User:Havis1/Montessori method

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"Montessori" redirects here. For the surname, see Montessori (surname).

The Montessori method is an educational approach to children based on the research and experiences of Italian physician and educator, Maria Montessori (1870–1952). It arose essentially from Dr. Montessori's discovery of the child's true normal nature in 1907 [1], which happened in the process of her experimental observation of young children given freedom in an environment prepared with materials designed for their self-directed learning activity.[2] The method itself aims to duplicate this experimental observation of children to bring about, sustain and support their true natural way of being.[3]

Applying this method involves the teacher in viewing the child as having an inner natural guidance for its own perfect self-directed development.[4] The role of the teacher (sometimes called, director, directress, or guide) is therefore to watch over the environment to remove any obstacles that would interfere with this natural development. The teacher's role of observation also sometimes includes experimental interactions with children, commonly referred to as lessons, to resolve misbehavior or to show how to use the various self-teaching materials that are provided in the environment for the children's free use. [5]

The method is primarily applied with young children (2-6), due to the young child's unique instincts and sensitivity to conditions in the environment. [6] However, it is sometimes conducted with elementary (6-12) aged children and occasionally with infants and toddlers, as well as at the middle and high school level. [7][8]

Although the Montessori name is recognized by many, it is not a trademark, and it is associated with more than one organization. Schools differ in their interpretation, practical application, and philosophy in using this method with children. [9] This article is about Dr. Maria Montessori’s research and discoveries and their practical application by adherents and practitioners with children.

History[edit]

The Montessori method developed from experimental research that Dr. Maria Montessori conducted with disabled and mentally retarded children in the early 1900's. [10] She began this research using the basic idea of scientific education that was developed and employed before with special needs children in the 1800's by French physicians Jean Itard and Edouard Seguin.[11]. A student and associate of Itard, Seguin extended Itard's initial idea of observing children in their natural, free activity by adding a series of exercises with specially designed self-teaching materials. Based on Dr. Montessori's success using this same approach in her initial research with disabled and retarded children, she began to look for an opportunity to study how it might be applied to benefit the education of more ordinary children as well. [12]

In 1906, Montessori found this opportunity when she was asked to establish a day-care center for young children (2-6) in a low-income housing area of Rome's San Lorenzo district.[13] In 1907, she opened this center, calling it a Children's House,and began observing the children in the scientific manner indicated before by Seguin.[14] In this way, Dr. Montessori soon discovered that the children responded to the materials with a deep concentration that resulted in a fundamental shift in their way of being, changing from the ordinary behavior of fantasy, inattention, and disorder, to a state of profound peace, calm and order in the environment. Observing this change occurring with all the children in her environment, she concluded that she had discovered the child's true normal nature. Later, Dr. Montessori referred to this change as normalization and the new emerging children as normalized. [15]

After 1907, Dr. Montessori reported her discovery and experiences to educators and others who became increasingly interested to learn how these remarkable changes came about in children. This interest soon led to her writing various books on the subject and conducting training programs to explain her approach, which eventually came to be known as the "Montessori method." [16]

Following her initial experiments with young children, Montessori extended her research by introducing new materials and studying the effects of her approach with children of different ages. For example, near the end of her life, in her book De L'Enfant à L'Adolescent [17] (From Childhood to Adolescence), Montessori contributed to the work of the International Bureau of Education and UNESCO, by suggesting how her method would apply to the secondary-school and university settings. Her writings, lectures, and research during some 40 years until her death in 1952 now constitute the basic foundation of knowledge about the method, which is conducted according to various philosophies in schools and other institutions associated with the name Montessori throughout the world. [18]

Since Dr. Montessori's death in 1952, the method has developed along several different philosophical tracks. Each philosophy has evolved its own distinctive organizational affiliations, training and presentation of the method to the general public. [19]

Philosophy[edit]

