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Owyhee, Nevada Submitted by John F. Lemon Introduction == Heading text ==
The Duck Valley Reservation was established in 1877 and enlarged in 1886. The reservation is located on the Idaho-Nevada border with approximately half of the land area in each state. The Shoshone-Paiute Tribes have retained all of the 289,820 acre land area as Tribal Trust land governed by the Tribal Council.
Before Owyhee became the home of the Western Shoshone and Northern Paiutes, Owyhee Meadows had served as a stop on Hill Beachy's Elko-Idaho Toll Road beginning in 1869. The odyssey of the Western Shoshone placement at Owyhee was a long-drawn out affair marred by terrible hardships. The Shoshones, or Newe, had signed the Ruby Valley Treaty of Peace and Friendship on October 1, 1863. The treaty was officially ratified on June 26, 1866. However, little was done to accommodate their needs. Efforts to find a place to relocate the tribe were minimal at best. Exposure to diseases carried by the whites proved devastating and the government showed no interest in improving conditions. As early as 1870, the tribe had requested Duck Valley be established as their new home. It took another seven years before President Rutherford B. Hayes signed the order on April 16, 1877.
Once the reservation was established, the town of Owyhee began to form. The town was made the ending terminal for the daily Owyhee Stage Company. During the 1880s, the Northern Paiutes, under Chief Paddy Cap, were added to the reservation. During the 1920s, prominent Elko County attorney Milton Badt discovered that the government had not been paying the $5,000 a year promised by the Ruby Valley Treaty. Some money had been paid in the early years but was given to white Indian Agents who conveniently neglected to dispense it to the Indians and diverted the money to their pockets.
In 1923, after two hundred years of neglect, abuse, and discrimination from Washington, Congress finally granted all Native Americans US Citizenship without having to sever tribal loyalties.
Etymology == Heading text ==
Some say the name Owyhee was given to the area by two Hawaiians who worked with the Hudson Bay Company. The name was the original phonetic spelling of Hawaii before being corrupted by white settlers. However, the Sho-Pai People will tell you that Owyhee means Yellow Knife in their language. There is the Owyhee River and Owyhee County in Idaho as well as Owyhee Community. While the colorful story about the Hawaiians is interesting, most historians tend to believe the native version of the name.
History == Heading text ==
The Rocky Mountains shielded the Western Shoshone and Paiute from the incursions of the White men. Their first contacts were in the 1820’s with the trappers, traders, and explorers to the North West. As the numbers of white settlers increased so did the number of conflicts between the two cultures occurred. Once gold was discovered in California, the rush of immigrants was even more rampant. As the settlers wound their way west along the valley floors, they reminded the Indians of a giant snake that crawled along the valley floors. In the evening they curled up in front of the fires in large circles.
The Tribe’s survival was of no concern to Congress as long as the Agents kept the peace with the Indians. However, many of the agents made promises that they had no intention of keeping. This caused strained relations between the tribes and the white immigrants. The Tribes lost respect for the government agents and local leaders, and the settlers became more fearful of the Indians because of increased attacks caused by this mistrust and anger at the unkempt promises.
In 1855, Dr. Harland Hart was sent to the Utah Territory to work with the Indians. He was appalled at the corruption and the hostilities between the Whites and the Tribes. He created the first treaty between the Western Shoshone Band on 7 August 1855 which was signed by both parties with much fanfare and celebration. However, Congress never ratified it. In spite of this the Shoshone continued to hold to the treaty.
By the 1860’s more and more White settlers entered the territory of the Shoshone and Paiute. They came to work the mines of Northern Nevada. With the influx of white settlers, once again hostilities erupted between the whites and the Indians. The Indians were forced to seek protection in the canyons and mountains of Northern Nevada and Southern Idaho. The American Civil War had broken out and the gold and silver from the mines became increasingly important to finance the war effort. To protect the gold and silver shipments to the east, Federal Troops came to the region and built forts: Fort Halleck near Starr Valley, Fort Ruby in Ruby Valley, both in Nevada; and Fort McDermitt on the Nevada-Oregon borders. The Indians were rounded up and constantly abused, and harassed, as the soldiers watched for any signs of aggression. However, most of the aggression came, not from the tribes, but the white settlers and federal troops.
