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:''For other uses of 'death' and 'deceased,' see [[Death (disambiguation)]]'' |
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[[Image:SkullFromStillLifeWithASkull.jpg|thumb|The symbolic face of death: detail from an 18th century painting]] |
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[[Image:Deadconfederate.jpg|thumb|Death in war: a soldier's corpse sprawled out in Petersburg, Virginia, 1865, during the [[American Civil War]]]] |
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'''Death''' is the permanent termination of the [[biological]] functions that define a [[life|living]] [[organism]]. It refers to both a particular event and to the condition that results thereby. The true nature of the latter has for millennia been a central concern of the world's [[religions|religious traditions]] and of [[philosophy|philosophical enquiry]]. Religions, almost without exception, maintain faith in either some kind of [[afterlife]] or [[reincarnation]]. The effect of physical death on any possible [[mind]] or [[soul]] remains an open question. Contemporary [[science]] regards [[organism]]ic death as final by definition. |
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All [[animal]]s die in due course from [[senescence]]. Intervening phenomena which commonly bring death earlier include [[malnutrition]], [[predation]], [[disease]], [[accident]]s resulting in terminal [[physical injury]], or, in extreme circumstances, grave [[ecosystem]] disruption. [[Volition (psychology)|Intentional]] human activity causing death includes [[suicide]], [[homicide]], and [[war]]. Death in the [[nature|natural world]] can also occur as an indirect result of human activity: an increasing cause of [[species]] depletion [[Holocene extinction event|in recent times]] has been destruction of [[ecology|ecological]] systems as a consequence of the widening spread of [[industrialization|industrial]] [[technology]]. |
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The chief concern of [[medicine|medical science]] has been to postpone and avert death. Death in this context is now seen as less an event than a process: conditions once considered indicative of death are now reversible. <ref>{{cite web |
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| last = Crippen |
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| first = David |
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| title = Brain Failure and Brain Death: Introduction |
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| work = ACS Surgery Online, Critical Care, April 2005 |
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| url= http://www.acssurgery.com/abstracts/acs/acs0812.htm |
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| accessdate = 2007-01-09 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2009}}</ref> Where in the process a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of [[vital signs]]. In general, [[clinical death]] is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of [[legal death]]. A patient with working [[heart]] and [[lung]]s determined to be [[brain death|brain dead]] can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring. Precise medical definition of death, in other words, becomes more problematic, paradoxically, as [[science|scientific knowledge]] and [[technology]] advance. Death remains a central mystery of life itself. <ref>''The Hour of Our Death'', Philippe Ariès, 1981</ref> |
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==Biological death== |
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===Competition, natural selection and extinction=== |
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{{Main|Competition (biology)|natural selection|extinction}} |
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[[Image:Wilted rose.JPG|thumb|left|220px|A dead rose]] |
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Death is an important part of the process of [[natural selection]]. Organisms that are less [[adaptation|adapted]] to their current environment than others are more likely to die having produced fewer offspring, reducing their contribution to the [[gene pool]] of succeeding generations. Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading to processes such as [[speciation]] and extinction. It should be noted however that [[biological reproduction|reproduction]] plays an equally important role in determining survival. For example, an organism that dies young but leaves many offspring will have a much greater [[Darwinian fitness]] than a long-lived organism which leaves only one. |
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====Extinction==== |
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[[Image:ExtinctDodoBird.jpeg|thumb|right|220px|Dead as a [[Dodo]]: the bird that became a byword in English for species extinction <ref name="Diamond">{{cite book | last = Diamond | first = Jared | authorlink = Jared Diamond | title = [[Guns, Germs, and Steel]] | publisher = [[W. W. Norton]] | date = 1999| isbn = 0-393-31755-2 | pages=43–44 |chapter=Up to the Starting Line }}</ref>]] |
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[[Extinction]] is the cessation of existence of a [[species]] or group of [[taxon|taxa]], reducing [[biodiversity]]. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the [[population bottleneck|capacity to breed and recover]] may have been lost before this point). Because a species' potential [[Range (biology)|range]] may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as [[Lazarus taxa]], where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" (typically in the [[fossil|fossil record]]) after a period of apparent absence. Through [[Evolution|evolutional theory]], new species arise through the process of [[speciation]] — where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an [[ecological niche]] — and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. |
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[[Image:Portugiesischer-maulwurf-gebiss&grabschaufeln.jpg|thumb|left|260px|Still part of life even after death: a decomposing [[mole (animal)|mole]] has entered [[Earth]]'s biogeochemical cycle]] |
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After death the remains of an organism become part of the [[biogeochemical cycle]]. Animals may be [[necrophagy|consumed]] by a [[predator]] or a [[scavenger]]. [[Organic material]] may then be further decomposed by [[detritivore]]s, organisms which recycle [[detritus]], returning it to the environment for reuse in the [[food chain]]. Examples of detritivores include [[earthworm]]s, [[woodlice]] and [[dung beetles]]. |
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[[Microorganism]]s also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler molecules. Not all material need be decomposed fully, however. [[Coal]], a [[fossil fuel]] formed over vast tracts of time in [[swamp]] ecosystems, is one example. |
