Latin tenses (semantics)

For the formation of the verb paradigms, see Latin conjugation.

For the formation of the verb group paradigms, see Latin periphrases.

For Latin tenses from a formal perspective, see Latin tenses.

Latin is a language with three primary tenses: there is the future agam ('I will do'), the present agō ('I am doing'), and the past ēgī ('I did'). In addition, there are three sets of secondary tenses: namely 1) the secondary future āctūrus erō ('I will be about to do'), āctūrus sum ('I am about to do'), and āctūrus eram ('I was about to do'), 2) the secondary present agere coeperō ('I will be doing'), agere coepī ('I am doing'), and agere coeperam/agēbam ('I was doing'), 3) the secondary past ēgerō ('I will have done'), ēgī ('I have done'), and ēgeram ('I had done'). Read more about possible tenses in the article on grammatical tense.

This article covers only free indications of occurrences, that is, only free indicative clauses for what took place, is taking place, or will take place. For bound indications of occurrences, visit Latin tenses in relative clauses and Latin tenses in dependent clauses. For indications of frequency, possibility, volition and obligation, visit the article on Latin tenses with modality. For commands, see Latin tenses in commands.

Terminology

Stem aspect names

In dictionaries, verb entries usually have a structure similar to cēnāre <cēnō, cēnāvī, cēnātum> or legere <legō, lēgī, lēctum>. Inside the angle brackets, we find one example stem form for each stem aspect of the verb entry: <īnfectum, perfectum, supīnum>. In practice, īnfectum stems can have one of multiple forms as in cēn-ō, cēnā-s, cēna-t, cēnā-re and leg-ō, legi-s, legi-t, lege-re. However, all these forms share a common aspect, which starkly differs from the perfectum and supīnum aspects of other stems in the same verb entry and they vary systematically according to the selected ending (see Latin conjugation for details). For easy dictionary consultation, the tables below have a stem aspect column, indicating which stem aspect is selected for the main verb in the example.

Meaning names

In different books, there are alternative terms for past in future and past in past meanings. Tranditional grammar books refer to the primary meaning of the 'future perfect' and 'pluperfect' wihtout ascribing a proper name to these meanings. Generative grammar books reserve the term "past" for tense inflection and "perfect" for tense periphrasis and do not attribute a proper name to meanings either. In functional grammar books, grammarians often reserve the term "past" for the primary past and "perfect" for the secondary past, no matter if they are realised by a tense inflection or by a tense periphrasis. Finally, in systemic functional grammar books, grammarians often reserve the term "past" for an option in a tripartite system (past, present, future) and "perfect" for an option in a bipartite one (perfect vs imperfect [present or future]), depending on which options are available for a verb group in each language. The last ones differentiate between primary tense and secondary tense, both of which can have either past or perfect options, and they also differentiate tense inflection and tense periphrasis, providing different terms for all three linguistic phenomena. Therefore, the meaning names adopted in this section are the ones from systemic functional descriptions of grammar.

Primary tenses

Events and states can be represented in one of three primary tenses in Latin: future, present and past. Each primary tense is described in turn below.

Future

Most future processes are represented by a 'future indicative' verb, occasionally by a 'present indicative' verb in conditional clauses. Mental processes of remembering (meminī), hating (ōdī) and knowing (nōvī) are special. Future mental processes of this kind are represented by 'future perfect indicative' verbs as illustrated in the table below:

Ways of representing future processes

Complexity	Stem Aspect	Paradigm	Latin Example	English translation	Comment
simple	īnfectum	'future indicative'	īnsequentī librō explicā-bō (Vitruvius)	'I will explain this in the next book'	will/shall do in English
			nārrābō cum aliquid habēbō novī (Cicero)	'I will tell you when I have some news.'	do in English
			crūdam sī edēs, in acētum intinguitō (Cato)	'if you eat it (cabbage) raw, dip it in vinegar'
			per eum quod volēmus facile auferēmus (Cicero)	'through him we shall easily get what we want'
		'present indicative'	sī vincimus, omnia nōbīs tūta erunt (Sallust)	'if we win, everything will be safe for us'
	perfectum	'future perfect indicative'	meminerō, dē istōc quiētus estō (Plautus)	'I shall remember, don't worry about that'	will/shall do in English
			ōdī hominem et ōderō (Cicero)	'I hate the man, and I always will'

Present

Most present processes are represented by a 'present indicative' verb. In particular, static processes that have been ongoing for a long time are represented by a 'present indicative' verb: 1. often modified to a temporal adjunct such as iam diū 'for a while'; 2. expanded by a temporal dependent clause with the conjunction postquam 'ever since'.; 3. as a temporal dependent clause itself with the conjunction postquam 'since'; and 4. the temporal extensions such as multī annī sunt cum 'it's for many years that'. Finally, mental processes of remembering (meminī), hating (ōdī) and knowing (nōvī) are represented by 'perfect indicative' verbs as illustrated in the table below.

