Peer group
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A peer group is a social group consisting of people who are equal in such respects as age, education or social class.[1] Members of a particular peer group often have similar interests and backgrounds, bonded by the premise of sameness[2]. However, some peer groups are very diverse, crossing social divides such as socioeconomic status, level of education, race, creed, culture, or religion.
Contents |
[edit] Developmental psychology
Developmental psychologists, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, and Harry Stack Sullivan, have all argued that peer relationships provide a unique context for cognitive, social, and emotional development, with equality, reciprocity, cooperation, and intimacy, maturing and enhancing children's reasoning abilities and concern for others. Modern research echoes these sentiments, showing that social and emotional gains are indeed provided by peer interaction[3].
[edit] Erikson's Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development attempts to describe the internal process's by which an individual develops personality throughout the life span based on their social/interpersonal interactions, as well as perception of themselves. The theory states that individuals go through eight stages of development[4] each with two potential outcomes that may shape the individual's life, including their choices of peers and closeness/quality of relationships:
Trust v. Mistrust in which the individual develops their sense of security. This stage takes place during the neonate/infancy period of life. If the individual is not given a sense of security or consistency during this stage, they may be anxious, insecure, and mistrusting of people around them, often producing an individual who avoids prosocial behavior due to fear of ridicule by, or denial into, peer groups.
Autonomy v. Shame & Doubt takes place from around age 1 throughout toddlerhood and into the beginning of early childhood (apx. age 3). It is during this stage that a sense of autonomy, or self-reliance, begins to form. The individual is now able to walk, explore, and make some personal choices as to their preferences. In order to foster healthy development during this stage it is said that caregivers must provide a safe, nurturing, encouraging environment for the child in which they freely and independently explore and assert themselves in a positive manner. Repercussions of negative development during this stage are related to codependency, and lack of self-esteem. Both of these issues are reflected in the individual's choices and role in peer groups later in life.
Initiative v. Guilt occurs through early childhood to the beginning of middle childhood (apx. 3-6). It is during this stage that the individual begins to initiate in play and other interactions with others, especially their peers. Children during this stage begin to make independent decisions about play and interaction and develop their sense of leadership and ability to make decisions, and take initiative. If this development does not occur successfully the individual may feel that they are poor leaders and are not worthy of making independent decisions, giving them a sense of guilt and learned worthlessness. The efficacy of development during this stage may be correlated with an individual's choice of close peers, as well as their role within their peer groups.
Industry v. Inferiority is the stage of development that occurs from apx. age 6 to the onset of puberty. The stage is marked by an individual initiating, following through on, and evaluating, their own tasks. These tasks include both those done independently and with peers. During this stage the individual defines themselves in terms of worth to the greater whole. They often looking for praise from others and self satisfaction. Failure to thrive during this stage is markedly negative for the individual's ego and sense of self-esteem, individual's may become often frustrated with themselves and depressed as a result of this. This may have several negative impacts on the individual's social life, including a drive for isolation from others due in part to depression and sense of inferiority.
Identity v. Role Confusion refers to the stage in adolescence in which the primary concern of the individual is the transition from childhood into adulthood. Optimal development during this stage is accomplished by the adolescent exploring their environment. The result of these explorations are used by the individual as a means of discovering or creating "who they are," and initiates the exploration of how they may live their adult lives, in manners such as relationships, career, housing,etc. If the individual's experiences resulting from these exploration are negative, or if the exploration is hindered, they may develop a poor sense of self. This may cause role confusion, such as gender identity disorders, poor self-concept and self-esteem, as well as potentially antisocial behaviors as a result of poor self-esteem and fear of ridicule. Antisocial behaviors primarily result in poor peer relations and are likely to result in the individual being ostracized from any potential peer groups, or only being included in groups of other antisocial peers, which is likely to cause issues throughout adolescence, early adulthood, and possibly further.
Intimacy v. Isolation is the stage occurring in early adulthood in which the individual begins to decide if, and with whom, other than family, they will intimately share feelings and experiences with. This is done through the exploration of relationships directed towards long term commitments. Positive development during this stage may lead to the individual being more comfortable in relationships, both with intimate partners and peers, as well as a strengthened sense of commitment, safety, and care for others. On the contrary, if development during this stage is negative it is possible that the individual may become or feel lonely, isolated, depressed, and avoid relationships with others, thus limiting or eliminating positive peer relations.
Generativity v. Stagnation later into adulthood the individual is likely to have established themselves in manners such as their work and career, raising a family, and taking on their role in society. During this stage the individual's primary concern is whether or not they will produce something of great value to society and future generations[5]. If the individual wishes to complete this, they are likely to become engaged to a great extent with their society, as well as in their children's lives or through enriching and educating future generations. Negative development during this stage is characterized by not contributing to society or future generation, thus becoming socially stagnant. This may be the result of a self-centered personality, or other psychological or physical impairment that may limit the abilities of the individual. Dissatisfaction with one's self may result as a result of stagnation and cause psychological and social issues that effect peer relations negatively.
Ego Integrity v. Despair
[edit] Freud's Psychosexual Development
[edit] Bonding and Functions of Peer Groups
[edit] Peer pressure
The term peer pressure is often used to describe instances where an individual feels indirectly pressured into changing their behavior to match that of their peers. Taking up smoking and underage drinking are two of the best known examples. In spite of the often negative connotations of the term, peer pressure can be used positively.
[edit] Finance
A peer group in finance is any equity, mutual fund, or financial instrument that relates to another equity, mutual fund, or financial instrument within its respective asset class in terms of investment style, industry, or underlying asset composition.
[edit] References
- ^ N.A, . (2009). Peer group definition . Encarta online. Retrieved (2009, November 8) from http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861724592/peer_group.html
- ^ Wolf, Sun. (2008). Peer groups: expanding our study of small group communication. Thousand oaks,CA: Sage publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4129-2686-7
- ^ Siegler, Robert (2006). How Children Develop, Exploring Child Develop Student Media Tool Kit & Scientific American Reader to Accompany How Children Develop. New York: Worth Publishers. ISBN 0716761130
- ^ Heffner, Dr. C.L. (2001, April 1). Psychology 101: personality development. Retrieved from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/social_development.html
- ^ Several, Authors. (2009). Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Wikipedia. Retrieved (2009, November 8) from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development&action=history
[edit] Further reading
- An evolutionary perspective on children's motivation in the peer group. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 19(1), 53-73. Full text
- Bona Fide Group Theory: A descriptive format for understanding group dynamics. Theory Overview
- Insko, C.A. Et.al. (2009). Reducing intergroup conflict through the consideration of future consequences. European journal of social psychology, 39(5), 831-841.
 |
This sociology-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |
 |
This psychology-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |
