length of the [[metre]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2961h|title=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels|last=Puissant|first=Louis|date=1836|website=Gallica|pages=428–433|language=EN|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-01-11}}</ref> As this survey was also part of the groundwork for the map of France, Antoine Yvon Villarceau checked the geodetic operations at eight points of the meridian arc from 1861 to 1866. Some of the errors in the operations of Delambre and Méchain were then corrected.<ref name=":19" />
Copies of the Spanish standard were also made for France and Germany. These standards would be used for the most important operations of European geodesy.<ref name="Guillaume 1906 242–263"/> Indeed, Louis Puissant had declared in 1836 to the [[French Academy of Sciences]] that [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre]] and [[Pierre Méchain]] had committed an error in the measurement of the [[Paris meridian|Paris meridian arc]], which had served for determining the length of the [[metre]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2961h|title=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels|last=Puissant|first=Louis|date=1836|website=Gallica|pages=428–433|language=EN|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-01-11}}</ref> As this survey was also part of the groundwork for the map of France, Antoine Yvon Villarceau checked the geodetic operations at eight points of the meridian arc from 1861 to 1866. Some of the errors in the operations of Delambre and Méchain were then corrected.<ref name=":19" />


In 1865 the triangulation of [[Spain]] was connected with that of [[Portugal]] and [[France]].<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":16" /> In 1866 at the conference of the Association of Geodesy in [[Neuchâtel]], Ibáñez announced that [[Spain]] would collaborate in remeasuring and extending [[Paris meridian|French meridian]] arc.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|last=Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero|first=Carlos|date=1866|title=Exposé de l'état des Travaux géodésiques poursuivis en Espagne, communiqué a la Commission permanente de la Conférence internationale, par le Colonel Ibañez, membre de l'Académie Royale des sciences et délégué du Gouvernement espagnol. in General-Bericht über die mitteleuropäische Gradmessung für das Jahr 1865. :: Publications IASS|url=https://gfzpublic.gfz-potsdam.de/rest/items/item_108064_3/component/file_108063/content|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-12-10|website=publications.iass-potsdam.de|pages=56–58}}</ref> From 1870 to 1894, [[François Perrier (French Army officer)|François Perrier]], then Jean-Antonin-Léon Bassot proceeded to a new survey.<ref name=":19">{{Cite book|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k949666|title=Histoire abrégée de l'astronomie / par Ernest Lebon,...|last=Lebon|first=Ernest (1846-1922) Auteur du texte|date=1899|publisher=|isbn=|location=|pages=168–169|language=EN}}</ref> In 1879 Ibáñez and [[François Perrier (French Army officer)|François Perrier]] completed the junction between the geodetic networks of Spain and [[French Algeria|Algeria]] and thus completed the measurement of a meridian arc which extended from [[Shetland]] to the [[Sahara]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3046j|title=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Géodésie. - Jonction géodésique de l'Algérie avec l'Espagne, opération internationale exécutée sous la direction de MM. le général Ibañez et F. Perrier.|last=Perrier|first=Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du|date=1879-07-01|publisher=Gauthier-Villars|isbn=|location=Paris|pages=885–889}}</ref> This connection was a remarkable enterprise where triangles with a maximum length of 270&nbsp;km were observed from mountain stations ([[Mulhacén]], Tetica, Filahoussen, M'Sabiha) over the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=IAG 150 Years|volume = 143|last=Torge|first=Wolfgang|date=2015|publisher=Springer, Cham|pages=3–18|language=en|doi=10.1007/1345_2015_42|chapter = From a Regional Project to an International Organization: The "Baeyer-Helmert-Era" of the International Association of Geodesy 1862–1916|series = International Association of Geodesy Symposia|isbn = 978-3-319-24603-1}}</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb30632199p|title=Jonction géodésique et astronomique de l'Algérie avec l'Espagne, exécutée en commun en 1879, par ordre des gouvernements d'Espagne et de France, sous la direction de M. le général Ibañez,... pour l'Espagne, M. le colonel Perrier,... pour la France|last1=Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Íbero|first1=Carlos|last2=Perrier|first2=François|date=1886|publisher=Impr. nationale|isbn=|location=Paris|pages=}}</ref>
In 1865 the triangulation of [[Spain]] was connected with that of [[Portugal]] and [[France]].<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":16" /> In 1866 at the conference of the Association of Geodesy in [[Neuchâtel]], Ibáñez announced that [[Spain]] would collaborate in remeasuring and extending [[Paris meridian|French meridian]] arc.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|last=Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero|first=Carlos|date=1866|title=Exposé de l'état des Travaux géodésiques poursuivis en Espagne, communiqué a la Commission permanente de la Conférence internationale, par le Colonel Ibañez, membre de l'Académie Royale des sciences et délégué du Gouvernement espagnol. in General-Bericht über die mitteleuropäische Gradmessung für das Jahr 1865. :: Publications IASS|url=https://gfzpublic.gfz-potsdam.de/rest/items/item_108064_3/component/file_108063/content|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-12-10|website=publications.iass-potsdam.de|pages=56–58}}</ref> From 1870 to 1894, [[François Perrier (French Army officer)|François Perrier]], then Jean-Antonin-Léon Bassot proceeded to a new survey.<ref name=":19">{{Cite book|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k949666|title=Histoire abrégée de l'astronomie / par Ernest Lebon,...|last=Lebon|first=Ernest (1846-1922) Auteur du texte|date=1899|publisher=|isbn=|location=|pages=168–169|language=EN}}</ref> In 1879 Ibáñez and [[François Perrier (French Army officer)|François Perrier]] completed the junction between the geodetic networks of Spain and [[French Algeria|Algeria]] and thus completed the measurement of a meridian arc which extended from [[Shetland]] to the [[Sahara]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3046j|title=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Géodésie. - Jonction géodésique de l'Algérie avec l'Espagne, opération internationale exécutée sous la direction de MM. le général Ibañez et F. Perrier.|last=Perrier|first=Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du|date=1879-07-01|publisher=Gauthier-Villars|isbn=|location=Paris|pages=885–889}}</ref> This connection was a remarkable enterprise where triangles with a maximum length of 270&nbsp;km were observed from mountain stations ([[Mulhacén]], Tetica, Filahoussen, M'Sabiha) over the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref name=":20">{{Cite book|title=IAG 150 Years|volume = 143|last=Torge|first=Wolfgang|date=2015|publisher=Springer, Cham|pages=3–18|language=en|doi=10.1007/1345_2015_42|chapter = From a Regional Project to an International Organization: The "Baeyer-Helmert-Era" of the International Association of Geodesy 1862–1916|series = International Association of Geodesy Symposia|isbn = 978-3-319-24603-1}}</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb30632199p|title=Jonction géodésique et astronomique de l'Algérie avec l'Espagne, exécutée en commun en 1879, par ordre des gouvernements d'Espagne et de France, sous la direction de M. le général Ibañez,... pour l'Espagne, M. le colonel Perrier,... pour la France|last1=Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Íbero|first1=Carlos|last2=Perrier|first2=François|date=1886|publisher=Impr. nationale|isbn=|location=Paris|pages=}}</ref>