The 'present indicative' in perefct passive/deponent periphrasis does not always represent a past event. It may also represent a present state. Similarly, The 'present indicative' in habeō perefct periphrasis may either represent a present ownership of placed objects or a present possession of placed parts. In case a motion takes place, according to Gildersleeve and Lodge, the habeō perfect periphrasis ('have') 'is not a mere circumlocution for the Perfect, but lays particular stress on the maintenance of the result' at present. In contrast, the 'present indicative' in teneō perfect periphrasis ('hold' or 'keep') represents the process of actively keeping a state in the present.

Ways of representing present processes

Complexity	Stem Aspect	Paradigm	Latin Example	English translation	Comment
simple	īnfectum	'present indicative'	cīvis Rōmānus iam diū est (Cicero)	'he has been a Roman citizen for a while'	have done in English
			postquam meus est, nullā mē paelice laesit (Martial)	'ever since he has been mine, he has never harmed me with a mistress'
			[multī annī sunt cum] in aere meō est (Cicero)	'he has owed me money for many years'
			tremō horreōque postquam aspexī hanc (Terence)	'I've been trembling and shivering ever since I caught sight of her'	have been doing in English
			plānē relēgātus mihī videor posteā quam in Formiānō sum (Cicero)	'I've been feeling completely out of touch ever since I've been in Formiae'
			is Lilybaeī multōs iam annōs habitat (Cicero)	'he has been living in Lilybaeum for many years now'
			senātus haec intellegit; cōnsul videt; hic tamen vīvit (Cicero)	'the Senate understands this; the Consul sees it; yet this man is alive'	do in English
	perfectum	'perfect indicative'	meminī mē adesse (Cicero)	'I remember being present'
			sī tū oblītus es, at dī meminērunt (Catullus)	'you may have forgotten, but the gods remember'
			ōdī et amō (Catullus)	'I hate and I love'
			tē nōn nōvimus, nescīmus quī sīs, numquam tē anteā vīdimus (Cicero)	'we don't know you, we don't know who you are, we have never seen you before'
compound	supīnum	'present indicative of periphrastic perfect'	passer mortuus est meae puellae (Catullus)	'my girlfriend's pet sparrow is dead	is done in English
			quoniam nōndum est perscrīptum senātūs cōnsultum, ex memoriā vōbīs ... expōnam (Cicero)	'since the decree of the Senate is not yet published in writing, I will explain it to you from memory'
			Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partīs trīs (Caesar)	'Gaul, taken as a whole, is (i.e., can be described as) divided into three parts'	is placed in English
		'present indicative of periphrastic "habeō" perfect'	Horolōgium in triclīniō et bucinātōrem habet subōrnātum, ut subinde sciat quantum dē vītā perdiderit!	'He has a clock and a horn set up in the triclinium to remember from time to time how much of his life he spent thus far'	has... placed in English
		'present indicative of periphrastic "teneō" perfect'	populī Rōmānī exercitus Cn. Pompeium circumsedet, fossā et vallō saeptum tenet, fugā prohibet (Cicero)	'an army of the Roman people is besieging Gnaeus Pompey, is keeping him fenced in with a ditch and wall, and preventing him from fleeing'	keep... placed in English

Past

In biographies, past events are usually repesented by 'perfect indicative' verbs. However, in narrative prose and poetry, past events are most often represented by 'present indicative' verbs as if these events were taking place in front of the narrator. However, in recounts of battles long past at the time of narration, the 'imperfect indicative' is used to describe an event as though being watched by a traumatised observer, already deceased. Latin speaker Aulus Gellius says that the use of the 'imperfect indicative' caedēbātur rather than the 'perfect indicative' caesus est creates a 'drawn-out vivid description' (diūtīna repraesentātiō).