The philosophy of the Montessori method has remained somewhat obscure and confused since Dr. Montessori's 1907 discovery of the child's true nature was entirely accidental. Throughout her life, Dr. Montessori never described the method that evolved from her discovery in great detail, speaking and writing instead more about the effects of the method on children, rather than the method itself.[20] The question of its underlying philosophy was therefore left to others, which eventually led in several different directions. For some, the method was closely linked to Dr. Montessori's personality, so that when practiced outside her direct control and presence, it was diluted and misapplied, such as to conform to the needs and interests of the particular cultural context[21]

Confusion and conflict about the method's philosophy emerged with particular intensity in the modern development of Montessori in the United States[22] where, in 1967, the name "Montessori" was held to be a "generic term" that no organization can claim for its own exclusive use.[23] Since then, the number and diversity of Montessori organizations and philosophies have expanded considerable.

One main philosophy of the Montessori method is attached to the personality of Dr. Montessori herself. This philosophy defines the Montessori method according to the pronouncements of Dr. Montessori's colleagues and successors who claim authority from Dr. Montessori herself or her biological son and heir, Mario Montessori. [24]

A second major philosophy developed around the idea that the method is controlled by the surrounding culture within which it is operating at the time. This culture-type philosophy defines the method to fit within the popular theories and ideas of conventional thinking of the day. For example, in this philosophy, the particular effects of the method as described by Dr. Montessori in 1907 would be explained as due to the unique Italian context of that day, which is not possible to replicate with children in a different place and time. [25]

A third main philosophy holds that the Montessori method reflects a way of being committed to infinite and eternal laws of nature, which is outside the context of either personality or culture. This philosophy has been described as a scientific way of following laws of nature to bring about true normal being. [26] In 2003, a new, comprehensive technology was announced for practicing this particular philosophy. [27]

In practice, the Montessori method is applied with varying degrees of adherence to these three main philosophies, although they all usually subscribe to at least part of the writings of Dr. Montessori on the subject. While some strictly adhere to one philosophy or another, others develop their own unique blend of philosophies and interpretation of her writings. Despite these differences, there are several concepts that are widely shared by many adherents and practitioners as consistent with the Montessori method.

Concepts[edit]

  • Inner guidance of nature. All children have inherent inner directives from nature which guide their true normal development. [28]
  • Freedom for self-directed learning. The Montessori method respects individual liberty of children to choose their own activities. This freedom allows children to follow their inner guidance for self-directed learning. [29]
  • Planes of development. The natural development of children proceeds through several distinct planes of development, each one having its own unique conditions and sensitive periods for acquiring basic faculties in the developmental process. The first plane (0-6) involves basic personality formation and learning through physical senses. During this plane, children experience sensitive periods for acquiring language and developing basic mental order. [30] The second plane of development (6-12) involves learning through abstract reasoning, developing through a sensitivity for imagination and social interaction with others. The third plane (12-18) is the period of adolescent growth, involving the significant biological changes of puberty, moving towards learning a valuation of the human personality, especially as related to experiences in the surrounding community. The Fourth plane (18+), involves a completion of all remaining development in the process of maturing in adult society. [31]
  • Prepared Environment. The right precise conditions around children allow for and support their true natural development. For young children, the environment must be prepared in this way by providing a range of physical objects that are organized and made available for free, independent use, to stimulate their natural instincts and interests for self-directed learning. [32]
  • Observation and indirect teaching. The teacher's role is to observe children engaged in activities that follow their own natural interests. This indirect teaching to control the environment, not the child, contrasts sharply with the ordinary teacher's role of implementing a pre-determined curriculum. For example, it has the teacher resolving misbehavior by focusing the child to some positive activity, rather than engaging in the ordinary system of rewards and punishments. [33]
  • Normalization. During the 0-6 plane of development, children have the ability to shift their fundamental being from the ordinary condition of disorder, inattention, and attachment to fantasy to a state of perfect normal being, showing such external behavior as spontaneous self-discipline, independence, love of order, and complete harmony and peace with others in the social situation. This psychological shift to normal being occurs through deep concentration on some physical activity of the child's own free choice. [34]
  • Absorbent Mind. The young child (0-6) has an absorbent mind which naturally incorporates experiences in the environment directly into its whole basic character and personality for life. This mental faculty, which is unique to young children, allows them to learn many concepts in an effortless, spontaneous manner. It also allows them to undergo the key phenomenon of normalization to return to their true natural development. After the age of about six, this absorbent mental faculty disappears. [35]
  • Work, not play. Children have an instinctive tendency to develop through spontaneous experiences on the environment, which Dr. Montessori referred to as 'work'. [36] In this sense, the children's normal activity is attached to reality in the present moment, rather than idle play through such means as toys and fantasy. [37][38]
  • Multi-age grouping. Children learn from each other in a spontaneous manner than supports their independent self-directed activity. The ordinary Montessori classroom therefore consists of a mixed-aged group, such as 2-6 (primary level) or 6-12 (elementary level). [39]