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===Death and evolution=== |
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{{main|Evolution of aging}} |
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Enquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why almost all living things weaken and die with age (a notable exception being [[Hydra (genus)|hydra]], which may be [[biological immortality|biologically immortal]]). The evolutionary origin of [[senescence]] remains one of the fundamental puzzles of biology. Gerontology specializes in the science of human aging processes. |
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==Defining death== |
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===Problems of definition=== |
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[[Image:StillLifeWithASkull.jpg|thumb|270px|What is death? A flower, a skull and an hour-glass stand in for [[Life]], Death and [[Time]]]] |
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One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. Death would seem to refer to either the moment at which life ends or the state that follows life. However, determining when death has occurred requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is problematic however because there is little consensus over how to define life. Some have suggested defining life in terms of consciousness. When consciousness ceases, a living organism can be said to have died. One of the notable flaws in this approach is that some organisms which many would agree are alive, are not necessarily conscious. For example, many single-celled organisms are generally thought to be living and yet many question that such organisms could be conscious given that their mental aptitude appears to be rather limited. Another problem with this approach is in defining consciousness, which remains a mystery to modern scientists, psychologists and philosophers. This general problem of defining death applies to the particular challenge of defining death in the context of medicine. |
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==Defining death in medicine== |
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Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human's death have been problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation of [[heart]]beat ([[cardiac arrest]]) and of [[breath]]ing, but the development of [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]] and prompt [[defibrillation]] have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. Events which were [[causality|causally]] linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of [[life support]] devices, [[organ transplants]] and [[artificial pacemaker]]s. |
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Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "[[brain death]]" or "biological death"; people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of [[consciousness]]. However, suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during certain [[Non-rapid eye movement sleep|sleep]] stages, and especially a [[coma]]. In the case of sleep, [[Electroencephalography|EEGs]] can easily tell the difference. |
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The possession of brain activities, or ability to resume brain activity, is a [[Necessary and sufficient conditions|necessary condition]] to legal personhood in the United States. "''It appears that once brain death has been determined … no criminal or civil liability will result from disconnecting the life-support devices.''" (Dority v. Superior Court of [[San Bernardino County, California|San Bernardino County]], 193 Cal.Rptr. 288, 291 (1983)) |
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Many have challenged the idea that brain death is equivalent to the cessation of consciousness. Critics point out that much of human consciousness is embodied in numerous body parts and that the end of electrical impulses in the brain does not necessarily indicate that this embodied consciousness has also ceased. Given this possibility, brain death does not necessitate the end of consciousness, and thus brain dead people may still be alive. Furthermore, some have argued, even if brain death does mean the end of consciousness for a human being, the whole notion that cessation of consciousness indicates death is problematic. Critics note the existence of many simple organisms such as viruses that we consider to be alive but which many doubt are conscious. If life does not require consciousness, defining death in terms of "brain death" is a dubious procedure, even if the brain is the seat of consciousness. Thus while legal concerns surrounding death force us to develop a working definition of death, it is not at all clear that the current American definition, according to brain death, coincides at all with a definition that can be reasonably endorsed. |
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Those people maintaining that only the [[neo-cortex]] of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity there should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of [[cognition|cognitive]] function, as evidenced by the death of the [[cerebral cortex]]. All hope of recovering human thought and [[personality psychology|personality]] is then gone given current and foreseeable medical technology. However, at present, in most places the more conservative definition of death — irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex — has been adopted (for example the [[Uniform Determination Of Death Act]] in the [[United States]]). In 2005, the [[Terri Schiavo case]] brought the question of brain death and artificial sustenance to the front of [[Politics of the United States|American politics]]. |
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Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain [[drugs]], [[hypoglycemia]], [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]], or [[hypothermia]] can suppress or even stop brain activity on a temporary basis. Because of this, hospitals have protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals under defined conditions. |
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====Misdiagnosed death==== |
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There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then 'coming back to life', sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when [[embalming]] procedures are just about to begin. Owing to significant scientific advancements in the [[Victorian era]], some people in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] became obsessively worried about living after being declared dead.<ref>As reflected from at least one article of literature by authors like [[Edgar Allan Poe]], where subjects were buried alive.</ref> |