On 30 July 1863, Congress once again made an attempt to create another treaty. It was called the Box Elder Treaty, made with the Northwestern Shoshone. A similar treaty called the Ruby Valley Treaty made with the Western Shoshone. In 1865, another treaty was made with the Bannock Bands in Bruneau Valley and the Boise Valley areas in Idaho. The Treaty of 1866 had questionable items concerning Indian Land Cession and had to be renegotiated. The state of Idaho changed governors before the decisions were finalized and instead of several smaller reservations throughout the state they were all moved to Fort Hall. The descendents of the Bannock continue the process of contesting the loss of their lands to the present time. The 1870’s were hard times for all Native Tribes throughout the US but none felt the hardship as keenly as the Nevada-Idaho bands of the Shoshone and Paiute. Not only did they suffer from the loss of their hunting, fishing and camping areas, but they had the extra indignity of poverty, disease, and fraudulent claims to land that the Indians had requested for a reservation. In many cases they ended up paying white farmers for the privilege of farming land they had previously owned. Shoshone leaders such as Temoak and Captain Sam worked vigorously to request and obtain a reservation at Duck Valley. With the help of Levi Ghee they were finally able to realize their dream. The Duck Valley Reservation was 20 miles long and 17 miles wide. Mr. Ghee was highly respected by the Shoshone because he spoke the language, understood the culture, and spent much of his own money to help the Indians. He originally came to Nevada as a government agent. In 1871 he was discharged and so had no decision making voice to protect the Shoshone. Yet he remained a friend to them and continued their fight for a reservation and other issues. The people on the Duck Valley Reservation had to continually fight to keep their reservation. The government sent an inspector by the name of Benedict to Duck Valley to report on conditions on the reservation. His reports were negative and he recommended that they be removed to Fort Hall. The Shoshones contested the reports and were able to convince the government not to move them to Fort Hall and to let them stay in Duck Valley. On April 16, 1877, United States President Rutherford B. Hayes established the reservation for the Western Shoshone and on May 4, 1886, United States President Grover Cleveland expanded the Reservation for the Northern Paiute through respective Executive Orders. On July 01, 1910 United States President William H. Taft further expanded the reservation by yet another Executive Order.
The Northern Paiute bands became allied with the Bannock, in the Bannock War of 1878 and were subsequently sent to a prisoner of war camp in Yakima, Washington. Upon their release, the survivors were returned to their homelands and the Western Shoshone reservation was expanded for their use in 1886. The tribal bands located at Duck Valley existed as best as they were allowed under the watchful eye of the Indian Agent and Indian Police. Farming and ranching was the mainstay for the people. The Shoshone and Paiute united at Duck Valley under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and formed a tribal government through a Constitution and Bylaws which was adopted in 1936.
Geography == Heading text ==
The Owyhee River enters the southeast corner of the reservation in Nevada and exits in Idaho to the northwest, flowing into Oregon where it meets the Snake River. The central portion of the reservation from the northern to the southern boundaries is a lowland valley, with a sloping elevation of 5200 feet. On either side of the valley are Rimrock plateaus and mountain ranges with elevations reaching nearly 9000 feet.
Education == Heading text ==
The Shoshone saw the importance of an education to survive in the white man’s world. They requested an education for their children so they could learn to read and write. In 1881 they built a school for 25 students. It operated as a boarding school then became a day school. Thereafter 3 all-day schools were operated in three separate locations on the reservation. operated into the 1900’s. The only teachers, however, they could hire were from the east. They had neither qualifications nor interest in the students. They did not speak the language nor did they understand their culture.