Montessori Materials and Curriculum[edit]

The Montessori method involves a curriculum of learning which comes from the child's own inner guidance of nature and expresses itself in outward behavior as the child's various individual interests to work. Supporting this inner plan of nature, the method provides a range of materials to stimulate the child's interest through self-directed activity. In the first plane of development (0-6), these materials are generally organized into four basic categories; practical life, sensorial, math, and language.

Practical Life[edit]

Practical life materials and exercises respond to the young child's natural interests to develop physical coordination, care of self and care of the environment. Specific materials, for example, provide opportunities for self-help dressing activities, using various devices to practice buttoning, bow tying, and lacing. Other practical life materials include pouring, scooping and sorting activities, as well as washing a table and food preparation to develop hand-eye coordination. These activities also provide a useful opportunity for children to concentrate to bring about their normalization. Other practical life activities include lessons in polite manners, such as folding hands, sitting in a chair, walking on a line. [40]

Sensorial[edit]

The sensorial materials provide a range of activities and exercises for children to experience the natural order of the physical environment, including such attributes as size, color, shape and dimension. [41] Many of these materials were originally suggested and developed by Seguin in his prior research with scientific education. [42]Examples of these materials are: Pink tower (series of ten sequential cubes, varying in volume); knobbed cylinders (wooden blocks with 10 depressions to fit variable sized cylinders); broad stairs (ten wooden blocks, sequentially varying in two dimensions); color tablets (colored objects for matching pairs or grading shapes of color). [43]

Mathematics[edit]

In this area, materials are provided to show such basic concepts as numeration, place value, addition, subtraction, division and multiplication. For numeration, there is a set of ten rods, with segments colored red and blue and “spindle boxes”, which consist of placing sets of objects in groups, 1-10, into separate compartments. For learning the numeral symbols, there is a set of sandpaper numerals, 1-9. For learning addition, subtraction, and place value, materials provide decimal representation of 1, 10, 100, etc., in various shapes made of beads, plastic, or wood. Beyond the basic math materials, there are materials to show the concept of fraction, geometrical relationships and algebra, such as the binomial and trinomial theorums. [44]

Language[edit]

In the first plane of development (0-6), the Montessori language materials provide experiences to develop use of the writing instrument and the basic skills of reading the written language. For writing skill development, the metal insets provide essential exercises to guide the child's hand in following different outline shapes while using a pencil or pen. For reading, a set of individual letters, commonly known as sandpaper letters, provide the basic means for associating the individual letter symbols with their corresponding phonetic sounds. [45] Showing several letters, a lesson, known as the Seguin three-period lesson (see below), guides children to learn the letter sounds, which finally blend together to make certain simple phonetic words like “up” and “cat”. The aim of these nomenclature lessons is to show that letters make sounds, which can be blended together to make words. For children over six, Montessori language materials have been developed to help children learn grammar, including parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, articles, prepositions, adverbs, conjunctions, pronouns, and interjections. [46]

Cultural subjects[edit]

The Montessori classroom also may include other materials and resources to learn cultural subjects, such as geography (map puzzles, globes), and science, such as biology in naming and organizing plants and animals. Music and art are also commonly involved with children in various ways. After the age of about six, learning resources include reading books and more abstract materials for learning a broad range of advanced subject matter. [47]

Elementary (6-12) Curriculum[edit]

During the second plane (6-12) of development, the curriculum takes on a more conventional appearance of books and writing activities, since children now function more through abstract reasoning, and are no longer as sensitive to the physical environment. [48] The contextual format for this more advanced curriculum is described as cosmic education, a concept that was first explained in England in 1935. [49] Cosmic education is the total interrelated functioning of the whole universe, which allows elementary children to store and organize a great amount of knowledge from among a wide range of different subject matter areas and disciplines. [50]

Lessons[edit]

In the Montessori method, a lesson is an experimental interaction with children to support their true normal development. [51] With materials, these lessons primarily aim to present their basic use to children according to their own individual interests. These lessons are therefore given in such a way that the teacher's personal involvement is reduced to the least amount possible, so as not to interfere with the child's own free learning directly through the materials themselves. [52]

For many presentations, a 3 step process, described originally by Seguin, is used in the Montessori method for showing the relationship between objects and names. This is called the "3 period lesson."[53] With this nomenclature lesson, 2 or 3 materials are selected from what the children are working with.

  • Period 1 consists of providing the child with the name of the material. In the case of letter sounds, the teacher will have the child trace the letter and say, "This is /u/. This is /p/." This provides the children with the name of what they are learning.
  • Period 2 is to help the child recognize the different objects. Most of the time with the three period lesson is in period 2. Some things the teacher might say are, "Show me the /u/. Show me the /p/” or "Point to the /u/. Point to the /p/.” After spending some time in the second period, the child may move on to period 3.
  • Period 3 involves checking to see if the child not only recognizes the name of the material, but is able to tell you what it is. The teacher will point to the "u" sandpaper letter and ask the student, "What is this?" If the child replies with, "uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu", the child fully understands it. With letters, the lesson finally ends with the child blending the letters to make a simple word, such as “up.” [54]

Homeschooling[edit]

The Montessori method is readily employed with children at home. With young children, the practical life materials and exercises are provided through everyday household activities and chores, such as setting the table for meals, food preparation, and folding clothes for laundry. Parents follow the method by using slow, simple movements in showing how to do these chores, as well as by establishing routines for children to conduct their own activities with as much independence and self-direction as possible. [55]

Criticism of Montessori[edit]

In the early 1900s, while the popular press and many important public figures were exalting Montessori’s work [56], the progressive experimentalist William Heard Kilpatrick, was an unsympathetic critic. He denounced her ideas through lectures and a seventy-one page booklet titled The Montessori System Examined published in 1914. [57]

In the booklet, Kilpatrick claimed that, in his opinion, Dr. Montessori’s educational views had been created through unscientific observation and note-taking, and that she clearly lacked knowledge of educational thought and practice.

While Madam Montessori’s interest in the scientific attitude is entirely praiseworthy, her actual science cannot be so highly commended. Her biology is not always above reproach . . . she generalizes unscientifically as to the condition of contemporary educational thought and practice from observation limited . . . If she had known more of what was being thought and done elsewhere, her discussions would have been saved some blemishes and her system some serious omissions. (p.4)

He commended her ideas of child liberty and discipline, but harshly criticized her concept of child development, referring to it as “inadequate and misleading” (p. 11). Moreover, he was troubled by the lack of group work and group instruction in Montessori schools, observing: “the Montessori child, each at his own chosen tasks, works in relative isolation, his nearest neighbors possibly looking on . . . We criticize Montessori . . . that she does not provide situations for more adequate social cooperation”. (pp. 15–20)

Kilpatrick asserted that Montessori’s didactic materials, while strongly attractive and compelling to children, were very remote from the social interests and connections to anything relevant in the child’s life.