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In cases of [[electric shock]], CPR for an hour or longer can allow stunned [[nerve]]s to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their [[face]]s are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an [[Emergency department|emergency room]].<ref name=Limmer> Limmer, D. et al. (2006). Emergency care (AHA update, Ed. 10e). [[Prentice Hall]].</ref> This "diving response", in which [[metabolism|metabolic activity]] and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with [[cetacea]]ns called the [[mammalian diving reflex]].<ref name=Limmer /> |
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As medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have to be re-evaluated in light of the ability to restore a person to vitality after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when [[CPR]] and defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a decisive indicator of death). The lack of electrical brain activity may not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead. Therefore, the concept of [[information theoretical death]] has been suggested as a better means of defining when true death actually occurs, though the concept has few practical applications outside of the field of [[cryonics]]. |
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There have been some scientific attempts to bring dead organisms back to life, but with limited success.<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,160903,00.html Blood Swapping Reanimates Dead Dogs]</ref> In [[science fiction]] [[scenario]]s where such technology is readily available, [[real death]] is distinguished from reversible death. |
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===Death and the law === |
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''See also: [[Legal death]]'' |
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By law, a person is dead if a Statement of Death or [[Death Certificate]] is approved by a licensed medical practitioner. Various legal consequences follow death, including the removal from the person of what in legal terminology is called [[personhood]]. |
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===Human causes of death=== |
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{{See also|List of causes of death by rate|Leading preventable causes of death}} |
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[[Image:Body of John Paul II Daniel Scioli.jpg|thumb|266px|left|Pope [[John Paul II]] lying in state in [[St. Peter's Basilica]], Rome, 2005]] |
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Death can be caused by [[disease]], [[suffocation]]/[[asphyxiation]] or prolonged lack of oxygen to the brain, or physical trauma as a result of an [[accident]] ("unintentional circumstance"), [[homicide]] ("intentional act by someone else"), or [[suicide]] ("intentional act against one's self").<ref>[http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/FivePrecepts/AnnualViolence.html WHO: 1.6 million die in violence annually]</ref> |
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The leading cause of death in [[developing countries]] is [[infectious disease]]. The leading causes of death in [[developed countries]] are [[atherosclerosis]] ([[heart disease]] and [[stroke]]), [[cancer]], and other diseases related to [[obesity]] and [[aging]]. These conditions cause loss of [[homeostasis]], leading to [[cardiac arrest]], causing loss of [[oxygen]] and nutrient supply, causing irreversible deterioration of the [[brain]] and other [[tissue (biology)|tissues]]. With improved medical capability, dying has become [[respite care|a condition to be managed]]. Home deaths, once normal, are now rare in the developed world. |
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In [[developing nations]], inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern [[medical technology]] makes death from [[infectious diseases]] more common than in [[developed countries]]. One such disease is [[tuberculosis]], a bacterial disease which killed 1.7 million people in 2004.<ref name="WHO2004data">[[World Health Organization]] (WHO). [http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/index.html Tuberculosis Fact sheet N°104 - Global and regional incidence.] March 2006, Retrieved on 6 October 2006.</ref> [[Malaria]] causes about 400–900 million cases of fever and approximately one to three million deaths annually.<ref>[http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/mch/ch/techareas/malaria_brief.html USAID’s Malaria Programs]</ref> [[AIDS]] death toll in [[Africa]] may reach 90-100 million by 2025.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/mar/04/aids Aids could kill 90 million Africans, says UN]</ref><ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/03/AR2006060300229.html AIDS Toll May Reach 100 Million in Africa], [[Washington Post]]</ref> |
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According to [[Jean Ziegler]], who was the [[United Nations]] Special reporter on the Right to Food from 2000 to March 2008; mortality due to [[malnutrition]] accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide approximately 62 million people died from all causes and of those deaths more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in [[micronutrients]]."<ref>[[Jean Ziegler]], ''L'Empire de la honte'', Fayard, 2007 ISBN 978-2-253-12115-2 p.130.</ref> |
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[[Tobacco]] smoking killed 100 million people worldwide in the 20th century and could kill 1 billion people around the world in the 21st century, the [[WHO]] Report warned.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080210092031.htm Tobacco Could Kill One Billion By 2100, WHO Report Warns]</ref><ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/02/08/2157587.htm Tobacco could kill more than 1 billion this century: WHO]</ref> |
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Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] and [[Physical fitness|physical activity]], but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human [[longevity]]. The [[evolution of aging|evolutionary cause of aging]] is, at best, only just beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death.<ref>{{cite journal |
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| last = SJ Olshanksy et al. |
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| title = Longevity dividend: What should we be doing to prepare for the unprecedented aging of humanity? |
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| journal = The Scientist |
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| volume = 20 |
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| pages = 28–36 |
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| year = 2006 |
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| publisher = Scientist (The), Philadelphia |
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| url = http://www.grg.org/resources/TheScientist.htm |
