Iguvine Tablets

One of the tablets.

The Iguvine Tablets are a series of seven bronze tablets discovered at Iguvium (contemporary Gubbio), Italy, in the year 1444. They are also known as Eugubian tablets. The earliest tablets were probably written in the 3rd century BC in the native Umbrian alphabet, the latest in the 1st century BC in the Latin alphabet.

The tablets contain religious inscriptions that memorialize the acts and rites of the Atiedian Brethren, a group of 12 priests of Jupiter with important municipal functions at Iguvium. They are written in the Umbrian language, one of the Italic languages, a not-too-distant relative of Latin. They are by far the longest and most important document of the Umbrian language and also of all Osco-Umbrian family languages. They shed light on the grammar of this ancient dead language, and also on the religious practices of the ancient peoples of Italy, including the archaic religion of the Romans. Part of the last tablets, namely of tablet VI and VII appear to be written in an accentual metre, similar to the Saturnian metre that is encountered in the earliest Latin poetry. The complete text, together with a translation into Latin, was published in London in 1863 by Francis Newman and 1931 in a book by Albrecht von Blumenthal.

The extraordinary value of these documents is underlined by the great number of scholars who, since their discovery, have devoted their efforts to reading and deciphering the tablets. Their value also lies in the fact that they are the only extant documents of the ancient religions of Europe and the Mediterranean which has come down to us in a complete state. Moreover, their content deals with the rituals (sacrifices and prayers) addressed to the highest gods of the local community and may reflect to some extent the common religious beliefs and practices of the Italic peoples. As historical linguist Giacomo Devoto once described it, it is necessary to go deep into Asia to find anything of equal value.

Also the religious structure present in the Tablets resembles that of the early stage of Roman religion, reflecting the Roman archaic triad and the group of gods more strictly related to Jupiter.

Although the general meaning of the tablets is clear, there are still many obscure or debated points and issues. The main difficulty in understanding the meaning of the text is the insufficient knowledge of the Umbrian vocabulary.

Epigraphic note

The tablets are engraved on bronze. The analysis of the external appearance of the supporting material has led scholars to conclude that only tablets V, VI and VII were meant to be exposed in public. The other ones were cast as an archive document. They are inscribed in Italic alphabet derived from Etruscan (T. I to Vb 8) and in Latin alphabet (T. Vb 9, VI, VII).

Dating

The study of the ductus (writing style), conducted by comparing the tablets with other inscriptions from the area of Central Italy, has allowed scholars to conclude for a dating from no later than the end of the III century for T. III and IV to the first half of the I century for the latest T. VI and VII.

Content

Tablets I to V present their topic in a concise, matter of fact manner. Tablets VI and VII repeat the same subject of Tablet I in a much more detailed and diluted way, with apparent literary and encomiastic overtones. The content of the tablets is given below in their relative order of antiquity as established by Newman on the authority of Aufrecht and Kirchhoff, order which is identical to that recently indicated by A. Maggiani.

Tablets III and IV

Sacrifice to Puemonos Popricos and Vesuna.

General prescriptions concerning the holding of the sacrifice, sacrifice of the ovis (lamb) to Puemonos and Vesuna near a sacred grove. Containing details on the choice of the ohtur (auctor, head, augur) of the ceremony, the dispositions of the ritual instruments, the ritual invocations for the safety of the city to Iove Patre and Puemonos, the distribution of the sacrificial meat and the libations.

Tablet II

Side a (b of Lepsius)

Sacrifice of an ox to Iove Patre, of a ram to Iovio? (Iuno according to Newman), of a lamb to Iovio? (Iuno) and of a boar to Marte.

The Hondia. Making of the arfertur. Preparations: readying of the victim(s), grains, strues, fertum; incense or meal, wine; salt, mola; mandraculum, vases; pure water; ignition of the fire at the ara. Petronian Feast to Hontos Iovios: sacrifice to Hontos Iovios of puppies, offers of wine, libation, partition of the meats and their exposition on a board. Holding and turning of the ara with the hands and offer of wine. Division of the wine, the strues and ferctum, the meats among the participants. Burning (or inhumation) of the puppies at the ara.