For past events, the 'present indicative' paradigm is interchangeable with not only the 'perfect indicative', but also the 'imperfect indicative'. In Caesar's books, when a verb for a past event is placed initially in the sentence, as in the example below (videt imminēre hostēs), it is very frequently 'present indicative'. Moreover, 'present indicative' verbs of saying often represent a past event when the one saying something is not the speaker/writer: e.g. fidem dant 'they gave a pledge' or ōrant 'they begged'. More than half the 'present indicative' verbs for past events in Caesar's books are of this kind.

In some cases, the paradigm 'present indicative of periphrasitic habeō perfect' is often interchangeable with the 'perfect indicative' paradigm since both can realise a past tense. In later Latin the compound past with habeō became more common.

The 'pluperfect indicative' verbs for ōdī, nōvī and meminī represents past mental states.

The perfect passive/deponent periphrasis with a 'present indicative' auxiliary most often represents a past event.

Ways of representing past processes

Complexity	Stem Aspect	Paradigm	Latin Example	English translation	Comment
simple	īnfectum	'present indicative'	tōtīs trepidātur castrīs (Caesar)	'in the whole camp people were panicking'	did or were doing in English
			videt imminēre hostēs ... capit arma ā proximīs ... (Caesar)	'he saw the enemy coming ... he seized weapons from those nearby ...'
		'imperfect indicative'	caedēbātur virgīs in mediō forō Messānae cīvis Rōmānus, iūdicēs (Cicero)	'a Roman citizen was being flogged with rods in the middle of the forum of Messana, judges'	was doing in English
			eõdem tempore equitēs ... cum sē in castra reciperent, adversīs hostibus occurrēbant ac rūrsus aliam in partem fugam petēbant (Caesar)	'at the same time the cavalrymen ... as they were returning to the camp, were running into the enemy who were coming towards them and once again were fleeing in another direction'
	perfectum	'perfect indicative'	vēnī, vīdī, vīcī (Caesar)	'I came, I saw, I conquered'	did in English
			ibī M. Marcellum convēni eumque diem ibī cōnsūmpsī (Servius to Cicero)	'there I met Marcus Marcellus, and I spent that day there'
			ūniversī ex nāvī dēsiluērunt (Caesar)	'all at the same time, they leapt down out of the ship'
			sum; sed ubī tū mē nōvistī gentium aut vīdistī aut conlocūtu's? (Plautus)	'It's me; but where on earth did you meet me or see me or ever converse with me?'
			ecum et mūlum Brundisī tibī relīquī (Cicero)	'I have left a horse and a mule for you at Brundisium'	have done in English
			nunc quidem iam abiit pestilentia (Cicero)	'the epidemic has now gone away'
			hīs dē rēbus scrīpsī ad senātum (Cicero)	'I've written about these matters to the Senate'
			pēnsum meum, quod datumst, cōnfēcī; nunc domum properō (Plautus)	'I have completed the task which I was given; now I'm hurrying home'
			ita rēs sē habent ... perdidī spem (Plautus)	'this is the way things are ... I have lost hope'
			nōndum satis cōnstituī (Cicero)	'I haven't yet quite made my mind up'
			Kal. Ian. [Kalendīs Iānuāriīs] dēbuit, adhūc nōn solvit (Cicero)	'he was due to pay the money on the 1st January, but he still hasn't paid it'
		'pluperfect indicative'	meminerant ad Alesiam magnam sē inopiam perpessōs (Caesar)	'they remembered how they had put up with a great shortage at Alesia'	did in English
			ōderam multō peius hunc quam illum ipsum Clōdium (Cicero)	'I hated this man even more than I hated Clodius himself'
			nōn nōverat Catilīnam; Āfricam tum praetor ille obtinēbat (Cicero)	'he did not know Catiline, since the latter was at that time governor of Africa'
compound	supīnum	'present indicative of periphrastic perfect'	annō ante mē cēnsōrem mortuus est (Cicero)	'he died in the year before I became censor'	did in English
			ubī occīsus est Sex. Rōscius? – Rōmae (Cicero)	'where was Sextus Roscius murdered? – in Rome'	was done in English
		'present indicative of periphrastic "habeō" perfect'	ratiōnes Erōtis, etsī ipsum nondum vīdī, tamen ex litterīs eius prope modum cognitās habeō (Cicero)	'As for Eros's accounts, although I haven't seen him in person, I have more or less learnt what they say from his letter'	have done in English
			Clōdī animum perspectum habeō, cognitum, iūdicātum (Cicero)	'I have now thoroughly examined, learnt, and judged Clodius's mind'
			ecce episcopum ... invītātum habēs et vix nōbīs supersunt quattuor vīnī amphorae (Gregory of Tours, 6th century)	'you have invited the Bishop, and we have scarcely four jars of wine left!'
		'imperfect indicative of periphrastic "habeō" perfect'	duae tabulae in utrōque poste [pendēbant] dēfīxae, quārum altera, sī bene meminī, hoc habēbat īnscriptum: (Petronius)	'two signs hanged fixed on each door post, one of which, if I recall well, had the following written on:'	had... placed in English