From 1884 through 1911, a boarding school, operated on the reservation. In Owyhee, the Swayne School was built but there was not enough room for all of the students at the boarding school so 20 were sent away to other BIA boarding schools in Carlisle, Pennsylvania and Grand Junction, Colorado. This of course was against the wishes of the parents but the agency sent them away in spite of what the parents wanted.
In 1929 the government built the Swayne School, making it the central school for the Duck Valley Reservation. However this was elementary school only. The high school students still had to leave the reservation to attend BIA boarding schools such as Stewart and Intermountain School. In 1931 the day schools were closed and all students attended the Swayne School. Students of the higher grades were still sent off reservation to boarding schools until 1946 when high school classes were added. In 1956 the reservation school system, Owyhee School Local School District, was consolidated into the Elko County School District of Nevada and today is known as the Owyhee Combined Schools (K-12). Recently, a Community Education Center was placed in Owyhee for GED and higher education courses from Great Basin College.
Today Owyhee School is Owyhee Combined School with some 200 students, and 30 staff. Even though they are small they have garnished many sports and academic trophies and awards over the some 50 years that students have attended the school. The hallways are adorned with past graduating classes, trophy cases contain the history of pride and success that students have won for their school. Owyhee Combined School is not only a place for education but a community gathering place for pow-wows, sporting events and other academic, sports and social gatherings.
The school today still comes under the jurisdiction of the Elko County School district. They continue to have trouble hiring qualified teachers because of the isolation of the area. Hopefully, they will eventually realize the possibility of a stable faculty so that the students can find consistency and stability in their education. As in early days, parental involvement continues an important part of the positive atmosphere one finds at the school.
Health Care == Heading text == Health care in the early days was lacking or non-existent. The closest hospitals were either in Boise or Elko. In the 1890’s, Dr. Carlos Montesuma, an Indian of Yavapai descent was in charge of medical services. He often rode horseback to attend to the needs of his patients. Today they have a modern hospital; however, like the school they have a difficult time keeping it staffed with competent personnel.
The first full time physician was assigned to Duck Valley in 1882 and by 1897 a small one-room infirmary hospital was built and was replaced by 1920 with a structure which had two seven bed wards. In July of 1937 the native stone hospital was completed with a 20 bed ward, x-ray and laboratory facilities. The native stone hospital was closed in 1976 when the modern Owyhee Community Health Facility was completed. The Owyhee Community Health Facility provides health care to the Shoshone-Paiute Tribes of the Duck Valley Reservation, American Indians and Alaska Natives enrolled or a descendant of a federally recognized Tribe, and to individuals living on and near the reservation.
Government == Heading text ==
American Indians are the only ethnic group who the US government recognizes as sovereign nations. This means they have their own government which operates under a constitution and by-laws. They are governed by a tribal council made up of enrolled members. The tribal council manages and administers the business affairs of the tribe. The general membership of the tribe elects them.
Some of the programs administered by the tribal government are education programs, the Tribal Court, Fish and Game, Senior Citizens, the Tribal Library, Media Center, Housing, Credit, Recreation, land use, Indian Health clinic, and Tribal Tax Commission. No other ethnic group in the US has a government organization like this which is similar to a state and county government.
The Shoshone-Paiute Tribes of Duck Valley are governed by the Business Council. The Business Council is composed of a Chairman, Vice-Chairman and six Council Members, four of whom are elected to serve three-year terms and 2 Council Members shall be elected each year. A Chairman shall be elected every 3 years and General Elections are held yearly in April. The Business Council directs the Tribal government. The Chairman manages the operations of Tribal government. There are four divisions of tribal administration: Health & Human Services, Judicial Services, Tribal Programs and Support Services.
Economy == Heading text ==
Agriculture is the economic mainstay of the reservation. Short growing seasons affect production ability on the approximately 87,000 acres that are suitable for farming and irrigation. The majority of the land serves as grazing land for the cattle and horses raised by members of the Tribes.