Side b (a of Lepsius)

Sacrifice and feast of the Attidian Brotherhood:

Sacrifice of a pig and a ram to Iove at the time of the decuriae of month Semonius by the ten sets of families of each of the 12 regions. Sacred Epulum in honour of Iove Patre, started in town and profanated at the various fana with libations using the mandraculum.

Vocian Feast to Iupater:

Sacrifice of a calf to Iove Patre for the Vocian gens of the Attidians. The sacrifice is conducted with the urfeta in one hand at the offering and the crencatro (augural implement comparable to the lituum but crossed) in the right hand at the time of the slaughtering.

Tablet I

Sida a

Six triplet sacrifices to the Grabovian triad and the minor triad:

After observing the birds on the before and the behind three oxen are sacrificed to Iove Grabovius before (without) the Trebulana Gate. Behind (within) it three sows are sacrificed to Trebus Iovio.

Before the Tesenaca Gate three oxen are sacrificed to Marte Grabovie. Behind it three pigs are sacrificed to Fisus Sancius. A libation ensues.

Before the Vehiia Gate three white fronted oxen are sacrificed to Vofine Grabovie. Behind the Gate three ewe lambs are sacrificed to Tefre Iovie. After the profanation of the lambs, the rump is offered in expiation and a libation for the tota, local community, ensues, on the two sides separately starting with the right side. After the profanation of the rumps is over the backs shall be profanated.

Side b

Two more triplet sacrifices to Marte Hodie and Hondos Çerfios in atonement for the citadel:

At the Jovian grove after the shearing of sheep three male calves shall be sacrificed to Marte Hodie for the Iguvine people and tota.

At the Coreties (Quiritius or Curiatius) grove three male calves shall be sacrificed to Hontos Çerfios.

Henceforth the citadel will be expiated. If any anything vicious happened in the discharge of the rite the birds shall be observed, the rite shall be reinstated once again after returning to the Trebulana Gate.

Review of the city militia and execration and expulsion of the traditional enemies by the arfertur and the two prinovatus (augures or their attendants): Tadinates, Tusci, Naherci, Iapuzcoi.

Four more triplet sacrifices:

Near the small fontains three red boars shall be sacrificed to Çerfos Martios.

On the Rubinian ager three she boars shall be sacrificed to Prestata Çerfia of Çerfos Martios. The sacred jugs, black and white, shall there be ordered and turned.

Beyond the Sahata (Sahata is probably the area considered within the pomerium, possibly marked by a stream) three she calves shall be sacrificed to Tursa Çerfia of Çerfios Martios.

The assignation of the place where to carry out the slaughter of the boars shall be decided according to the site upon which the officiant is watching, whether either behind on the Rubina or beyond on the Sahata.

Three days later the people shall be assembled and three heifers sacrificed below the Forum of Sehemania (Semonia) to Tursa Iovia at Acedonia. One of the heifers shall be consacrated by the arfertur and two by the prinovatus.

Tablet V

Side a

Duties of the arfertur:

The arfertur must provide whatever is essential for the ceremony and select the victims.

Fees to be levied for the performance of the rites.

Whenever the banquet of the brotherhood takes place the fratreks or the cvestor must put to votes whether the banquet was properly arranged. If the majority of those present think it was not a further vote must be taken to fix the penalty for the arfertur.

Side b

Contributions to be made by two gentes to the brethren and portions of flesh to be awarded them by the brethren on the decurial festival.

Tablet VI and VII

These two tablets repeat the content of tablet I while expanding it to include and expound the minutest details of the rituals.

VI Side a

Lustration of the arx

Introductory auspices: as in I the sacrifice is to be preceded by the taking of the auspices. Formulae passed between the augur and the arfertur (legum dictio); warning against noises, interruptions, meddling; boundaries of the augural templum; formulae of announcement of the auspices (conspectio, nuntiatio); prescriptions applying to the ensuing sacrifice concerning the military rod (pirsca arsmatia), the disposition of the pots and the fire.