Secondary tenses

Events and states can also be represented in one of three secondary tenses in Latin: secondary future, secondary present, secondary past. Each secondary tense is described in turn below.

Secondary future

Despite its name, the future periphrastic tense factūrus sum is really a present tense, describing a person's present intentions. For this reason, it can have a future form factūrus erō, used for example in future conditional or future temporal clauses. The present version of the compound future describes a person's intention at the present time. It can be translated with 'going to', 'planning to', 'intending to', or by using the future continuous 'I'll be doing'. A past version of the periphrastic future can be made with the imperfect tense of sum, describing what someone's intentions were at a moment in the past. Although less common than the periphrastic future with eram, the perfect tense version of the periphrastic future is also found.

Ways of representing processes that are future at given time

Meaning	Complexity	Stem Aspect	Paradigm	Latin Example	English translation	Comment
future in future	compound	supīnum	'future indicative of periphrastic future'	tu tamen sī quid cum Sīliō, vel illō ipsō diē quō ad Siccam ventūrus erō, certiōrem mē velim faciās (Cicero)	'but if you come to any arrangement with Silius, even if it is on the very day I'll be arriving at Sicca's house, please let me know'	will be doing in English
				clāmābat tumidīs audāx Lēandros in undīs: / "mergite mē, fluctūs, cum reditūrus erō" (Martial)	'daring Leander was shouting in the swelling waves: "drown me, waves, when I'll be coming back"'
future in present	compound	supīnum	'present indicative of periphrastic future'	Paulla Valeria ... nūptūra est D. Brūtō (Cicero)	'Paulla Valeria is going to marry Decimus Brutus'	is going to do in English
				nisī explicātā solūtiōne nōn sum discessūrus (Cicero)	'I'm not going to leave until the money is paid'
future in past	compound	supīnum	'imperfect indicative of periphrastic future'	posterō diē ille in Italiam versus nāvigātūrus erat (Servius to Cicero)	'on the next day he was going to sail to Italy'	was going to do in English
				ut vērō vultūs et cornua vīdit in undā, 'mē miserum!' dictūrus erat: vōx nūlla secūta est (Ovid)	'when she saw her face and horns in the water, "o poor me!" she was going to say, but no words came out'
			'perfect indicative of periphrastic future'	quō diē repulsus est, lūsit, quā nocte peritūrus fuit, lēgit (Seneca)	'on the day Cato was defeated in the election, he played; on the night he was going to die, he read'

Secondary present

Secondary present verbs are often accompanied by spatial and temporal adjuncts such as ibī 'there', tum 'then', and eō tempore 'at that moment'. Present events in the future can realised by 'future indicative' verbs, present events in the present by 'present indicative' verbs, and present events in the past by 'imperfect indicative' verbs.

Alternatively, the 'coepī' present periphrasis can realise secondary past. For this periphrasis, like for verbs for mental processes, 'future perfect indicative' auxiliaries realise primary future, 'perfect indicative' for primary present, and 'pluperfect indicative' for primary past.