. . . in these schools playing with the didactic apparatus is strictly forbidden, and usually no other play material is furnished. Madam Montessori has, in fact, been publicly quoted as saying, ‘If I were persuaded that children needed to play, I would provide the proper apparatus; but I am not so persuaded’. The best current thought and practice in America would make constructive and imitative play, socially-conditioned, the foundation and principal constituent of the program for children of the kindergarten age, but Madam Montessori rejects it. (p.28)

In addition, some critics detected a basic flaw in the Montessori method due to its close association with Dr. Montessori herself. In Maria Montessori: a Biography, Rita Kramer [58] reports that a New York Times writer interviewing Montessori in 1913 stated:

...the method is Montessori and Montessori is the method and one may well have grave doubts about how it will go with 'auto-education' when Maria Montessori's personality is removed.” (p 188)

This close association between the method and Dr. Montessori herself led to many conflicts and lack of collaboration to extend research into the method itself. [59] For example, despite new insight and greater knowledge available for applying the method in a scientific manner, the philosophical differences of personality and culture still exist to clooud and confuse its representation to the general public. [60]

Benefits[edit]

Angeline Stoll Lillard's award-winning 2005 book Montessori: The Science Behind the Genius (Oxford University Press) presents a recent overview evaluating Montessori versus conventional education in terms of research relevant to their underlying principles. Lillard cites research indicating that Montessori's basic methods are more suited to what psychology research reveals about human development, and argues the need for more research.

A 2006 study published in the journal "Science" concluded that Montessori students (at ages 5 and 12) performed better than control students who had lost the random computerized lottery to go to Montessori in prior years and instead went to a variety of different conventional schools. This better performance was obtained in a variety of areas, including not only traditional academic areas such as language and math, but in social skills as well (though by age 12 academic benefits had largely disappeared).[61]

On several dimensions, children at a public inner city Montessori school had superior outcomes relative to a sample of Montessori applicants who, because of a random lottery, attended other schools. By the end of kindergarten, the Montessori children performed better on standardized tests of reading and math, engaged in positive interaction on the playground more, and showed advanced social cognition and executive control more. They also showed more concern for fairness and justice. At the end of elementary school, Montessori children wrote more creative essays with more complex sentence structures, selected more positive responses to social dilemmas, and reported feeling more of a sense of community at their school.