1. Sacrifice of three oxen to Iove Grabovios before the Trebulan gate. An opening prayer is followed by three long prayers in identical words for each of the three offerings to the three Grabovian gods and these by a general prayer in conclusion. Then follow prayers especially devoted to the rites connected with the sacrifice.

2. Sacrifice of three pregnant sows to Trebos Iovios behind the Trebulan gate: the prayers used in the first sacrifice are to be repeated.

Side b

3. Sacrifice of three oxen to Marte Grabovios before the Tesenaca gate. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated .

4. Sacrifce of three suckling pigs to Fisus Sancius behind the Tesenaca gate. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated. Then an offering of cakes accompanied by specific prayers and ceremonies ensues (involving the use of the mandraculum, white linen cloth wrapping the right hand of the officiant): special attention is given to Fisus Sancius, patron of the citadel (ocre Fisia).

5. Sacrifice of three oxen with a white forehead (calersuf) to Vofionos Grabovios before the Vehia gate. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated.

6. Sacrifice of three she lambs to Tefer Iovios behind the Vehia gate. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated. Then supplementary offerings follow, thereafter prayers and accompanying rites with vases on both sides of a trench.

7. Sacrifice of three bull calves to Marte Horse at the Iovian grove. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated.

8. Sacrifice of other three bull calves to Hondos Çerfios at the Coredian grove. The prayers of the first sacrifice are to be repeated.

Rites for the lustration of the people (city militia) and the execration of the enemies:

The auspices are to be taken in the same way as for the lustration of the arx. Holding the perca arsmatia (military or ritual staff) and the cringatro the arsfertur lights the fire then with the two assistants (prinovatus), who hold rods of pomegranate wood, marches with the victims along the Augural Way to the district of Acedonia. Proclamation is made expelling the alien enemies. The Iguvines are ordered to form in companies. The arsfertur and the assistants march about them thrice with the victims and the fire. At the end a prayer is made invoking misfortune upon the aliens and blessings upon the Iguvinians.

VII Side a

Sacrifice of three boars to Çerfios Martios at the Fontuli, accompanied by the prayers used at the Trebulan gate.

Sacrifice of three sows to Praestita Çerfia at Rubinia, with the prayers used at the Trebulan gate. Ceremonies with the black vessels and the white vessels, the former meant to bring misfortune to the aliens, the latter to avert it from the Iguvinians. Offering to Fisovius Sancius with the prayersw used behind the Tesenaca gate.

Sacrifice of three female calves beyond the Sahata to Tursa Çerfia of the Çerfios of Marte. The prayers used at the Trebulan gate are to be repeated. The profanation of the offerings must take place where the nuntiatio happened: either in Rubinia or beyond the Sahata.

After three days the holder of the perca arsmatia and the two assistants pray silently for the execration of the enemies and the safety of Iguvium from the shrine of Tursa. Then heifers are set free below the Forum of Sehemenia: the first person who has caught any of the first three shall sacrifice them to Tursa Iovia at Aceronia for Iguvium. The prayers and rituals (offer of cereals, strues, fertum, persea) used at the Trebulan gate are to be repeated.

Side b

Obligations of the fratrexs and entity of the fine he must pay in case of omissions (300 asses).

The religion of the Umbrians as reflected in the Iguvine Tablets

The triad of the Grabovii

The triad of the Grabovii is the highest group of deities of the Iguvian pantheon and looks to be strictly allied to the archaic triad of Roman religion. The epithet Grabovius seems to be related to Etruscan crapis, ceremonial litter, which might derive from a word meaning oakwood.

The triad is composed by Iove or Iove Patre, Marte and Vofionos. The identity of the last has been understood as corresponding to Roman gods Quirinus or Liber, the former from an IE root *leudh- meaning people, the latter either directly from the Italic theonym Loifer or through the intermediary of the Italic or Etruscan interpretation of Greek god (Dionysos) Eleutheros, recorded also in the Etruscan theonym Tin Luth (=Iuppiter Liber) of the Piacenza Liver.