Ways of representing processes that are present at given time

Meaning	Complexity	Stem Aspect	Paradigm	Latin Example	English translation	Comment
present in future	simple	īnfectum	'future indicative'	ibī cotīdiē tuās litterās exspectābō (Cicero)	'There, I shall be waiting for your letters every day'	will/shall be doing in English
	compound	īnfectum	'future perfect indicative of periphrasitc "coepī" present'	ego quoque sīnum meum sāxīs ōnerābō ut, quotiēscunque coeperis ā tē exīre, sanguinem tibī ā capite mittam.	'I will also fill my pockets with stones so that, whenever you are coming out by yourself, I can take blood out of your head.'	are doing in English
present in past	simple	īnfectum	'imperfect indicative'	virgā, quam in manū gerēbat, circumscrīpsit rēgem (Livy)	'with a stick, which he was carrying in his hand, he drew a circle round the king'	was doing in English
				eō cum veniō, praetor quiēscēbat (Cicero)	'when I got there, the governor was taking a nap'
				ut vērō domum vēnī, iacēbat mīles meus in lectō (Petronius)	'when I got home, my soldier was lying in bed'
				(Verrēs) in forum vēnit; ārdēbant oculī (Cicero)	'(Verres) came into the forum; his eyes were burning (with anger)'
				ex equō tum forte Mettius pugnābat (Livy)	'at that time (the time of his death) Mettius was fighting on horseback'
				hiēms iam eō tempore erat (Livy)	'by this time it was already winter'
	compound	īnfectum	'pluperfect indicative of periphrasitc "coepī" present'	Sed, quod coeperam dīcere, postquam lupus factus est, ululāre coepit et in silvās fugit.	'But, as I was saying, once he turned into a wolf, he began to howl and ran into the woods.'

Secondary past

The 'pluperfect' paradigm can be used as in English to describe an event that had happened earlier than the time of the narrative.

Just as the Latin perfect tense can have two meanings "did" and "have done", so the Latin pluperfect tense can have the same two meanings transferred to a past context. So it can represent a simple action (e.g "they had sent it the previous year") or a state which prevailed at the time mentioned ("they had departed" = "they were absent"). An observer present at the time would have said "they sent it last year" (using the past simple tense in English) and "they have departed" (using the perfect tense in English). In both English and Latin these two meanings are conflated in the pluperfect tense. Alternatively, the 'future indicative' of the habeō perfect periphrasis can also represent a 'past in future' event.

A 'pluperfect indicative' auxiliary in a 'passive periphrasis' can represent a 'past in past' state that had changed by the time of a past event. In turn, the past event is often represented by a 'perfect indicative' verb.

A 'past in past' meaning can similarly be realised with the 'perfect and imperfect indicative' of the habeō aspect periphrasis