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| accessdate = 2007-03-31}}</ref> |
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====Symptoms of death==== |
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Signs of death, or strong indications that a person is no longer alive are: |
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*[[Pallor mortis]], paleness which happens almost instantaneously (in the 15–120 minutes after the death) |
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*[[Algor mortis]], the reduction in body temperature following death. This is generally a steady decline until matching ambient temperature |
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*[[Rigor mortis]], the limbs of the corpse become stiff (Latin rigor) and difficult to move or manipulate |
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*[[Livor mortis]], a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body |
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*[[Decomposition]], the reduction into simpler forms of matter |
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====Autopsy==== |
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[[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 007.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Rembrandt]] turns an autopsy into a masterpiece: The ''[[Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp]]'']] |
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An autopsy, also known as a ''postmortem examination'' or an ''obduction'', is a [[medical procedure]] that consists of a thorough [[examination]] of a [[human]] [[Dead body|corpse]] to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any [[disease]] or [[injury]] that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized [[Physician|medical doctor]] called a [[pathology|pathologist]]. |
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Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. A forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from [[next of kin]] may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together. Autopsy is important in a medical environment and may shed light on mistakes and help improve practices. |
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A necropsy is an older term for a postmortem examination, unregulated, and not always a medical procedure. |
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===The quest for life extension=== |
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{{main|Life extension}} |
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[[Life extension]] refers to an increase in [[Maximum life span|maximum]] or [[Life expectancy|average lifespan]], especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the [[senescence|processes of aging]]. Average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to [[accident]]s and age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as [[cancer]] or [[cardiovascular disease]]. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], [[exercise]] and avoidance of hazards such as [[tobacco smoking|smoking]]. Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of [[ageing|aging]] for a species inherent in its [[gene]]s. Currently, the only widely recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is [[calorie restriction]]. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by [[tissue engineering|periodic replacement of damaged tissues]], or by [[nanobiotechnology|molecular repair]] or [[rejuvenation (aging)|rejuvenation]] of deteriorated cells and tissues. |
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Researchers of life extension are a subclass of [[gerontology|biogerontologists]] known as "biomedical [[gerontology|gerontologists]]". They try to understand the nature of aging and they develop treatments to reverse aging processes or to at least slow them down, for the improvement of health and the maintenance of youthful vigor at every stage of life. Those who take advantage of life extension findings and seek to apply them upon themselves are called "life extensionists" or "longevists". The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply available anti-aging methods in the hope of living long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed, which given the rapidly advancing state of biogenetic and general medical technology, could conceivably occur within the lifetimes of people living today. |
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Many biomedical gerontologists and [[life extensionist]]s believe that future breakthroughs in tissue [[rejuvenation (aging)|rejuvenation]] with [[stem cell]]s, [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] replacement (with artificial [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] or [[xenotransplantation]]s) and [[molecular]] repair will eliminate all aging and disease as well as allow for complete rejuvenation to a youthful condition. Whether such breakthroughs can occur within the next few decades is impossible to predict. Some life extensionists arrange to be [[cryonics|cryonically preserved]] upon legal death so that they can await the time when future [[medicine]] can eliminate [[disease]], [[rejuvenation (aging)|rejuvenate]] them to a lasting youthful condition and repair damage caused by the [[cryonics]] process. |
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==Death in culture== |
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{{Main|Death in culture}} |
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[[Image:Allisvanity.jpg|right|thumb|220px| Death haunts even the beautiful: an early 20th century artist says, "[[Ecclesiastes|All is Vanity]]"]] |
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Death is the center of many traditions and organizations, and is a feature of every culture around the world. Much of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as the [[afterlife]] and the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death. The [[disposal of human corpses]] does, in general, begin with the [[last offices]] before significant time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment or [[cremation]]. This is not a unified practice, however, as in [[Tibet]] for instance the body is given a [[sky burial]] and left on a mountain top. [[mummy|Mummification]] or [[embalming]] is also prevalent in some cultures, to retard the rate of decay. |
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Such rituals are accompanied by [[grief]] and [[mourning]] in almost all cases, and this is not limited to human loss, but extends to the [[Animal loss|loss of an animal]]. Legal aspects of death are also part of many cultures, particularly the settlement of the deceased [[estate (law)|estate]] and the issues of [[inheritance]] and in some countries, [[inheritance tax]]ation. |