The gods of the triad of the Grabovii receive in sacrifice three oxen (buf). Those to be offered to Vofionos are qualified as calersu, probably correspondent in meaning to Latin callidus, with a white forehead.

The minor triad

The gods of this triad receive sacrifices in correspondence with those of the major one but these gods are honoured within the town gates. Trebos Iovios corresponds to Iove Grabovios, Fisus Sancius to Marte Grabovios and Tefer Iovios to Vofionos Grabovios. Only the identity of the second one is known with any degree of certainty from attestations of his existence in Rome and elsewhere in Italy. In Rome he is known as Semo Sancus Dius Fidius. It is odd that he is here associated with Mars while his association with Jupiter would seem more well grounded theologically . The topic has been the object of a study by Dominique Briquel: she opines the reason should lie in the repressive and henceforth military connotation of the notion of divine sanction of the law. This aspect is particularly relevant as to the divine sanction of the town wall, fact which is of primary concern in the content of the Tablets.

Trebos in Trebos Iovios is usually understood as corresponding in meaning to Latin trabes, ridge of the roof. Tefer of Tefer Iovios is often explained as burner, from the IE root *tep haet. This interpretation though is very debated.

Other deities

Hondos Iovios

Many scholars from Bücheler to Prosdocimi opine this deity is an underworld god of agricultural fertility and plenty on the grounds of the sacrifice of puppies he receives on the festival of the intermestruae cereales: the declaration of the dog is set at the climax of the feriae .

Çerfos Martios, Praesta(o)ta Çerfia, Tursa Çerfia, Tursa Iovia

These deities are invoked and receive sacrifices aimed at obtaining their favour for the protection of the arx itself, of the community and of the fields in connexion to the lustration rites of the Iguvian citadel at different locations of augural relevance.

The rites concerning the Praestota and the two Tursae involve a complex of libations aimed at obtaining a twofold action: the safety for the Iguvine community and the offsetting and expulsion of its traditional enemies.

The debated points are few as far as the Praestota and Tursa are concerned. The two theoyms correspond to the Latin Iuppiter Praestes, Iuppiter Praestitus, Iuppiter Praestabilis and the Lares Praestites. Tursa corresponds to god Terminus, being the deity that represents the boundaries of the city in different locations of augural relevance: these are without and within the city for Tursa Çerfia and Tursa Iovia respectively (TI I b; VII a). Such a meaning is connected to the Umbrian word for border, tuder: Tursa is written Tuda in the Etruscan tablets, the intervocalic d was pronounced as a weak rs. Dumézil on the other hand on the grounds of the function of Tursa, a deity whose action is to scare, inspire terror into the enemies, opines the theonym derives from a verbal root equivalent to Latin terreo I scare (interpreting accordingly tursitu, tremitu in VIb 60).

There is no agreement among scholars on the meaning of the epithet Çerfios and as to whether this is also a theonym, i. e. Çerfos Martios is a god different from Mars or not. An inscription from Corfinium reads: Çerfom sacaracicer Semunes sua[d, "priest of the Çerfi and the Semones", placing side by side the two categories of entities, the çerfi and the semunes. It is most times associated to IE root *ker(s) and Latin theonyms Ceres and Cerus. This view though creates interpretative problems concerning the theology of Mars and of the two deities who in Rome are associated with the sphere of law and defence, i. e. gods Jupiter and Semo Sancus Dius Fidius. Georg Wissowa and Dumézil both underline that the derivation from root *ker(s) is not certain: Umbrian group -rf could have a different origin than -rs.

Marte Hodie; Hondos Çerfios

Marte and Hondos appear also under these epithets. Here too the only certain indication is from Roman Heres (or Here) Martea, connected with heres, he who inherits and also dominus, the position of master of the house. The two gods both receive sacrifices of male calves in the rites for the lustration of the citadel at the Iovian and Coredian groves respectively; theirs are the last in the series of sacrifices after the two triads and before the execration of the enemies.