Ways of representing processes that are past at a given time

Meaning	Complexity	Stem Aspect	Paradigm	Latin Example	English translation	Comment
past in future	simple	supīnum	'future indicative of periphrastic "habeō" perfect'	sed iam dē epistulīs satis dictum habēbō, sī hoc ūnum addiderō (Apuleius)	'but I will have said enough about the letters if I add this one thing'	will have done in English
		perfectum	'future perfect indicative'	'dēsilite', inquit, 'mīlitēs, nisī vultis aquilam hostibus prōdere; egō certē meum reī pūblicae atque imperātōrī officium praestiterō (Caesar)	'Jump down, soldiers,' he said, 'unless you want to betray the eagle to the enemy. I for my part will certainly have done my own duty for the republic and the commander!'
				dein, cum mīlia multa fēcerīmus, conturbābimus illa (Catullus)	'then when we have exchanged many thousands (of kisses), we will muddle up the accounts'	have done in English
				moriēre, sī ēmīserīs vōcem! (Livy)	'you will die, if you utter a sound!'	do in English
				sī quid acciderit, tē certiōrem faciam statim (Cicero)	'if anything happens, I'll let you know at once'
				ut sēmentum fēcerīs, ita metēs (Cicero)	'as you sow, so you will reap'
past in past	simple	perfectum	'pluperfect indicative'	quae gēns paucīs ante mēnsibus ad Caesarem lēgātōs mīserat (Caesar)	'this nation had sent ambassadors to Caesar a few months previously'	had done in English
				eādem quā vēnerat viā Elatīam rediit (Livy)	'he returned to Elatia by the same way he had come'
				abierant cēterī; Clītus ultimus sine lūmine exībat (Curtius)	'the others had already departed; Clitus was going out last, without a light'
				nec Philippus segnius – iam enim in Macedoniam pervēnerat – apparābat bellum (Livy)	'nor was Philip, who had arrived by now in Macedonia, preparing war less energetically'
	compound	supīnum	'perfect indicative of periphrastic perfect'	utque fuī solitus, sēdissem forsitan ūnus dē centum iūdex in tua verba virīs (Ovid)	'and as I had gotten used (before I was exiled), I would perhaps have sat, one of a hundred men, as a judge of your words'
				mōvit amīcitiae tum tē cōnstantia longae, ante tuōs ortūs quae mihi coepta fuit (Ovid)	'you were moved at that time by the constancy of a long friendship, which had begun for me even before you were born'
				prior nātus fuit Sophoclēs quam Eurīpidēs (nātus est) (Gellius)	'Sophocles was born before Euripides (was born)'	was or had been done in English
			'imperfect indicative of periphrastic perfect'	prīdiē quam ego Athēnās vēnī Mytilēnās profectus erat (Cicero)	'on the day before I arrived in Athens he had departed for Mytilene'
			'pluperfect indicative of periphrastic perfect'	arma quae fīxa in pariētibus fuerant, ea sunt humī inventa (Cicero)	'the weapons which had (previously) been fixed on the walls were found on the ground'
				parte alterā pugnae Paulus, quamquam prīmō statim proeliō fundā graviter ictus fuerat, tamen occurrit saepe cum cōnfertīs Hannibalī (Livy)	'in the second half of the fight, Paulus, although (earlier on) right at the beginning of the battle he had been seriously wounded by a sling-shot, nonetheless several times went on to attack Hannibal, with his soldiers in close formation'
				quod Īdibus fuerat dictum dē agrō Campānō āctum īrī, nōn est āctum (Cicero)	'as for what had been said (earlier) on the Ides that a debate would be held on the Campanian farmland, in the end it didn't take place'
			'imperfect indicative of periphrastic "habeō" perfect'	Caesar equitātum omnem quem ex omnī prōvinciā coāctum habēbat praemittit (Caesar)	'Caesar sent ahead all the cavalry which he had gathered together from the whole province'	had done in English
				cultrum, quem sub veste abditum habēbat, eum in corde dēfīgit (Livy)	'a knife, which she had hidden / was keeping hidden under her clothing, she stabbed it in her heart'
				ad eās mūnītiōnēs Caesar Lentulum Marcellīnum quaestōrem ... positum habebat (Caesar)	'Caesar had placed Lentulus Marcellinus the quaestor in charge of those defences'
			'perfect indicative of periphrastic "habeō" perfect'	in montibus castra habuit posita Pompeius in cōnspectū utrōrumque oppidōrum (de Bello Hispaniensi)	'Pompeius had placed a camp in the mountains within sight of both towns'

Tertiary tenses

Tertiary past

In the following examples, a distinction is made between an earlier situation, expressed by the pluperfect with fuerat, and a later situation, expressed by the ordinary pluperfect with erat:

Ways of representing processes that are past at a secondary time

Meaning	Complexity	Aspect	Paradigm	Latin Example	English translation	Comment
past in past in past	compound	supīnum	'pluperfect indicative of periphrastic perfect'	pōns, quī fuerat tempestāte interruptus, paene erat refectus (Caesar)	'the bridge, which earlier on had been broken by a storm, had now almost been rebuilt'	had been done earlier in English
				frūmenta enim, quae fuerant intrā mūnītiōnēs sata, consūmpserant (Caesar)	'for by this time the corn which had earlier been sown inside the defence walls had been used up'
				tumultus quidem Gallicus et Ligustīnus, quī prīncipiō eius annī exortus fuerat, haud magnō cōnātū brevī oppressus erat (Livy)	'indeed a rebellion in Gaul and Liguria, which had arisen earlier on at the beginning of that year, had soon been suppressed without much effort'
				nec enim adhūc exciderat cocus ille, qui oblītus fuerat porcum exinterare (Petronius)	'nor had that cook yet slipped my mind, who had (earlier on) forgotten to gut the piglet'
			'pluperfect indicative of periphrastic "habeō" perfect'	itaque nāvīs omnīs quās parātās habuerant ad nāvigandum prōpugnātōribus īnstrūxērunt (de Bello Alexandrino)	'and so they drew up and manned with fighters all the ships which they had earlier got ready for sailing'	had done earlier in English

Bibliography

• Aerts, Simon (2018). "Tense, Aspect and Aktionsart in Classical Latin: Towards a New Approach". Symbolae Osloenses 92(1):107–149.
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