This meridian arc was named West Europe-Africa Meridian-arc by [[Alexander Ross Clarke]] and [[Friedrich Robert Helmert]]. It yielded a value for the equatorial radius of the earth ''a'' = 6 377 935 metres, the ellipticity being assumed as 1/299.15. The radius of curvature of this arc is not uniform, being, in the mean, about 600 metres greater in the northern than in the southern part.<ref name=":11" />
This meridian arc was named West Europe-Africa Meridian-arc by [[Alexander Ross Clarke]] and [[Friedrich Robert Helmert]]. It yielded a value for the equatorial radius of the earth ''a'' = 6 377 935 metres, the ellipticity being assumed as 1/299.15. The radius of curvature of this arc is not uniform, being, in the mean, about 600 metres greater in the northern than in the southern part.<ref name=":11" />
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In 1866 Spain, represented by Ibáñez, joined the Central European Arc Measurement (German: ''Mitteleuropäische Gradmessung'') at the Permanent Commission meeting in [[Neuchâtel]].<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> In 1867 at the second General Conference of the Central European Arc Measurement (see [[International Association of Geodesy]]) held in Berlin, the question of an international standard unit of length was discussed in order to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iag-aig.org/index.php?tpl=text&id_c=80&id_t=143|title=A Note on the History of the IAG|website=IAG Homepage|access-date=2017-05-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Procès-verbaux de la Conférence géodésique internationale pour la mesure des degrés en Europe, réunie à Berlin du 30 septembre au 7 octobre 1867.|last=|first=|date=1867|publisher=Neuchâtel|isbn=|location=|pages=21–22|hdl = 2027/mdp.39015079998129}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> The Conference recommended the adoption of the [[metre]] and the creation of an international metre commission,<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|url=http://gfzpublic.gfz-potsdam.de/pubman/item/escidoc:108187:4/component/escidoc:272449/Generalbericht.mitteleurop%C3%A4ische.Gradmessung%201867.pdf|title=Bericht über die Verhandlungen der vom 30. September bis 7. October 1867 zu BERLIN abgehaltenen allgemeinen Conferenz der Europäischen Gradmessung.|last=|first=|publisher=Central-Bureau der Europäischen Gradmessung.|year=1868|isbn=|location=Berlin|pages=14, 123–134}}</ref> according to a preliminary discussion between [[Johann Jacob Baeyer]], [[Adolphe Hirsch]] and Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero.<ref name=":1" /> The [[French Academy of Sciences]] and the [[Bureau des Longitudes]] in Paris drew the attention of the French government to this issue. The [[Russian Academy of Sciences|Academy of St Petersburg]] and the English Standards Commission were in agreement with the recommendation.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/history-si/international-metre-commission.html|title=BIPM - International Metre Commission|website=www.bipm.org|access-date=2017-05-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/lesystmemtri00bigo|title=Le système métrique des poids et mesures; son établissement et sa propagation graduelle, avec l'histoire des opérations qui ont servi à déterminer le mètre et le kilogramme|last=Bigourdan|first=Guillaume|date=1901|publisher=Paris : Gauthier-Villars|others=University of Ottawa|isbn=|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lesystmemtri00bigo/page/254 254]–258, 269}}</ref>
In 1866 Spain, represented by Ibáñez, joined the Central European Arc Measurement (German: ''Mitteleuropäische Gradmessung'') at the Permanent Commission meeting in [[Neuchâtel]].<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> In 1867 at the second General Conference of the Central European Arc Measurement (see [[International Association of Geodesy]]) held in Berlin, the question of an international standard unit of length was discussed in order to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iag-aig.org/index.php?tpl=text&id_c=80&id_t=143|title=A Note on the History of the IAG|website=IAG Homepage|access-date=2017-05-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Procès-verbaux de la Conférence géodésique internationale pour la mesure des degrés en Europe, réunie à Berlin du 30 septembre au 7 octobre 1867.|last=|first=|date=1867|publisher=Neuchâtel|isbn=|location=|pages=21–22|hdl = 2027/mdp.39015079998129}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> The Conference recommended the adoption of the [[metre]] and the creation of an international metre commission,<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|url=http://gfzpublic.gfz-potsdam.de/pubman/item/escidoc:108187:4/component/escidoc:272449/Generalbericht.mitteleurop%C3%A4ische.Gradmessung%201867.pdf|title=Bericht über die Verhandlungen der vom 30. September bis 7. October 1867 zu BERLIN abgehaltenen allgemeinen Conferenz der Europäischen Gradmessung.|last=|first=|publisher=Central-Bureau der Europäischen Gradmessung.|year=1868|isbn=|location=Berlin|pages=14, 123–134}}</ref> according to a preliminary discussion between [[Johann Jacob Baeyer]], [[Adolphe Hirsch]] and Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero.<ref name=":1" /> The [[French Academy of Sciences]] and the [[Bureau des Longitudes]] in Paris drew the attention of the French government to this issue. The [[Russian Academy of Sciences|Academy of St Petersburg]] and the English Standards Commission were in agreement with the recommendation.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/history-si/international-metre-commission.html|title=BIPM - International Metre Commission|website=www.bipm.org|access-date=2017-05-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/lesystmemtri00bigo|title=Le système métrique des poids et mesures; son établissement et sa propagation graduelle, avec l'histoire des opérations qui ont servi à déterminer le mètre et le kilogramme|last=Bigourdan|first=Guillaume|date=1901|publisher=Paris : Gauthier-Villars|others=University of Ottawa|isbn=|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lesystmemtri00bigo/page/254 254]–258, 269}}</ref>