God Hondos receives the epithet Iovios in II and of Çerfios in VI. This fact raises the question of whether these epithets were used alternatively in connexion with local or temporal constraints. Another similar instance is that of Tursa Çerfia and Tursa Iovia, who are found without and within the pomerium respectively.

Puemonos Pupricos and Vesuna of Puemonos Pupricos

This divine couple appears only in tablets III and IV, the most ancient ones. Puemonos's name seems to be related with Roman goddess Pomona; moreover both the name itself and the epithet Pupricos (Publicus) hint towards a universal fertility god, similar to Latin god Liber. Vesuna is also found on a coin from Marsian territory.

Other theonyms

Some other deities are known just because they are mentioned occasionally in specifying the limits of augural observation (included those of the town). These theonyms are for the most part known in Roman religion. They are Tursa and (possibly) Hulos in IV 17 and 19 respectively, Vestisios (Libasius) apparently god of libations, Hoios (cf. Latin Holus, Helus, Roman grove of Helernus in Ovid Fasti II 67-68) god of vegetation and Padella (cf. Roman goddess Patella), goddess of opening sheaves in VIa 14. Possibly adjective deueia of Asa Deueia (VIa 9, 10) implies a cult of the sky under the name Dius, Dia (Ancellotti & Cerri).

Priesthoods

The Attidian brethren had an arfertur (magister) as their head. Other mentioned offices include the fratrecs interpreted as curator arcae, the cvestor and the prinovatus, probably agrimensors, attendants of the person who takes the auspices. An ohtor is mentioned in T. III and IV: the term denotes the person responsible for the rite.

Rites

The tablets record different sets of rites held on different festive occasions: the main and most detailedly recorded one is the annual lutration of the citadel (arx) of Iguvium (Tablets I, VI and VII). This rite includes sacrifices to the Grabovian (major) triad and the minor one near the gates of the town, sacrifices to Marte Hodie and Hondos Çerfios at the two sacred groves of Iove and Coredios (interpreted as Quiritius or Curiatius), the lustral review of the people of Iguvium in arms, i. e. the city militia, the execration and ritual expulsion of the traditional enemies of Iguvium and final sacrifices to Çerfios Marti(os), the Praestita Çerfia and the two Tursae, Çerfia and Iovia, at various locations without and within the pomerium. Tablets VI and VII relate the ritual actions such as circumabulations, libations, kneelings and dance in minute detail recording all the prayers and the other augural formulae. The older tablet I gives a more concise record.

The ritual triple (three time) circumambulation with fire and the victims about the city militia looks parallel to the Roman ritual performed by king Tullius in the description by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.

The most complex ceremonies are those concerning Tefer Iovios and Fisus Sancius. A summary is appended below.

Tefer Iovios:

Sacrifice of the ewe lambs with the usual prayers used for each god of the two triads.

Offering of the persondro sorsom (suine) at the right foot of the gate with accompanying libation.

Offering of the libations.

Prayer to Tefer Iovios.

Offering of the persondro staflare (bovine or ovine) at the left foot of the gate.

Tripodium.

Prayer repeated.

Assigning of the prosecta (cuts of sacrificial meat).

Assigning of the libation accompanying the persondro sorsale at the right foot where the sorso was offered to the god (profanated).

Assigning of the libation accompanying the persondro staflare at the left foot as above.

Burning or inhumation of the persondro sorsale.

Burning or inhumation of the persondro staflare.

Throwing away of the vessels used for the persondro during the prayer on the incense (or cereal meal) .

Fisus Sancius (here appealed to also as Fisovius = Fiducius):

Sacrifice of three suckling piglets with the usual prayers, consacration with incense (or meal) and grains as at the Trebulan gate.

Wearing of the mandraculum (white cloth) around the right hand by the officiant.

Adding of the ficla and strucla to the prosecta.

Placing of the sopo (offa) at the back.

The officiant while kneeling offers the libation, the mefa and the spefa spilling them from the vessels.

Prayer for the arx and the community.

During the prayer libation and tripodium.

Offering of the libation.

Distribution of the prosecta and of the libation while kneeling.

Crushing and spilling over the fire of the mefa, libation, sopa (possibly lower entrails).