Unlike many other tribes in the Great Basin, the Shoshones and Paiutes refused to draw an annuity from the government and always have considered themselves, very independent. They dealt directly with horse and cattle buyers, were very seldom cheated, and were greatly respected for their livestock raising abilities.
Farming and Ranching are still mainstays for Duck Valley and is reflected in the 12,000 acres of arable lands. To this day, many of the residents of Owyhee raise cattle. They are also known for their skills as horsemen. Many of them have won rodeo after rodeo because of their skills.
Tribal membership is over 2000 with approximately 1700 living on the reservation. The Shoshone-Paiute Tribes of Duck Valley continue to exist within the original territories of their ancestors. The agency began leasing reservation land for grazing to Whites for $1 per acre. The Indians didn’t own very many cattle but they had thousands of horses which they considered a symbol of wealth. The BIA urged them to sell their horses so that they could lease the land to the White cattle ranchers.
The Bureau of Indian Affairs also responded by sending out a memorandum requiring all Indian males to cut their braids and forbade them to speak their Native languages. They also forbade them to wear blankets, perform their ceremonies, dances, feasts, and any other customs that identified them as Indians. If they did not comply they would be denied their rations, employment, and supplies. If they continued to refuse, they would be imprisoned and required to perform hard labor.
The Indians requested a land survey be done of the boundaries of the reservation. They felt they could settle the land disputes with the ranchers who up until then were trespassing on the reservation because no clear boundary lines existed from the 1883 survey which created the Duck Valley Reservation. Again the government responded with a BIA Regulation that stated, “Indians of Duck Valley cannot be permitted to conduct mining operations for precious metals. However, they may quarry stone or mine coal for their own use, but not for commercial purposes.”
Today, The Duck Valley Reservation is composed of 289,819 acres held in trust by the United States Government for the use and occupancy of the Shoshone-Paiute Tribes. Included in the total acreage of the Reservation is 22,231 acres of Wetlands. Wildhorse Reservoir was constructed in 1936 for the Duck Valley Irrigation Project. The irrigable lands lie between 5,300 feet and 5,500 feet in elevation and the growing season is short and the winters are comparatively severe.
Utilities == Heading text ==
The community water supply serving the towns of Owyhee, Newtown and Thomas Loop are under the supervision of the Shoshone-Paiute Tribes Water and Sanitation Department. Electricity comes from Nevada Energy. Because of high winds in Duck Valley, Owyhee experiences long periods of power outages.
The Duck Valley Community System is served by two separate water supplies: the Owyhee Well # 3 (feeding the town of Owyhee and along Hwy. 225 to the Rodeo Ground turn) with Owyhee Well #2 as a backup, and Newtown Well #1 and Well #3 (feeding the Newtown area, Thomas Loop and Hwy. 51) with Newtown Well #2 as backup. See Map for well locations. Each system operates separately; however, a solenoid valve can be opened to provide water to the Newtown system from the Owyhee system.
In summary, the Owyhee system begins at the south end of town and ends at the rodeo grounds. The Newtown system begins at the rodeo grounds turn-off and ends at the Thomas Loop Sub-Division. Pumps bring the water out of the ground, which is then stored in water tanks for later distribution. Water is distributed under pressure through a distribution system network of buried pipes. Smaller pipes, called service lines, are attached to the main lines to bring water to your house. In our community system, water pressure is provided by pumping water into a storage tank at elevations that are higher than the homes. The force of gravity “pushes” the water into your home and is readily available at the tap. In the future, meters will be used to measure usage on your service line for more accurate billing.
Communications == Heading text == Owyhee has telephone, television, and internet service. Telephones services are provided by CenturyTel. Television is satellite only provider is DISH Network. There are several internet providers but the main one is the Tribal IT Services.