In November 1869 the French government issued invitations to join this commission.<ref name=":5" /> Spain accepted and Ibáñez took part in the Committee of preparatory research from the first meeting of the [http://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/history-si/international-metre-commission.html International Metre Commission] in 1870.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3028m|title=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Métrologie. - Notes sur la première session de la Commission internationale du mètre, tenue à Paris du 8 au 13 août 1870.|last=Morin|first=Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du|date=1870-07-01|publisher=Gauthier-Villars|isbn=|location=Paris|pages=381–383}}</ref> He was elected president of the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission in 1872.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.academie-sciences.fr/fr/|title=Carlos IBAÑEZ DE IBERO (14 avril 1825 - 29 janvier 1891), par Albert Pérard (inauguration d'un monument élevé à sa mémoire)|last=Pérard|first=Albert|date=1957|website=Institut de France Académie des Sciences|archive-url=http://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/eloges/ibanez_notice.pdf|archive-date=May 18, 2017|url-status=|access-date=May 22, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XktTAAAAcAAJ|title=Procès-verbaux: Commission Internationale du Mètre. Réunions générales de 1872|last=|first=|date=1872|publisher=Imprim. Nation|isbn=|location=|pages=155|language=fr}}</ref> He represented Spain at the 1875 conference of the [[Metre Convention]] and at the first [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] in 1889.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.e-rara.ch/zut/21308901|title=ETH-Bibliothek / Documents diplomatiques de la conférence du mètre|date=1875|publisher=Imprimerie Nationale|isbn=|location=|pages=[16] 8|language=en|doi=10.3931/e-rara-75532|author1=S.N.}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=1890|title=Compte rendu des séances de la première conférence générale des poids et mesures, réunie à Paris en 1889|url=http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CGPM/CGPM1.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=May 24, 2017|access-date=May 24, 2017|website=Bureau International des Poids et Mesures|pages=5, 27}}</ref> At the first meeting of the [[International Committee for Weights and Measures]], he was elected Chairman of the Committee, a position he held from 1875 to 1891.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/former_presidents.html|title=BIPM - Presidents of the CIPM|website=www.bipm.org|access-date=2017-05-22}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> He received the [[List of foreign recipients of the Légion d'Honneur|Légion d'Honneur]] in recognition of his efforts to disseminate the [[metric system]] among all nations and was awarded the [[Poncelet Prize]] for his scientific contribution to metrology.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=texte|first=Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du|date=July–December 1890|title=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3067d|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-06-22|website=Gallica|page=1025|language=Fr}}</ref>[[File:Repsold.jpg|left|thumb|Gravimeter with variant of Repsold-Bessel pendulum.]]President of the Permanent Commission of the European Arc Measurement from 1874 to 1886, Ibáñez became the first president of the [[International Association of Geodesy|International Geodetic Association]] (1887-1891) after the death of [[Johann Jacob Baeyer]].<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":14" />
In November 1869 the French government issued invitations to join this commission.<ref name=":5" /> Spain accepted and Ibáñez took part in the Committee of preparatory research from the first meeting of the [http://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/history-si/international-metre-commission.html International Metre Commission] in 1870.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3028m|title=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Métrologie. - Notes sur la première session de la Commission internationale du mètre, tenue à Paris du 8 au 13 août 1870.|last=Morin|first=Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du|date=1870-07-01|publisher=Gauthier-Villars|isbn=|location=Paris|pages=381–383}}</ref> He was elected president of the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission in 1872.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.academie-sciences.fr/fr/|title=Carlos IBAÑEZ DE IBERO (14 avril 1825 - 29 janvier 1891), par Albert Pérard (inauguration d'un monument élevé à sa mémoire)|last=Pérard|first=Albert|date=1957|website=Institut de France Académie des Sciences|archive-url=http://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/eloges/ibanez_notice.pdf|archive-date=May 18, 2017|url-status=|access-date=May 22, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XktTAAAAcAAJ|title=Procès-verbaux: Commission Internationale du Mètre. Réunions générales de 1872|last=|first=|date=1872|publisher=Imprim. Nation|isbn=|location=|pages=155|language=fr}}</ref> He represented Spain at the 1875 conference of the [[Metre Convention]] and at the first [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] in 1889.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.e-rara.ch/zut/21308901|title=ETH-Bibliothek / Documents diplomatiques de la conférence du mètre|date=1875|publisher=Imprimerie Nationale|isbn=|location=|pages=[16] 8|language=en|doi=10.3931/e-rara-75532|author1=S.N.}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=1890|title=Compte rendu des séances de la première conférence générale des poids et mesures, réunie à Paris en 1889|url=http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CGPM/CGPM1.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=May 24, 2017|access-date=May 24, 2017|website=Bureau International des Poids et Mesures|pages=5, 27}}</ref> At the first meeting of the [[International Committee for Weights and Measures]], he was elected Chairman of the Committee, a position he held from 1875 to 1891.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/former_presidents.html|title=BIPM - Presidents of the CIPM|website=www.bipm.org|access-date=2017-05-22}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> He received the [[List of foreign recipients of the Légion d'Honneur|Légion d'Honneur]] in recognition of his efforts to disseminate the [[metric system]] among all nations and was awarded the [[Poncelet Prize]] for his scientific contribution to metrology.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=texte|first=Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du|date=July–December 1890|title=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3067d|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-06-22|website=Gallica|page=1025|language=Fr}}</ref>[[File:Repsold.jpg|left|thumb|Gravimeter with variant of Repsold-Bessel pendulum.]]As Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero stated, the International prototype metre would form the basis of the new international system of units, but it would no longer have any relation to the dimensions of the Earth that geodesists were trying to determine. It would be no more than the material representation of the unity of the system.<ref name=":15" />
As Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero stated, the International prototype metre would form the basis of the new international system of units, but it would no longer have any relation to the dimensions of the Earth that geodesists were trying to determine. It would be no more than the material representation of the unity of the system.<ref name=":15" />