Milling while sitting, prayer over the milled incense or meal.

The two profane and the two sacred jugs are disposed in rows.

Tablet II records various sacrifices to Iove, Iovio (or Iovia? Newman: Iuno) and Marte to be held in atonement of possible unknown ritual faults; the Hondia festivals on which occasion dogs were offered in sacrifice to Hondos Iovios; the feast to Hondos Iovios held by the gens Petronia (these last two festivals might in fact be one); the sacrifice and feast of the sodalitas of the Fratres Atiedii on which rams and pigs were sacrificed to Iove by the ten sets of families of the twelfth districts of Iguvium; finally the sacrifce of a calf at the feast of Iove Patre held by the gens Vocia. The tablet might be fragmentary, i. e. record only the final part of a ritual at its beginning.

Here is the summary of the ceremonies of the festival of Hondos:

the sum of money for the kid(s) is to be raised among the dining tables at the published price

the arfertur is to be made after observing the birds

the kid(s), grains, strues, fertum; incense, wine, salt, mola; mandraculum vases (consacrated and not), water are to be prepared

the fire is lit on the ara

the incense is consacrated

offer of the kid(s) to Hondos Iovios, declaration of its purity

the sopas of the kid are taken and the prosiciae (cutlets) divided upon the breadcrusts

empty baskets are placed behind and the cereals before at the foot (of the ara)

offer of the incense

libation and tripodium

tripodium near the vessels of wine chanting in turn nine times: "I honour Thee with incense and wine"

bringing of the crusts with the entrails

libation

two cuts of the kid(s) are divided into three pieces or three times

addition of strues and fertum

offering of the dog

prayer over the uncut flesh

addition of strues and fertum to the meatcuts

offering of the kid(s); prayer in front of it

prayer on the meat, both uncut and roasted

offer of the suppa on the plates

prayer on the dedicatory jugs

libation, tripodium, moving and placing down of the offerings

suppas are placed behind, the flesh is taken by hand

the incense is placed in two jars on the bracket

breadcrusts, fried placentas, pots containing water and empty are brought

libation to Hondos Iovios from the jugs for the gens Petronia of the Attidian Brethren

beyond the bracket prayer on the pure breadcrusts

same wise prayer on the placentae, the pure jugs filled with water and the empty ones on the bracket

libation and tripodium

the bracket is moved aside; prayer on the pure water

hands are washed from the ara (or the ara is turned into the hands)

back to the ara, near it silent prayer on the pure wine

bringing and distribution of whatever the participants wish: wine, incense

grinding of the strues, fertum; spilling of the incense or meal on the jar

prayer on the whole and the ground grains

the rite is proclaimed over

the sacred rite is profanated

the kid(s) is burnt near the ara.

Sacrifices of dogs were not common among ancient Italic people. A parallel is found in the Augurium Canarium and in the Robigalia in Rome, both held in late Spring for the propitiation of a good harvest and for the preservation of the grains from mildew respectively. According to the explanation given in Ovid by the flamen Quirinalis the dog was sacrificed because at the time in which the grains in the ears are in danger for the heat and draught the sun enters the constellation of the Dog. Another ritual aimed at protecting corn in danger from fires concerned foxes which were set afire in the Circus Maximus on the last day of the Cerialia (Cerealia).

Tablet III and IV record in minute detail the rituals of the festival of Puemonos Popricos and Vesuna at a sacred grove outside the town. Recently Michael Weiss has advanced the view that this was a new year ritual on the grounds of comparative material.

Treatment of the offerings

Latin sources concerning the cooking of the viscera underline the difference between the Etruscan and Roman costume distinguishing the exta aulicocta boiled in the olla extaris before the offering to the god, from the Tuscan exta roasted in veru and partly eaten during the sacrificial rite. At Iguvium the description of some sacrificial rites documents both the use of spits for the viscera and the presence of prosiciae displayed on the table of the offerings beside the fire and perhaps consacreted and burnt to the gods.

