Siege of Chandax
| Siege of Chandax | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the Arab–Byzantine wars and the Byzantine reconquest of Crete | |||||||||
 Greek fire, probably used as an explosive in the final assault on Chandax | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Emirate of Crete |
 Byzantine Empire | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
|
Abd al-Aziz ibn Shu'ayb al-Numan |
Nicephorus Phocas Nicephorus Pastilas † | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
|
Garrison of Chandax Relief Force: ~40,000 men |
50,000 men 27,000 oarsmen 308 transports[1] | ||||||||
The Siege of Chandax was a siege carried out by Byzantine emperor Romanos II (r. 959-963– ) in an attempt to wrest the island of Crete from control of Muslim pirates under the Emirate of Crete. The siege was undertaken by the general Nicephorus Phocas, and a raid was carried out by Nicephorus Pastilas.
Background
In 824, a group of Andalusian exiles landed on Crete and began its conquest. After the Andalusian exiles declared victory against the Byzantine Empire, they established a new independent state, the Emirate of Crete. From their base on Crete, the Muslims were able to execute numerous profitable and devastating raids in the Aegean Sea. They also occupied several of the Cyclades during these early years. Soon, Emperor Michael II retook the Cyclades. In the 930s and 940s, Cretan piracy reached its apex in southern Greece, Athos, and the western coasts of Asia Minor. As a result, Emperor Constantine VII sent another expedition to Crete in 949, which failed, and another one during the last years of his reign. It was carried out under his successor Romanos II, who sent a huge fleet and army with Nikephoros Phokas, general of the east and future emperor, at the head of the expedition.
Pastilas' raid
Soon after the Byzantine army landed on Crete and defeated the defending armies, Nicephorus Phocas set up camp around the main fortress of the island, Chandax (modern Heraklion). He soon instructed the general Nicephorus Pastilas to undertake a raid into the Cretan countryside in order to procure extra provisions for the army and in order to scout out any relieving forces for the city or other approaching armies.[2] Perceiving the countryside to be relatively safe, Pastilas roamed carelessly, indulging on food and wine. The company was soon ambushed and annihilated by Muslim forces. Pastilas himself was killed, and only a few soldiers returned to Chandax to spread the news of the massacre.
Phocas' counterattack
After hearing of the news of his slaughtered battalion, Phocas realized he would have to eliminate the relief force before besieging Chandax itself. If he did not he faced the problem of having to fight his battles on two fronts: one against the relief force, and one against the Chandax garrison. So it was that he handpicked a squadron of soldiers who would accompany him in a preemptive attack on the relief force. He set out and set upon engaging the Muslims at night. Through this tactic he was able to rout and destroy most of the relief force.[3] With the threat of the major Muslim army now eliminated, Phocas could turn his attention toward Chandax, which he began to besiege upon his return.
Siege of Chandax
The siege began upon Phocas' return from his raid. Phocas made sure to use the severed heads of many of his Muslim victims to attempt to demoralize the defenders. Phocas employed archers and throwing machines against the defenders while attempting to scale the wall using ladders. The fortress held, however, under the pressure of the bombardments, and the ladders were crushed. Phocas soon called off the siege. He now decided to blockade the city for the winter while his engineers began to design and construct more significant siege engines.[4]
The second assault on Chandax took place in March 961. This time the Byzantines used much more effective siege machines against Chandax, but they were still unable to gain a foothold in the city. Meanwhile, the Muslims kept just out of range of the Greek archers so that they could still attend the walls but not be annihilated by the bombardment.[5] Phocas soon employed the use of a battering ram on the walls, but this was a feint. While the Muslims were focusing on the battering ram, miners dug underneath the walls and planted explosive and flammable materials underneath the weak points. Soon, they managed to destroy a huge section of the wall, where the Byzantine army began to pour into the city. The defenders quickly formed a line within the city, but it was too late. The Muslims were soon routed and fled back into the streets.[6] The soldiers were allowed the traditional three days of plunder before the army again set off.[7]
Aftermath
Following the capture of Chandax the Byzantine army was able to quickly conquer the rest of Crete. Lying on the outskirts of the Aegean Sea, the conquest of Crete was especially beneficial to the Byzantines due to its strategic position for the purpose of launching raids onto the coast of North Africa, an endeavor frequently exploited by the Muslim Emirate of Crete, which embarked on devastating raids on the surrounding Aegean Islands.[8]
References
- ^ Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. p. 1. ISBN 978-1473845701.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. p. 3. ISBN 978-1473845701.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. p. 4. ISBN 978-1473845701.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. p. 5. ISBN 978-1473845701.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. p. 5. ISBN 978-1473845701.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 493–495
- ^ Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. p. 6. ISBN 978-1473845701.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. p. 1. ISBN 978-1473845701.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help)
Sources
- Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. ISBN 978-1473845701.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - Treadgold, Warren T. (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2.