The [[International Association of Geodesy|European Arc Measurment]] decided the creation of an international geodetic standard at the General Conference held in Paris in 1875. The Conference of the International Association of Geodesy also dealt with the best instrument to be used for the determination of gravity. After an in-depth discussion in which an American scholar, [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], took part, the association decided in favor of the reversion pendulum, which was used in Switzerland, and it was resolved to redo in Berlin, in the station where [[Friedrich Bessel|Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]] made his famous measurements, the determination of gravity by means of apparatus of various kinds employed in different countries, in order to compare them and thus to have the equation of their scales.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hirsch|first=Adolphe|date=1875|title=Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchâtel. Vol. 10|url=https://www.e-periodica.ch/digbib/view?pid=bsn-001:1874:10#581|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=18 September 2020|website=www.e-periodica.ch|pages=255, 256}}</ref>
The [[International Association of Geodesy|European Arc Measurment]] decided the creation of an international geodetic standard at the General Conference held in Paris in 1875. The Conference of the International Association of Geodesy also dealt with the best instrument to be used for the determination of gravity. After an in-depth discussion in which an American scholar, [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], took part, the association decided in favor of the reversion pendulum, which was used in Switzerland, and it was resolved to redo in Berlin, in the station where [[Friedrich Bessel|Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]] made his famous measurements, the determination of gravity by means of apparatus of various kinds employed in different countries, in order to compare them and thus to have the equation of their scales.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hirsch|first=Adolphe|date=1875|title=Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchâtel. Vol. 10|url=https://www.e-periodica.ch/digbib/view?pid=bsn-001:1874:10#581|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=18 September 2020|website=www.e-periodica.ch|pages=255, 256}}</ref>


The [[Kater's pendulum|reversible pendulum]] built by the Repsold brothers was used in Switzerland in 1865 by [[Emile Plantamour|Émile Plantamour]] for the measurement of gravity in six stations of the Swiss geodetic network. Following the example set by this country and under the patronage of the International Geodetic Association, Austria, Bavaria, Prussia, Russia and Saxony undertook gravity determinations on their respective territories. As the [[figure of the Earth]] could be inferred from variations of the [[seconds pendulum]] length, the [[U.S. National Geodetic Survey|United States Coast Survey's]] direction instructed [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] in the spring of 1875 to proceed to Europe for the purpose of making pendulum experiments to chief initial stations for operations of this sort, in order to bring the determinations of the forces of gravity in America into communication with those of other parts of the world; and also for the purpose of making a careful study of the methods of pursuing these researches in the different countries of Europe.<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Report from Charles S. Peirce on his second European trip for the Anual Report of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey, New York, 18.05.1877|url=http://www.unav.es/gep/Informe18.05.1877En.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=25 August 2019|website=|via=Universidad de Navarra}}</ref>
The [[Kater's pendulum|reversible pendulum]] built by the Repsold brothers was used in Switzerland in 1865 by [[Emile Plantamour|Émile Plantamour]] for the measurement of gravity in six stations of the Swiss geodetic network. Following the example set by this country and under the patronage of the International Geodetic Association, Austria, Bavaria, Prussia, Russia and Saxony undertook gravity determinations on their respective territories. As the [[figure of the Earth]] could be inferred from variations of the [[seconds pendulum]] length, the [[U.S. National Geodetic Survey|United States Coast Survey's]] direction instructed [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] in the spring of 1875 to proceed to Europe for the purpose of making pendulum experiments to chief initial stations for operations of this sort, in order to bring the determinations of the forces of gravity in America into communication with those of other parts of the world; and also for the purpose of making a careful study of the methods of pursuing these researches in the different countries of Europe.<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Report from Charles S. Peirce on his second European trip for the Anual Report of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey, New York, 18.05.1877|url=http://www.unav.es/gep/Informe18.05.1877En.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=25 August 2019|website=|via=Universidad de Navarra}}</ref>