Augury

Augural practices are presented in the tablets, most notably in the last two ones. They include the praeire verba, uttering of the words to be repeated to the arfertur, the legum dictio, the rules for the taking of the auspices such as silence (silentium) and the avoidance of other incidents, the definition of the boundaries of the augural templum, the nuntiatio, announcement of the appearance of the expected signs from birds, the circumambulation of the army with fire.

Rules for the observation of bird signs are given in VI 15-18: below a certain boundary line (hondra esto tudero VIa 15) defined previously above the augur must see and hear the verse of a parfa (parrha) and a crow; above that line (supu) he must see and hear a woodpecker and a magpie peica.

Augural terminology

Aveis asseriates Ia 1; aves asseriates VIa 1: avibus observatis, having observed the birds.

persnaies, pusnaies Ia 1: antici, postici, (in the part) before and behind.

dersua VIa 1: dextera, right hand, prosperous. The right hand was apparently seen as auspicious in Umbria as in Greece. Newman (Appendix II) cites the position of the augur in the inauguration of Numa, in which he faced east while Numa faced south. Right and left have both an auspicious and inauspicious meaning in Latin.

merstu VIa 1: iustissimus, rightest, most correct, propitious, superlative of mersos. Adjective mersos, from meḍos, means iustus (cf. Oscan meddix: supreme magistrate, iudex). Both words in Latin and Osco-Umbrian have a broader meaning than just, lawful: they may mean augurally correct, favourable, in agreement with the divine forces.

anglaf VIa 1: oscines, giving signs through their voice.

stiplo, anstiplatu VIa 2, 3: stipulare, leges dicere, stipulate.

mersta auei, mersta angla, esona VIa 3: most propitious birds (auspices), most propitious singing, divine.

stahmei stahmeitei VIa 5: statio statuta, templum designatum, augural teplum, the designed space of augural observation.

neip mugatu VIa 6: ne mugito, muttito, that nobody shall make utterances, murmur.

nep arsir andersistu VIa 6: ne divis intersistito, that nobody shall come in between, barge in, between the divine (signs) and the augur.

disleralinsust VIa 7: alteravit (eṛali, erali=alter) render irritual, impair the auspice; atero VII a 11, 27: bad, unlucky.

verfale VIa 8: formula of the templum.

stahmito VIa 8: statutum, designed.

tuderato VIa 8: finitum, defined, provided with boundaries.

vapersus auiehcleir VIa 9: lapididibus auguralibus (ablative), (near) at the augural stones, rocks.

tuder VIa 9: boundary, limit.

anclar VIa 16: oscines.

combifiatu VIa 17: conspectum capito, nuntiato, (the augur) shall announce the appearance of the auspices.

popler anferener VIa 19: populi recensendi, lustrandi, review of the levied army. Buck cites the parallel instance of the ritual performed by king Tullus Hostilius in Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities IV 22.

perca arsmatia VIa 19: virga ritualis, ritual rod.

perne postne sepse sarsite uouse auie esone VIb 11: antice postice septe sarcte voce (et) ave (i. e. auspicio) divina, from before and behind, clear and cut (fully, wholly) voice and bird divine.

peiqu: picus woodpecker; peica perhaps magpie; parfa: parrha, perhaps oxifraga or upupa; curnace: cornix, crow (VIa 1 etc.).

prinovatus: legatus, assistant to the arsfertur, possibly agrimensor, land-surveyor: probably from Greek πρινος, Celtic prinni oakwood.

percaf poniçate Ib 15; perca poniçiater VIb 51: virgas Punicae-mali rods, wands of pomegranate wood.

Text sample

Here is a sample of their language and content, from Tablet VI a 26 ff.:

Dei Grabouie

orer ose persei ocre fisie pir

orto est

toteme Iouine arsmor dersecor

subator sent

pusei neip heritu.

Dei Grabouie

persei tuer perscler uaseto est

pesetomest peretomest

frosetomest daetomest

tuer perscler uirseto auirseto

uas est. . .

"Jupiter Grabovius, if on the Fisian mount fire has arisen, or if in the nation of Iguvium the owed preparations have been omitted, let it be as if they had been made."