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[[Capital punishment]] is also a divisive aspect of death in culture. In most places that practice capital punishment today, the death penalty is reserved as punishment for premeditated [[murder]], [[espionage]], [[treason]], or as part of [[military justice]]. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as [[adultery]] and [[sodomy]], carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as [[apostasy]], the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many [[Use of capital punishment by nation|retentionist]] countries, [[drug trafficking]] is also a capital offense. In China [[Trafficking in human beings|human trafficking]] and serious cases of [[Political corruption|corruption]] are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world [[courts-martial]] have imposed death sentences for offenses such as [[cowardice]], [[desertion]], [[insubordination]], and [[mutiny]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shotatdawn.org.uk/ |title= Shot at Dawn, campaign for pardons for British and Commonwealth soldiers executed in World War I|accessdate= 2006-07-20||publisher= Shot at Dawn Pardons Campaign}}</ref> |
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Death in warfare and in [[suicide attack]] also have cultural links, and the ideas of [[dulce et decorum est pro patria mori]], [[mutiny]] punishable by death, grieving relatives of dead soldiers and [[death notification]] are embedded in many cultures. Recently in the western world, with the supposed increase in terrorism following the [[September 11 attacks]], but also further back in time with suicide bombers and terrorism in [[Northern Ireland]], [[kamikaze]] missions in [[World War II]] and suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history, death for a cause by way of suicide attack, and [[martyrdom]] have had significant cultural impacts. |
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[[Suicide]] in general, and particularly [[euthanasia]] are also points of cultural debate. Both acts are understood very differently in contrasting cultures. In [[Japan]], for example, ending a life with honor by [[seppuku]] was considered a desirable death, whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, suicide is viewed as a sin. Death is also [[Death (personification)|personified]] in many cultures, with such creations as the [[Grim Reaper]], [[Azrael]], [[Father Time]]. Such cultural ideas are part of a global [[fascination with death]]. |
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[[Abortion]] is the deliberate termination of a human pregnancy. This is partially legalised in many Western countries if the mother requests it, and a doctor prescribes it, often taking into account the physical and mental state of the mother-to-be, and the development of the [[fetus]]. In countries where abortion is legal, the understanding is that the rights of the mother outweigh any rights of the fetus. Some ethicists and religious groups argue that this is wrong and that the fetus has a [[right to life]]. In countries where abortion is illegal, many "back-alley" ([[unsafe abortion]]s) may still occur with great risk to the health of the mother. |
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==See also== |
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{{col-begin}} |
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{{col-1-of-2}} |
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* [[-cide]] |
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* ''[[Bardo Thodol]]'' ("Tibetan Book of the Dead") |
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* [[Burial]] |
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* [[Cadaveric spasm]] |
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* ''[[Death, Desire and Loss in Western Culture]]'' by [[Jonathan Dollimore]] |
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* [[Death messengers]] |
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* [[Death erection]] |
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* [[Death (personification)]] |
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* [[Death rattle]] |
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* [[Día de los Muertos]], (Day of the Dead) |
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* [[Dying declaration]] |
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* [[Euphemism#Euphemisms for death|Euphemisms for death]] |
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{{col-2-of-2}} |
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* [[Karōshi]] |
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* [[Last rites]] |
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* [[Legal death]] |
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* [[List of causes of death by rate]] |
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* [[Leading preventable causes of death]] |
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* [[Mortician]] |
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* [[Near-death experience]] |
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* [[Pseudocide]] |
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* [[Post Mortem Interval]] |
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* [[Thanatology]] |
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* [[World War I casualties]] |
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* [[World War II casualties]] |
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* [[Zombie]] |
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{{col-end}} |
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==References== |
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{{reflist}} |
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===Additional references=== |
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*{{cite web| last = Pounder| first = Derrick J.| title = POSTMORTEM CHANGES AND TIME OF DEATH| publisher =University of Dundee|date= [[2005-12-15]]| url = http://www.dundee.ac.uk/forensicmedicine/notes/timedeath.pdf| accessdate = 2006-12-13 }} |
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*Appel, JM. Defining Death: When Physicians and Families Differ” ''Journal of Medical Ethics'' Fall 2005. |
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*Vass AA (2001) Microbiology Today 28: 190-192 at: [http://www.sgm.ac.uk/pubs/micro_today/pdf/110108.pdf] |
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*Piepenbrink H (1985) J Archaeolog Sci 13: 417-430 |
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*Piepenbrink H (1989) Applied Geochem 4: 273-280 |
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*Child AM (1995) J Archaeolog Sci 22: 165-174 |
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==External links== |
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{{wikiquote}} |
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{{commonscat}} |
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{{wiktionary}} |