President of the Permanent Commission of the European Arc Measurement from 1874 to 1886, Ibáñez became the first president of the [[International Association of Geodesy|International Geodetic Association]] (1887-1891) after the death of [[Johann Jacob Baeyer]].<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":14" /> Under Ibáñez's presidency, the International Geodetic Association acquired a global dimension with the accession of the United States, Mexico, Chile, Argentina and Japan.<ref name=":20" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Torge|first=W.|date=2005-04-01|title=The International Association of Geodesy 1862 to 1922: from a regional project to an international organization|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00190-004-0423-0|journal=Journal of Geodesy|language=en|volume=78|issue=9|pages=558–568|doi=10.1007/s00190-004-0423-0|issn=1432-1394}}</ref><ref name=":6" />


The progresses of [[metrology]] combined with those of [[gravimetry]] through improvement of [[Kater's pendulum]] led to a new era of [[geodesy]]. If precision metrology had needed the help of geodesy, it could not continue to prosper without the help of metrology. Indeed, how to express all the measurements of terrestrial arcs as a function of a single unit, and all the determinations of the force of gravity with the [[Seconds pendulum|pendulum]], if metrology had not created a common unit, adopted and respected by all civilized nations, and if in addition one had not compared, with great precision, to the same unit all the rulers for measuring geodesic bases, and all the pendulum rods that had hitherto been used or would be used in the future? Only when this series of metrological comparisons would be finished with a probable error of a thousandth of a millimeter would geodesy be able to link the works of the different nations with one another, and then proclaim the result of the measurement of the Globe.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|last=Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero|first=Carlos|url=http://www.rac.es/ficheros/Discursos/DR_20080825_173.pdf|title=Discursos leidos ante la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas Fisicas y Naturales en la recepcion pública de Don Joaquin Barraquer y Rovira|publisher=Imprenta de la Viuda e Hijo de D.E. Aguado|year=1881|isbn=|location=Madrid|pages=70, 78}}</ref>
The progresses of [[metrology]] combined with those of [[gravimetry]] through improvement of [[Kater's pendulum]] led to a new era of [[geodesy]]. If precision metrology had needed the help of geodesy, it could not continue to prosper without the help of metrology. Indeed, how to express all the measurements of terrestrial arcs as a function of a single unit, and all the determinations of the force of gravity with the [[Seconds pendulum|pendulum]], if metrology had not created a common unit, adopted and respected by all civilized nations, and if in addition one had not compared, with great precision, to the same unit all the rulers for measuring geodesic bases, and all the pendulum rods that had hitherto been used or would be used in the future? Only when this series of metrological comparisons would be finished with a probable error of a thousandth of a millimeter would geodesy be able to link the works of the different nations with one another, and then proclaim the result of the measurement of the Globe.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|last=Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero|first=Carlos|url=http://www.rac.es/ficheros/Discursos/DR_20080825_173.pdf|title=Discursos leidos ante la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas Fisicas y Naturales en la recepcion pública de Don Joaquin Barraquer y Rovira|publisher=Imprenta de la Viuda e Hijo de D.E. Aguado|year=1881|isbn=|location=Madrid|pages=70, 78}}</ref>

Revision as of 07:09, 15 December 2020

Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero
Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero
Portrait of Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero in 1881
BornApril 14, 1825
Barcelona (Spain)
DiedJanuary 28 or 29, 1891
Nice (France)
Resting placeCimetière du Château in Nice
NationalitySpanish
Known forPresident of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (1875-1891)
AwardsPoncelet Prize
Scientific career
FieldsGeodesy, Geography, Metrology.
InstitutionsGeographic and Statistical Institute of Spain (1870-1889)

Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, 1st Marquis of Mulhacén, (April 14, 1825 - January 28 or 29, 1891) was a Spanish divisional general and geodesist.[1][2][3] He represented Spain at the 1875 Conference of the Metre Convention and was the first president of the International Committee for Weights and Measures.[4] As a forerunner geodesist and president of the International Geodetic Association,[5] he played a leading role in the worldwide dissemination of the metric system.[6] His activities resulted in the distribution of a platinum and iridium prototype of the metre to all States parties to the Metre Convention during the first meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1889.[4] These prototypes defined the metre right up until 1960.[7]

He was born in Barcelona. According to Spanish tradition, his surname was a combination of his father's first surname, Martín Ibáñez y de Prado and of his mother's first surname, Carmen Ibáñez de Ibero y González del Río. As his parent's surnames were so similar he was often referred as Ibáñez or Ibáñez de Ibero or as Marquis of Mulhacén. When he died in Nice (France), he was still enrolled in the Engineer Corps of the Spanish Army. As he died around midnight, the date of his death is ambiguous, Spaniards retained 28th, and continental Europeans 29 January.[8][1][2]

Scientific career

From the Map Commission to the Geographic and Statistical Institute in Spain

Spain adopted the metric system in 1849. The Government was urged by the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences to approve the creation of a large-scale map of Spain in 1852.[9] The following year Ibáñez was appointed to undertake this task.[4] As all the scientific and technical equipment for a vast undertaking of this kind had to be created, Ibáñez, in collaboration with his comrade, Captain Frutos Saavedra Meneses, drew up the project of a new apparatus for measuring bases. With a perfect glance he recognized that the end standards with which the most perfect devices of the eighteenth century and those of the first half of the nineteenth century were still equipped, that Jean-Charles de Borda or Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel simply joined measuring the intervals by means of screw tabs or glass wedges, would be replaced advantageously for accuracy by the system, designed by Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler for the Coast Survey of the United States, and which consisted of using a single standard with lines marked on the bar and microscopic measurements. Between the two methods by which the effect of temperature was taken into account, Ibáñez preferred to the bimetallic rulers, in platinum and brass, which he first employed for the central base, the simple iron ruler with inlaid mercury thermometers.[4]