"Jupiter Grabovius, if in your sacrifice there has been any flaw, any defect, any ritual violation, any fraud, any error, if in your sacrifice there is a flaw, either seen or unseen. . . "

Here is the entire text of Tablet VI a 22 ff.:

teio subocau suboco

dei graboui

ocriper fisiu totaper iiouina

erer nomneper erar nomneper

fos sei pacer sei

ocre fisei tote iiouine

erer nomne erar nomne

arsie tio subocau suboco

dei grabouie

arsier frite tio subocau suboco

dei grabouie

di grabouie

tio esu bue peracrei pihaclu

ocreper fisiu totaper iiouina

irer nomneper erar nomneper

dei grabouie

orer ose persei ocre fisie pir orto est

toteme iouine arsmor dersecor subator sent

pusei neip heritu

dei crabouie

persei tuer perscler uaseto est

pesetomest peretomest

frosetomest daetomest

tuer perscler uirseto auirseto uas est

di grabouie

persei mersei esu bue peracrei

pihaclu pihafei

di grabouie

pihatu ocre fisiu pihatu tota iouina

di grabouie

pihatu ocrer fisier totar iouinar nome

nerf arsmo

veiro pequo

castruo frif

pihatu

futu fos pacer pase tua

ocre fisi tote iiouine

erer nomne erar nomne

di grabouie

saluo seritu ocre fisi

salua seritu tota iiouina

di grabouie

saluo seritu ocrer fisier totar

iiouinar nome

nerf arsmo

veiro pequo

castruo fri

salua seritu

futu fos pacer pase tua

ocre fisi tote iouine

erer nomne erar nomne

di grabouie

tio esu bue peracri pihaclu

ocreper fisiu totaper iouina

erer nomneper erar nomneper

di grabouie

tio subocau

The Tablets are housed in the Museo Civico in Gubbio, which is in the old judicial building and date from the 2nd century BC. They are written in an alphabet of Etruscan derivation.

Discovery

A farmer found the tablets in a field sometime in the medieval period (1441) and sold them to the city for 2 years' worth of farming rights.The tablets speak of the town's organization, its boundaries and the religions and ceremonies that were celebrated there.

Bibliography

Carl Darling Buck A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian Boston 1928 2nd ed.

James W. Poultney The Bronze Tablets of Iguvium Baltimore 1959.

Francis William Newman The Iguvine Tablets London 1863.

Irene Rosenzweig Ritual and Cults in pre-Roman Iguvium London 1937.

Robert von Planta Grammatik der Oskisch-Umbrisch Dialekte II voll. Strassburg 1892-1897.

F. Panzerbieter Questiones Umbricae Meiningen 1851.

Alfred Ernout Le dialecte ombrien Paris 1961.

Iacobus (=Giacomo) Devoto Tabulae Iguvinae Rome 1954 3rd ed.

Aldo Luigi Prosdocimi Le tavole iguvine Firenze 1984 (vol. 1).

Franciscus Bücheler Umbrica Bonn 1853.

Gino Bottiglioni Manuale dei dialetti italici Bologna 1954.

Albrecht von Blumenthal Die iguvinische Tafeln Stuttgart 1931.

S. Th. Aufrecht and A. K. Kirchhof Die umbrische Sprachdenkmäler Berlin II voll. 1849 and 1852.

Hermann Osthoff "Umbrica" in Studien zur Griechische und Lateinische Grammatik 9 1876 p. 273-284.

Michel Bréal Les tables eugubines Paris 1875.

Robert S. Conway The Italic Dialects Cambridge 1897.

Roland G. Kent "Studies in the Iguvine Tables" in Classical Philology 15 1920 p. 353-369.

Ambrose J. Pfiffig Religio Iguvina 1964 Wien.

Romolo Ancellotti and Paolo Cerri Le tavole iguvine e la civiltá dell' Umbria Perugia 1996.

External links

• Text of Iguvine Tables with interlinear Latin translation and notes, by Francis W. Newman.
• Grammar of Oscan & Umbrian with inscriptions and glossary, by C.D. Buck.