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* {{dmoz|Society/Death}} |
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* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/death/#2 Death (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)] |
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* [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18368186 Doctors Change the Way They Think About Death] |
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* [http://www.nsc.org/research/odds.aspx Odds of dying from various injuries or accidents] Source: [[National Safety Council]], United States, 2001 |
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* [http://www.benbest.com/lifeext/causes.html Causes of Death] |
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* [http://rack1.ul.cs.cmu.edu/is/deathtypes/ Causes of Death 1916] How the medical profession categorized causes of death a century ago. |
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* [http://www.elijahwald.com/origin.html George Wald: The Origin of Death] A biologist explains life and death in different kinds of organisms in relation to evolution. |
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* [http://www.lensculture.com/schels.html Before and After Death] Interviews with people dying in hospices, and portraits of them before, and shortly after, death |
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{{death}} |
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[[Category:Death| ]] |
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[[Category:Demography]] |
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{{Link FA|vi}} |
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[[ar:موت]] |
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[[arc:ܡܘܬܐ]] |
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[[gn:Mano]] |
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[[az:Ölüm]] |
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[[be-x-old:Сьмерць]] |
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[[bs:Smrt]] |
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[[br:Marv]] |
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[[bg:Смърт]] |
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[[ca:Mort]] |
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[[ceb:Kamatayon]] |
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[[cs:Smrt]] |
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[[cy:Marwolaeth]] |
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[[da:Død]] |
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[[de:Tod]] |
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[[et:Surm]] |
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[[el:Θάνατος]] |
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[[es:Muerte]] |
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[[eo:Morto]] |
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[[fa:مرگ]] |
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[[fr:Mort]] |
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[[fy:Dea]] |
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[[gl:Morte]] |
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[[gu:મરણ]] |
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[[zh-classical:死]] |
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[[ko:죽음]] |
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[[hy:Մահ]] |
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[[hi:मृत्यु]] |
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[[hr:Smrt]] |
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[[io:Morto]] |
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[[id:Kematian]] |
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[[ia:Morte]] |
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[[is:Dauði]] |
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[[it:Morte]] |
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[[he:מוות]] |
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[[ka:სიკვდილი]] |
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[[sw:Mauti]] |
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[[la:Mors]] |
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[[lv:Nāve]] |
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[[lt:Mirtis]] |
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[[hu:Halál]] |
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[[ml:മരണം]] |
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[[mt:Mewt]] |
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[[mr:मृत्यू]] |
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[[ms:Ajal]] |
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[[nl:Dood]] |
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[[ja:死]] |
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[[no:Død]] |
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[[nn:Død]] |
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[[pl:Śmierć]] |
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[[pt:Morte]] |
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[[ro:Moarte]] |
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[[qu:Wañuy]] |
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[[ru:Смерть]] |
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[[sah:Өлүү]] |
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[[sq:Vdekja]] |
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[[scn:Morti]] |
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[[simple:Death]] |
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[[sk:Smrť]] |
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[[sl:Smrt]] |
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[[szl:Śmjyrć]] |
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[[sr:Смрт]] |
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[[sh:Smrt]] |
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[[su:Paéh]] |
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[[fi:Kuolema]] |
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[[sv:Döden]] |
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[[tl:Kamatayan]] |
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[[ta:இறப்பு]] |
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[[th:ความตาย]] |
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[[vi:Chết]] |
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[[tr:Ölüm]] |
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[[uk:Смерть]] |
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[[ur:موت]] |
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[[wa:Moirt]] |
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[[yi:טויט]] |
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[[zh-yue:死]] |
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[[bat-smg:Smertis]] |
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[[zh:死亡]] |
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Revision as of 09:21, 12 March 2009
Julianne bell is here