Ibáñez and Saavedra went to Paris to supervise the production by Jean Brunner of a measuring instrument calibrated against the metre which they had devised and which they later compared with Borda's double-toise N°1 which was the main reference for measuring all geodetic bases in France and whose length was precisely known.[10][6][11][12] This instrument which became known as the Spanish Standard (French: Règle espagnole) was replicated in order to be used in Egypt.[13][14][15] In 1863, Ibáñez and Ismail Effendi Mustafa compared the Spanish Standard with the Egyptian Standard in Madrid.[16][17][18] These comparisons were essential, because of the expansibility of solid materials with raise in temperature. Indeed, one fact had constantly dominated all the fluctuations of ideas on the measurement of geodesic bases: it was the constant concern to accurately assess the temperature of standards in the field; and the determination of this variable, on which depended the length of the instrument of measurement, had always been considered by geodesists as so difficult and so important that one could almost say that the history of measuring instruments is almost identical with that of the precautions taken to avoid temperature errors.[14]

In 1858 Spain's central geodetic base of triangulation was measured in Madridejos (Toledo) with exceptional precision for the time thanks to the Spanish Standard.[4][13] Ibáñez and his colleagues wrote a monograph which was translated into French by Aimé Laussedat.[19] The experiment, in which the results of two methods were compared, was a landmark in the controversy between French and German geodesists about the length of geodesic triangulation bases, and empirically validated the method of General Johann Jacob Bayer, founder of the International Association of Geodesy.[20]

From 1865 to 1868 Ibáñez added the survey of the Balearic Islands with that of the Iberian Peninsula.[13] For this work, he devised a new instrument, which allowed much faster measurements.[13] In 1869, Ibáñez brought it along to Southampton where Alexander Ross Clarke was making the necessary measurements to compare the Standards of length used in the World.[4][11][21] Finally, this second version of the appliance, called the Ibáñez apparatus, was used in Switzerland to measure the geodetic bases of Aarberg, Weinfelden and Bellinzona.[4][22]

In 1870 Ibáñez founded the Spanish National Geographic Institute which he then directed until 1889.[23] At the time it was the world's biggest geographic institute.[4] It encompassed geodesy, general topography, leveling, cartography, statistics and the general service of weights and measures.[4]

Measurement of the Paris meridian over the Mediterranean Sea

The West Europe-Africa Meridian-arc extending from the Shetland Islands, through Great Britain, France and Spain to El Aghuat in Algeria, whose parameters were calculated from surveys carried out in the mid to late 19th century. Greenwich meridian is depicted rather than Paris meridian.[24]

Copies of the Spanish standard were also made for France and Germany. These standards would be used for the most important operations of European geodesy.[14] Indeed, Louis Puissant had declared in 1836 to the French Academy of Sciences that Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Méchain had committed an error in the measurement of the Paris meridian arc, which had served for determining the length of the metre.[25] As this survey was also part of the groundwork for the map of France, Antoine Yvon Villarceau checked the geodetic operations at eight points of the meridian arc from 1861 to 1866. Some of the errors in the operations of Delambre and Méchain were then corrected.[26]

In 1865 the triangulation of Spain was connected with that of Portugal and France.[19][18] In 1866 at the conference of the Association of Geodesy in Neuchâtel, Ibáñez announced that Spain would collaborate in remeasuring and extending French meridian arc.[4][27] From 1870 to 1894, François Perrier, then Jean-Antonin-Léon Bassot proceeded to a new survey.[26] In 1879 Ibáñez and François Perrier completed the junction between the geodetic networks of Spain and Algeria and thus completed the measurement of a meridian arc which extended from Shetland to the Sahara.[28] This connection was a remarkable enterprise where triangles with a maximum length of 270 km were observed from mountain stations (Mulhacén, Tetica, Filahoussen, M'Sabiha) over the Mediterranean Sea.[29][28][30]

This meridian arc was named West Europe-Africa Meridian-arc by Alexander Ross Clarke and Friedrich Robert Helmert. It yielded a value for the equatorial radius of the earth a = 6 377 935 metres, the ellipticity being assumed as 1/299.15. The radius of curvature of this arc is not uniform, being, in the mean, about 600 metres greater in the northern than in the southern part.[24]

According to the calculations made at the central bureau of the International Geodetic Association, the net does not follow the meridian exactly, but deviates both to the west and to the east; actually, the meridian of Greenwich is nearer the mean than that of Paris.[24]

International scientific collaboration in geodesy and calls for an international standard unit of length

Closeup of National Prototype Meter Bar No. 27, made in 1889 by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) and given to the United States, which served as the standard for defining all units of length in the US from 1893 to 1960. After the Treaty of the Meter had been signed in 1875, the BIPM in Sèvres, France made 30 prototype standard bars of 90% platinum–10% iridium alloy. One of the bars was selected as the International Meter. After selecting the bar to be used as the International Prototype Meter, the other bars were calibrated relative to it and given to nations to serve as their national standards.

In 1866 Spain, represented by Ibáñez, joined the Central European Arc Measurement (German: Mitteleuropäische Gradmessung) at the Permanent Commission meeting in Neuchâtel.[31][27] In 1867 at the second General Conference of the Central European Arc Measurement (see International Association of Geodesy) held in Berlin, the question of an international standard unit of length was discussed in order to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth.[32][33][34][4] The Conference recommended the adoption of the metre and the creation of an international metre commission,[31] according to a preliminary discussion between Johann Jacob Baeyer, Adolphe Hirsch and Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero.[4] The French Academy of Sciences and the Bureau des Longitudes in Paris drew the attention of the French government to this issue. The Academy of St Petersburg and the English Standards Commission were in agreement with the recommendation.[32][35]

In November 1869 the French government issued invitations to join this commission.[32] Spain accepted and Ibáñez took part in the Committee of preparatory research from the first meeting of the International Metre Commission in 1870.[36] He was elected president of the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission in 1872.[37][38] He represented Spain at the 1875 conference of the Metre Convention and at the first General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1889.[4][39][40] At the first meeting of the International Committee for Weights and Measures, he was elected Chairman of the Committee, a position he held from 1875 to 1891.[41][4] He received the Légion d'Honneur in recognition of his efforts to disseminate the metric system among all nations and was awarded the Poncelet Prize for his scientific contribution to metrology.[37][6][42]

Gravimeter with variant of Repsold-Bessel pendulum.

As Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero stated, the International prototype metre would form the basis of the new international system of units, but it would no longer have any relation to the dimensions of the Earth that geodesists were trying to determine. It would be no more than the material representation of the unity of the system.[43]

The European Arc Measurment decided the creation of an international geodetic standard at the General Conference held in Paris in 1875. The Conference of the International Association of Geodesy also dealt with the best instrument to be used for the determination of gravity. After an in-depth discussion in which an American scholar, Charles Sanders Peirce, took part, the association decided in favor of the reversion pendulum, which was used in Switzerland, and it was resolved to redo in Berlin, in the station where Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel made his famous measurements, the determination of gravity by means of apparatus of various kinds employed in different countries, in order to compare them and thus to have the equation of their scales.[44]

The reversible pendulum built by the Repsold brothers was used in Switzerland in 1865 by Émile Plantamour for the measurement of gravity in six stations of the Swiss geodetic network. Following the example set by this country and under the patronage of the International Geodetic Association, Austria, Bavaria, Prussia, Russia and Saxony undertook gravity determinations on their respective territories. As the figure of the Earth could be inferred from variations of the seconds pendulum length, the United States Coast Survey's direction instructed Charles Sanders Peirce in the spring of 1875 to proceed to Europe for the purpose of making pendulum experiments to chief initial stations for operations of this sort, in order to bring the determinations of the forces of gravity in America into communication with those of other parts of the world; and also for the purpose of making a careful study of the methods of pursuing these researches in the different countries of Europe.[43][45]

President of the Permanent Commission of the European Arc Measurement from 1874 to 1886, Ibáñez became the first president of the International Geodetic Association (1887-1891) after the death of Johann Jacob Baeyer.[6][5] Under Ibáñez's presidency, the International Geodetic Association acquired a global dimension with the accession of the United States, Mexico, Chile, Argentina and Japan.[29][46][6]

The progresses of metrology combined with those of gravimetry through improvement of Kater's pendulum led to a new era of geodesy. If precision metrology had needed the help of geodesy, it could not continue to prosper without the help of metrology. Indeed, how to express all the measurements of terrestrial arcs as a function of a single unit, and all the determinations of the force of gravity with the pendulum, if metrology had not created a common unit, adopted and respected by all civilized nations, and if in addition one had not compared, with great precision, to the same unit all the rulers for measuring geodesic bases, and all the pendulum rods that had hitherto been used or would be used in the future? Only when this series of metrological comparisons would be finished with a probable error of a thousandth of a millimeter would geodesy be able to link the works of the different nations with one another, and then proclaim the result of the measurement of the Globe.[43]

In 1889 the General Conference on Weights and Measures met at Sèvres, the seat of the International Bureau. It performed the first great deed dictated by the motto inscribed in the pediment of the splendid edifice that is the metric system: "A tous les temps, a tous les peuples" (For all times, to all peoples); and this deed consisted in the approval and distribution, among the governments of the states supporting the Metre Convention, of prototype standards of hitherto unknown precision intended to propagate the metric unit throughout the whole world. These prototypes were made of a platinum-iridium alloy which combined all the qualities of hardness, permanence, and resistance to chemical agents which rendered it suitable for making into standards required to last for centuries. Yet their high price excluded them from the ordinary field of science.[47]

For metrology the matter of expansibility was fundamental; as a matter of fact the temperature measuring error related to the length measurement in proportion to the expansibility of the standard and the constantly renewed efforts of metrologists to protect their measuring instruments against the interfering influence of temperature revealed clearly the importance they attached to the expansion-induced errors. It was common knowledge, for instance, that effective measurements were possible only inside a building, the rooms of which were well protected against the changes in outside temperature, and the very presence of the observer created an interference against which it was often necessary to take strict precautions. Thus, the Contracting States also received a collection of thermometers which accuracy made it possible to ensure that of length measurements.[47][40]