The authors concluded that, "when strictly implemented, Montessori education fosters social and academic skills that are equal or superior to those fostered by a pool of other types of schools." Research by K. Dohrmann and colleagues [62] supplements this by showing superior math and science performance in high school by children who previously attended public Montessori (as compared to high school classmates, over half of whom were at the most selective city public high schools); and two studies by Rathunde and Csikszentmihalyi[63][64] showing a higher level of interest and motivation while doing school work as well as more positive social relations among Montessori middle-schoolers as opposed to matched controls.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, p. 174, Publ. Plume, 1998, http://www.penguinputnam.com
  2. ^ The Montessori Method, Maria Montessori, p.80-81, Publ. Random House, 1988, http://www.randomhouse.com
  3. ^ Discovery of the Child, Maria Montessori, p.46, Publ. Ballantine Books, 1972, http://www.randomhouse.com
  4. ^ Maria Montessori: her life and Work, E.M. Standing, p. 169, Publ. Plume, 1998, http://www.penguinputnam.com
  5. ^ Maria Montessori: Her life and Work, E.M. Standing, p. 305, Publ. Plume, 1998, http://www.penguinputnam.com
  6. ^ Discovery of the Child, Maria Montessori, p. 323-324, Publ. Ballantine Books, 1972, http://www.randomhouse.com
  7. ^ International Bureau of Education/Unesco: Montessori and the New Education Movement Retrieved 27/8/2008
  8. ^ Maria Montessori and informal education
  9. ^ The Essential Montessori, Elizabeth Hainstock, p. 115, Publ. Plume, 1997
  10. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E. M. Standing, 1962, p. 29
  11. ^ Discovery of the Child, Maria Montessori, p. 24, Ballantine Books, 1972 http://www.randomhouse.com
  12. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E. M. Standing, 1962, p. 37
  13. ^ Maria Montesori: A Biography, Rita Kramer, 1976, p.110
  14. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E. M. Standing, 1962, p. 37
  15. ^ The Essential Montessori, Elizabeth Hainstock, p. 62, Publ. Plume, 1997
  16. ^ Maria Montessori: a Biography, Rita Kramer, p.154, Pub. Perseus Books, 1976
  17. ^ http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/services/documentation/collections.html
  18. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, Author's preface, 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984
  19. ^ The Essential Montessori, Elizabeth Hainstock, p. 116-118, Publ. Plume, 1997
  20. ^ Education and Peace, Maria Montessori, p. 76, Pub. 1949, Reprint, Montessori-Pierson Publishing Co., 1972
  21. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, p. 64, 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984 http://www.penguinputnam.com
  22. ^ The Essential Montessori, Elizabeth Hainstock, p. 117, Pub. (revised) Plume, 1997 http://www.penguin.com
  23. ^ American Montessori Society, Inc. v. Association Montessori Internationale, 155 U.S.P.Q. 591, 592 (1967)
  24. ^ Maria Montessori: a Biography, Rita Kramer, p.368, Pub. Perseus Books, 1976
  25. ^ The Essential Montessori, Elizabeth Hainstock, p. 117, Pub. (revised) Plume, 1997 http://www.penguin.com
  26. ^ U.S. Department of Education, Final Staff Report to the National Advisory Committee on Institutional Quality and Integrity, June 9, 2008, Washington, DC; concerning the Petition for Continued Recognition Submitted by Montessori Accreditation Council for Teacher Education, Commission on Accreditation, p.7
  27. ^ Ann Travers, Review of ‘Creating the New Education’ Danbury audio cd and study guide. Montessori International, p. 30, Issue 84, July – September 2007; Publ. By Montessori St. Nicholas Charity, www.montessorimagazine.com
  28. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, p. 169, 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984 http://www.penguinputnam.com
  29. ^ Discovery of the Child, Maria Montessori, p.46, Pub. Ballantine Books, 1972 http://www.randomhouse.com
  30. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, Chapter VII, 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984 http://www.penguinputnam.com
  31. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, Chapter VI, 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984 http://www.penguinputnam.com
  32. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, Chapter XVI, 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984 http://www.penguinputnam.com
  33. ^ The Essential Montessori, Elizabeth Hainstock, p. 85, Pub. (revised) Plume, 1997 http://www.penguin.com
  34. ^ The Essential Montessori, Elizabeth Hainstock, p. 62, Pub. (revised) Plume, 1997 http://www.penguin.com
  35. ^ IMaria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, p. 352, 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984 http://www.penguinputnam.com