Parks and Recreation == Heading text ==
The Fish, Wildlife and Parks Department manages three rainbow trout fisheries: Lake Billy Shaw (fly fishing), Mountain View and Sheep Creek Reservoirs. The three fisheries and a stretch of the Owyhee River are open to angling at certain times of the year. A tribal fishing permit is required in order to fish Duck Valley waters. The Department also offers guided antelope hunts to non-tribal members from July 15-October.
The Shoshone-Paiute Tribes operates and maintains several camping areas at Wildhorse Reservoir, located 30 miles south of the reservation boundary. Day use, overnight, weekly and monthly camping is available. The reservoir itself is managed by the Nevada Division of Wildlife, so please obtain a Nevada fishing license before dropping a line.
Recreation and tourism industries are being developed to help diversify the economy. There are two major fisheries on the reservation: Sheep Creek and Mountain View Reservoirs. The addition of a third reservoir, Billy Shaw, has been recently constructed. There is a tremendous diversity of waterfowl and shorebirds that are attracted to the lakes and surrounding wetlands in the spring. Camping facilities are being improved to attract a greater number of visitors to these lakes for fishing, hiking, bird watching, and relaxation.
The completion of the Wildhorse Dam in 1937 greatly helped the reservation, not only because of the additional irrigation water but also because of income generated by recreation. The reservoir has always been operated for the benefit of the reservation, although attempts have been made in recent years to wrest control of the reservoir from the reservation. Today, Owyhee has a population of about 1,200 and continues to be a thriving agriculture-based community.
In 1965 authorities discovered that the Wildhorse Dam was deteriorating. In 1967 the Bureau of Reclamation began a new dam at the Wildhorse site, and completing the project in 1969. The new dam was not only safer than the old dam but held additional acre feet of water now totaling 72,000 acre feet. This additional acre-foot was to provide water to Duck Valley ranchers even in drought years.
Culture == Heading text ==
The traditional ways of the Shoshone and Paiute people have always held an important position in their culture. They told them who they were, and preserved their identity at a time when many tribes lost theirs. In the 1890’s the Department of the Interior tried to force, not only the Shoshone-Paiute people to abandon their ceremonies and traditions, but most tribes. The Shoshone-Paiute began conducting their ceremonies in secret rather than giving them up. Today the Shoshone-Paiute people on the Duck Valley Reservation continue to hold their ceremonies, such as the sweat lodge ceremony and others. However, they may now do so in public and without fear.
Before the white man came to this area the Duck Valley was inhabited by various bands of the Western Shoshone. They traveled over a large region in order to find food. They hunted deer, sage hen, rabbit, prairie dog, squirrel, and antelope. They fished the rivers and streams for salmon. They made jerky from the fresh meat. They also collected seeds and berries which they ground into flour such as the pine nut. The preserved their food for the winter and also shared with the less fortunate. Every year they held a Thanksgiving Dance to thank their creator for their food, rain and everything else they had received during the year. This was also a time to visit friends and family, to make new friends, and for the youth of marrying age to find wives and husbands. The Western Shoshone did not travel in large groups but small bands. Therefore they were more peaceful than other larger tribes.
They had a belief in one God or Creator who made the earth and everything in and on the earth. They believed that there must be harmony among the body and spirit and in turn they must be in harmony with earth in order for there to be healthy within one’s self and with his environment. Their life was simple, and filled with faith in their God and daily prayer. Before they ate they offered thanks to their Creator and offered a small offering to the Earth. Even today some of the tribal elders still practice this custom.
In the early days the Tribal members lived in the traditional housing of sagebrush and willow frames covers with canvases and blankets. They received rations from the agency to survive. As they progressed, they built modern houses (for the day) out of logs which better sheltered them from the cold.
Respective bands of Western Shoshone occupied and revolved on and off the reservation depending on their survival needs and because of the unfulfilled promises of food and supplies from the federal government. Some bands adapted as best they could and others did not want to readily leave their expanded homelands and campsites which were located off the reservation. In 1884, an effort to move the Western Shoshone to the Fort Hall Reservation in Idaho (and open up Duck Valley lands for non-Indian homesteads) was successfully resisted by the headmen of the bands.