See also

External links

References

  1. ^ a b "Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales - Académicos - Excmo. Sr. D. CARLOS IBÁÑEZ E IBÁÑEZ DE IBERO". www.rac.es. Retrieved 2019-11-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  2. ^ a b "CARLOS IBANEZ DE IBERO, MARQUIS DE MULHACEN". www.academieroyale.be (in French). Retrieved 2019-11-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  3. ^ "Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero | Real Academia de la Historia". dbe.rah.es. Retrieved 2019-11-30.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Hirsch, Adolphe (1891). "Don Carlos IBANEZ (1825 - 1891)" (PDF). Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. pp. 9, 4, 8, 5, 10, 7, 8–9, 9. Retrieved May 22, 2017. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= requires |archive-url= (help)CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  5. ^ a b Drewes, Hermann; Kuglitsch, Franz; Adám, József; Rózsa, Szabolcs (2016-10-01). "The Geodesist's Handbook 2016". Journal of Geodesy. 90 (10): 907–1205, Table 3 p. 914. Bibcode:2016JGeod..90..907D. doi:10.1007/s00190-016-0948-z. ISSN 1432-1394. S2CID 125925505.
  6. ^ a b c d e Soler, T. (1997-02-01). "A profile of General Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero: first president of the International Geodetic Association". Journal of Geodesy. 71 (3): 176–188 pp. 178, 183. Bibcode:1997JGeod..71..176S. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.492.3967. doi:10.1007/s001900050086. ISSN 0949-7714. S2CID 119447198.
  7. ^ "BIPM - former Prototype Metre". www.bipm.org. Retrieved 2017-05-22.
  8. ^ "Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero". Wikipédia (in French). 2017-05-19.
  9. ^ Núñez de las Cuevas, Rodolfo (2005). "Militares y marinos en la Real Sociedad Geográfica" (PDF). Universidad de Navarra. Retrieved May 22, 2017. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= requires |archive-url= (help)
  10. ^ Brunner, Jean (1857-01-26). Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Géodésie. - Appareil construit pour les opérations au moyen desquelles on prolongera dans toute l'étendue de l'Espagne le réseau trigonométrique qui couvre la France. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 150–152.
  11. ^ a b Clarke, A. R.; James, Henry (1873-01-01). "Results of the Comparisons of the Standards of Length of England, Austria, Spain, United States, Cape of Good Hope, and of a Second Russian Standard, Made at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 163: 445–469, p. 16. doi:10.1098/rstl.1873.0014. ISSN 0261-0523.
  12. ^ Ibáñez e Ibáñe de Ibero, Carlos; Saavedra Menesès, Carlos (1860). Expériences faites avec l'appareil à mesurer les bases appartenant à la commission de la carte d'Espagne /: ouvrage publié par ordre de la reine (in French). Translated by Laussedat, Aimé. J. Dumaine.
  13. ^ a b c d J. Bertrand, Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du (1891-01-01). Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Notice sur le général Ibañez, correspondant de l'Académie. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 266–269.
  14. ^ a b c Guillaume, Ch-Ed (1906). "La mesure rapide des bases géodésiques". Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée (in French). 5 (1): 242–263. doi:10.1051/jphystap:019060050024200. ISSN 0368-3893.
  15. ^ Guillaume, Charles-Édouard (1920). "Notice nécrologique de F. DA PAULA ARRILLAGA Y GARRO" (PDF). BIPM.
  16. ^ texte, Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du (1864-07-01). Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. p. 623.
  17. ^ Ismaïl-Effendi-Moustapha (1864). Recherche des coefficients de dilatation et étalonnage de l'appareil à mesurer les bases géodésiques appartenant au gouvernement égyptien. Paris: V. Goupy.
  18. ^ a b Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Íbero, Carlos (1865). Base centrale de la triangulation géodésique d'Espagne. Translated by Laussedat, Aimé. Madrid: impr. de M. Rivadeneyra. pp. Appendice N.° 9 p. CXCIII, Appendice N.° 11 p. CCLI.
  19. ^ a b Laussedat, Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du (1866-01-01). Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Géodésie. - Sur les travaux géodésiques exécutés en Espagne, à propos de la publication d'une traduction de l'ouvrage intitulé : Base centrale de la triangulation géodésique de l'Espagne. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 1007–1010.
  20. ^ Laussedat, Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du (1864-01-01). Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Géodésie. - Sur les opérations en cours d'exécution pour la carte d'Espagne, d'après les renseignements donnés à l'académie de Madrid par M. le colonel Ibañez. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 70–72.
  21. ^ Clarke Alexander Ross; James Henry (1867-01-01). "X. Abstract of the results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, France, Belgium, Prussia, Russia, India, Australia, made at the ordnance Survey Office, Southampton". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 157: 161–180. doi:10.1098/rstl.1867.0010. S2CID 109333769.
  22. ^ A. Hirsch et J. Dumur, Lausanne, Commission Géodésique Suisse, 1888, 116 p.
  23. ^ Nacional, Instituto Geográfico. "Instituto Geográfico Nacional". Geoportal oficial del Instituto Geográfico Nacional de España (in European Spanish). Retrieved 2019-12-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  24. ^ a b c Clarke, Alexander Ross; Helmert, Friedrich Robert (1911). "Earth, Figure of the" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 08 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 801–813.
  25. ^ Puissant, Louis (1836). "Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels". Gallica. pp. 428–433. Retrieved 2020-01-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  26. ^ a b Lebon, Ernest (1846-1922) Auteur du texte (1899). Histoire abrégée de l'astronomie / par Ernest Lebon,... pp. 168–169.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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  30. ^ Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Íbero, Carlos; Perrier, François (1886). Jonction géodésique et astronomique de l'Algérie avec l'Espagne, exécutée en commun en 1879, par ordre des gouvernements d'Espagne et de France, sous la direction de M. le général Ibañez,... pour l'Espagne, M. le colonel Perrier,... pour la France. Paris: Impr. nationale.
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  35. ^ Bigourdan, Guillaume (1901). Le système métrique des poids et mesures; son établissement et sa propagation graduelle, avec l'histoire des opérations qui ont servi à déterminer le mètre et le kilogramme. University of Ottawa. Paris : Gauthier-Villars. pp. 254–258, 269.
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  37. ^ a b Pérard, Albert (1957). "Carlos IBAÑEZ DE IBERO (14 avril 1825 - 29 janvier 1891), par Albert Pérard (inauguration d'un monument élevé à sa mémoire)" (PDF). Institut de France Académie des Sciences. Archived from the original on May 18, 2017. Retrieved May 22, 2017.
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  46. ^ Torge, W. (2005-04-01). "The International Association of Geodesy 1862 to 1922: from a regional project to an international organization". Journal of Geodesy. 78 (9): 558–568. doi:10.1007/s00190-004-0423-0. ISSN 1432-1394.
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