  36. ^ Absorbent Mind, Maria Montessori, p. 80, Pub. ABC-Clio, org. 1949, reprint 1988
  37. ^ Education for a New World, Maria Montessori, p. 50, Pub. org. 1946, reprint, Montessori-Pierson Publishing Co., 2007
  38. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, p. 334, 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984 http://www.penguinputnam.com
  39. ^ The Essential Montessori, Elizabeth Hainstock, p. 83, Pub. (revised) Plume, 1997 http://www.penguin.com
  40. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, Chapter XIII, 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984 http://www.penguinputnam.com
  41. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, p. 160-62 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984 http://www.penguinputnam.com
  42. ^ Discovery of the Child, Maria Montessori, p. 99 Ballantine Books, Pub. org. 1949, reprint, 1972 http://www.randomhouse.com
  43. ^ Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook, Maria Montessori, p. 65-123, Pub. org. 1914, reprint Schocken Books, 1988, http://www.randomhouse.com
  44. ^ Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook, Maria Montessori, p. 164-182, Pub. org. 1914, reprint Schocken Books, 1988, http://www.randomhouse.com
  45. ^ Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook, Maria Montessori, p. 140-158, Pub. org. 1914, reprint Schocken Books, 1988, http://www.randomhouse.com
  46. ^ Advanced Montessori Method - II, Maria Montessori, part I, Grammar, Pub. org. 1918, reprint ABC-Clio, 2006
  47. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, p. 273-76 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984 http://www.penguinputnam.com
  48. ^ From Childhood to Adolescence, Maria Montessori, p.10, first published, 1948, reprint 2004, Publ. Montessori-Pierson Estates, ABC-Clio Ltd. England
  49. ^ To Educate the Human Potential, Maria Montessori, p.7, first published, 1948, reprint, 1996, Publ. ABC-Clio, Oxford, England
  50. ^ To Educate the Human Potential, Maria Montessori, p.6, first published, 1948, reprint, 1996, Publ. ABC-Clio, Oxford, England
  51. ^ The Essential Montessori, Elizabeth Hainstock, p. 87, Pub. (revised) Plume, 1997 http://www.penguin.com
  52. ^ The Montessori Method, Maria Montessori, p. 108, Pub. org. 1912, reprint, Schocken Books, 1988, http://www.randomhouse.com
  53. ^ Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work, E.M. Standing, p. 307 1957, Pub. Plume, re-print, 1984 http://www.penguinputnam.com
  54. ^ Disocvery of the Child, Maria Montessori, p.210-215, Pub. org. 1949, reprint, Ballantine Books, 1972 http://www.randomhouse.com
  55. ^ Teaching Montessori in the Home Elizabeth G. Hainstock, p. 43-44, first edition, 1967; Plume, 1997
  56. ^ http://www.springerlink.com/content/r6q55458ur663955/
  57. ^ http://www.archive.org/details/montessorisystem00kilprich
  58. ^ Maria Montessori: a Biography, Rita Kramer, p.188, Pub. Perseus Books, 1976
  59. ^ Maria Montessori: a Biographyy, Rita Kramer, p.262, Pub. Perseus Books, 1976
  60. ^ The Essential Montessori, Elizabeth Hainstock, p. 118, Pub. (revised) Plume, 1997 http://www.penguin.com
  61. ^ Lillard A, Else-Quest N (September 2006). "The early years. Evaluating Montessori education". Science. 313 (5795): 1893–4. doi:10.1126/science.1132362. PMID 17008512.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  62. ^ Dohrmann K R, Nishida T, Gartner A, Lipsky D, Grimm K (2007). "High school outcomes for students in a public Montessori program". Journal of Research in Childhood Education. 22 (2): 205–17. doi:10.1080/02568540709594622.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  63. ^ Rathunde K, Csikszentmihalyi M (May 2005). "Middle School Students' Motivation and Quality of Experience: A Comparison of Montessori and Traditional School Environments". American Journal of Education. 111 (3): 341–71. doi:10.1086/428885.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  64. ^ Rathunde K, Csikszentmihalyi M (September 2005). "The Social Context of Middle School: Teachers, Friends, and Activities in Montessori and Traditional School Environments". The Elementary School Journal. 106 (1): 59–79. doi:10.1086/496907.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  • Beineke, J. (1998). And There Were Giants in the Land: The life of William Heard Kilpatrick. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc.
  • Kilpatrick, W. H. (1914). The Montessori System Examined. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
  • Rand, Ayn. (1982). Philosophy: Who Needs It.

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]


Category:Educational psychology Category:Pedagogy Category:Montessori education

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