No non-English speaking people are known to live in the community. Native American members of the community are primarily bi-lingual with English as the second language amongst the older generation and Shoshone or Paiute as the second language amongst the majority of the younger population.
There are five churches on the Duck Valley Reservation: The Presbyterian, Baptist, Church of God (Pentecostal), the Native American Church, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints.
Technology == Heading text ==
In the early 20th century, the 1900 census showed a population of 224 Shoshones and 226 Paiute with a total population of 450. The main concerns in this era were water storage and education.
By the 1890’s the government increased the reservation to 400 square miles or 256,000 acres. The people early on realized they could improve their farming methods if they could build a storage reservoir. However, the government denied it. Eventually the water problem grew worse. The BIA continued to deny their petitions. However, the Owyhee River continued to dry up during the summer at the time when they most needed water.
White squatters continued to be a problem for the tribe. One of these was a man named Nye. He claimed 160 acres of reservation land on which he grazed his cattle. Finally in 1901, the agency ordered him to remove his cabin and fencing. As land problems continued in other parts of Nevada and Idaho, more and more Indians were removed to Duck Valley. This caused an over stretched water problem to become severe and another petition for a reservoir was made for water storage so that they could farm more crops. The first telephone line was constructed on 10 September 1904. It connected the agency in Owyhee to Elko, Nevada 96 miles away. Of course the agency had the only telephone in Duck Valley. There probably weren’t many telephones in Elko either. So by 1911, the Indians of Duck Valley were becoming farmers and ranchers. They were not allowed to practice their ceremonies and customs. They were forced the indignity of accepting government handouts and yet had no opportunities to make decisions for themselves. The BIA’s objective was to “civilize the Indian.” There was one person who made a valiant attempt to escape the reservation way of life. His name was Shoshone Mike. He and his family refused to live on the reservation. They lived in the area of Twin Falls, Idaho and later continued to roam throughout Northwestern part of Nevada. Finally they settled in the Black Rock Desert where it was so desolate that few Whites would live there. On 19 January 1911, Shoshone Mike and his family were trapped in a blizzard. They were starving and so killed some free ranging cattle for food. Some of the sheep and cattle companies sent out four men to investigate reports that stock was being killed in the neighborhood of Shoshone Mike’s camp. The men never returned, and were found slain and stripped of their clothing and belongings. Immediately the white communities believed they had been killed by unknown parties but “believed to be Indians.” They formed a posse of 22 men that went looking for Shoshone Mike and his band. They found them camped on Kelly Creek. They opened fire on the 12 Indians. The 70 year old Shoshone Mike was the first to die. The only survivors were three small children and a 16 year old girl. Two of the children were still on their mother’s backs. The posse claimed the band fought hard to defend themselves. The posse divided up Shoshone Mike’s belongings amongst themselves as souvenirs. His war bonnet is now on display at the Northwestern Nevada State Museum in Elko, Nevada. The whole incident cost the governments of the United States, Nevada, and California, $12,000 to wipe out the last resistance to the reservation way of life. In 1914, a special agent, Calvin Asbury made an inspection tour of the reservation. He had 12 years previously been the superintendent of the reservation. He reported that the tribe had increased their cattle herd from 300 to 3,000. He also noted that the current superintendent, Symons, was opposed to the tribal herd. He wrote that the reservation had been in operation for 40 years but that record keeping was shoddy at best. They were either not kept up-to-date or were missing entirely. He made the recommendation that the superintendent improve his record keeping. He noted that in the 40 years of the reservation’s existence little progress had been made in the economic development, education, or health care of the Indians on the Duck Valley Reservation. The Superintendent did not care about any of that. His only concern was that the Indian children develop a work ethic. Mr. Asbury reported that the education process was inadequate and that the children were not learning anything. Mrs. Symons, the superintendent’s wife was the teacher who only taught when she felt like it as she had no regular hours. Even though the tribal members had proven to the government that they could work, Superintendent Symons refused to hire them to do the little work on the reservation that was available. Asbury also noted that Symons was busy trying to sell reservation land to neighboring white ranchers. One in particular, was a rancher by the name of Henry Jarvis. The Assistant Commissioner of Indian Affairs informed him that he could buy the land but he could lease the land for one year. The tribe did not like this authorization given to the agents to lease the land but there was nothing they could do about it. In 1915, another visiting superintendent, Elsie E. Newton, reported that there were no long haired Indians and that most of them spoke English. She wrote that the Indians dressed like whites. She felt that the majority were self-supporting with only 67 on the ration list. Most of these were elderly. She also mentioned that they had an Indian Dance Band that played for dances where both Indians and non-Indians attended. One of the things she was most concerned about was the allotment problem. The General Allotment Act of 1887 allotted 160 acres of land to each adult and 80 to each child. This was designed to end tribal life by opening the remainder of the reservation to Whites for homesteading. On the Duck Valley Reservation the plan backfired because of the lack of water. The altitude was high and the growing season was short. Only 272 allotments were filed. They began clearing the land and planting their crops and trees. However, without water it was impossible to cultivate crops. The Indians had built a small diversion dam on the Owyhee River where it entered the reservation. The built canals to divert water to the valley. In 1889, the government finally recommended that a dam be built to guarantee a year-round water supply. It would protect the Indians from drought and the stealing of water by the neighboring white ranchers. The recommendation was ignored for 10 more years. In the meantime whites continued to divert more and more river water for their uses leaving very little for the Indians. Finally, between 1936 and 1937, the Wild Horse Reservoir was built. It held 32,000 acre feet of water and enough water to irrigate 13,000 acres of land on the reservation. From 1967 to 1969, a new dam was built at the same site. The new dam now holds 72,000 acre feet of water. Today the Indians continue to fight against the recreation lobby in Congress to protect their water rights. The Shoshone-Paiute have learned the valuable lesson that freedom isn’t free. One must remain constantly vigilant in order to protect the freedom of self-determination which can disappear so easily over night as the dew disappears in the morning sun. In 1924, the United States finally recognized the Native American as citizens of the United States. They were finally granted all of the rights and privileges of other US citizens. Under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the Tribes were allowed to set up their own governments. After 100 years of trying to change the Indians in to white men the government finally figured out they let them be Indians. However, many states were slower to enforce this policy. For example if an Indian wanted to visit a relative who lived on another reservation, they had to receive a pass from the superintendent for a designated time . In the 1970’s the Federal Government passed several laws which improved the situation for the American Indian. In 1975 Public Law 93-638: The Indian Self Determination and Education Assistance Act. This law provided for the full participation in tribal government and for the education of their children. In 1978 Congress passed the Indian child Welfare Act. This law provided protection for the welfare of Indian Children and to promote the stability and security of Indian tribes and families. i. Taken from the Official Web site of the Duck Valley Indian Reservation (DVIR) ii. Taken from the web site Nevada Ghost Towns iii. Whitney McKinney. A History of the Shoshone-Paiute of the Duck Valley Indian Reservation. Institute of the American West and Howe Brothers, 1983 iv. Ibid v. Ibid vi. DVIR vii. McKinney viii. DVIR ix. McKinney x. DVIR xi. McKinney xii. DVIR xiii. McKinney xiv. DVIR xv. Ibid xvi. Whitney McKinney. A History of the Shoshone-Paiute of the Duck Valley Indian Reservation. Institute of the American West and Howe Brothers, 1983 xvii. Ibid xviii. Ibid. xix. Ibid. xx. Ibid. xxi. Ibid. xxii. All Idaho Indian Expo: Boise Idaho p. 45 xxiii. Ibid p 5