User:Rioarian

The Earth’s Past

1. Uniformatarianism-The present is the key to the past.

2. Principle of Superposition-The oldest rock is found at the bottom and the younger rock is above it.

3. Principle of Horizontality-The sediments where deposited in layers parallel to Earth’s horizon.

4. Principle of Faunal Succession-The different forms of animals throughout the Earth’s past are thought to have occurred in a definite pattern or sequence.

5. Principle of Fossil Succession-The old fossils must be at the bottom and the younger fossils must be above it.

6. Principle of Crosscutting Relationship-A fracture or an igneous intrusion such as a dike must be younger than the rock it intrudes.

7. Principle of Inclusion-Inclusions or fragments of one rock contained within another, are older than the rock layer containing the inclusions.

8. Unconformity-surface erosion between rocks represents a gap in the Earth’s History.

9. Disconformity-An erosion surface between rock layers that are parallel with one another.

10. Angular Unconformity-An erosion surface on tilted or folded rocks over which younger rock layers have been deposited.

11. Nonconformity-An erosion surface cut into metamorphic or igneous rock that is covered by sedimentary rocks.

12. Relative Dating-Involves placing events in their proper chronological sequence, that is, in the order of their occurrence.

13. Absolute Dating-Gives specific dates for events expressed in years before the present.

14. Index Fossil-provide a fast way to identify the age of the rock layers.

15. Trilobites-Ancient sea animals that no longer exists.

16. Carbon Imprint-Fossil Formed when a thin film of carbon remains, having an imprint of the life form.

17. Cast-Fossil that form when minerals fill a cavity.

18. Mold-Shows the shell of the organism.

19. Petrified-turned into stone.

20. Bituminous Coal-Soft coal.

21. Anthracite Coal-Hard coal.

22. Era- Geologic Time Division.

23. Principle of Uniform Process-Tells the process at work in changing the Earth’s surface today are the same process that have been acting since the earth formed.

24. Shield-Precambrian rock that is the foundation of continents.

25. Half Life-The length of time that it takes for half the atoms of a radioactive element to decay.

26. Uranium-Radioactive element used to take ancient rocks.

27. Carbon 14-Rdaioactive element used to date dead plants and animals.

28. Amber-Where entire fossil insects have been found preserved.

29. Radiometric Dating-Process which measures radioactive decay of radioactive element.

30. Radioactivity-The nuclei in some atoms spontaneously break up or decay.

31. Parent isotope-Radioactive Isotope.

32. Period-The era are farther divided into smaller units.

33. Daughter Products-Elements resulting from the decay of radioactive isotope.

34. Paleozoic Era-The era where large oil deposit is found.

35. Geologic Time Scale-A chart arranged the time intervals at the Earth’s History.

36. Precambrian Era-The era where the Earth is formed. -bacteria and algae is the first organism.

37. Mesozoic Era-The age of Dinosaurs.

38. Ordovician Period-First fishes appeared.

39. Silurian Period-Diverse armored fishes came to existence. The first land plants which where very small began to grow.

40. Devonian Period-Predatory fishes like sharks and bony fishes where found to have existed. The land began taking a new appearance-swamp forest appeared.

41. Permian Period-The land was by then thickly forested with many kinds of tree, none of which where flowering. Land animals such as amphibians, reptiles, and insects where abundant.

42. Triassic Period-Mollusks had a worldwide distribution but became extinct after sometime. These mollusks where a distant relative of the modern day squid. Land masses where still populated by insects and plants. New kinds of animals appearing where the chicken size and dog size dinosaurs and small rodents during the late Triassic Period.

43. Jurassic Period-Dinosaurs became the largest land dwellers. The first true birds also appeared with feathers, large brain, with teeth and structurally similar to small dinosaurs. Because the climate was rather warm, flowering trees appeared and spread for toward the North and South Poles.

44. Cretaceous Period-Large plant eating dinosaurs existed with moderate size meat eating dinosaurs. Later, the plant eaters became smaller and meat eaters became bigger. Corals and clams also stored forming reefs. Land mass began to rise.

45. Epoch-Period may be still be divided.

46. Pleistocene Epoch-Glaciers covered a lot of the North Hemisphere. Glaciers grew and melted several times causing changes in land environments, sea level, and water temperature.

47. Petrifaction-The original parts of the fossil have been replaced by mineral substance.

48. Carbonization-The fossil remains of plants are changed into coal.

Earth and Solar System

49. Horizon-The line where land or sea meets the sky.

50. Circumference-The distance around a circle.

51. Eratosthenes-Measured the circumference of the Earth.

52. Saltiness of the Ocean-It is believed that water in original ocean was without salt that point to an old Earth.

53. Age of River Valleys-The erosion of Great River Valleys which goes on continuously points to an old Earth.

54. Fossil Evidences-The fossil deposits found in rocks tell a story of plant and animal life in the remote past.

55. Deposits of sediments-The deposits of sediments takes long years to build up and form a mountain. Tells how old is the rock sediment deposited.

56. Radioactivity-The radioactive elements found in rock is considered the most exact method of estimating the age of the Earth.

57. Rotation-Turning of the Earth on its Axis.

58. Foucault Pendulum-Invented by Jean Foucault.

59. Axis-An imaginary line passing through the poles of an object, such as a planet, about which it rotates.

60. Revolution-The motion of a planet on its orbit around the sun.

61. Orbit-The path of a planet or body as it revolves around another body.

62. Heliocentric Theory-Sun is the Center of the Solar System.

63. Geocentric Theory-Earth is the Center of the Solar System.

64. Galileo Galilei-The first to use the astronomical telescope.

65. Isaac Newton-Formulated the three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation.

66. Aristarchus-The First Greek to advocate a sun-centered or heliocentric universe.

67. Pythagoras-Greek philosopher and mathematician suggested that the Earth rotates upon an axis and revolves around the sun in its orbit.

68. Ptolemy-An astronomer and mathematician of Alexandria, advanced the Geocentric Theory which placed the Earth as the center of the universe.

69. Copernicus-The first great heliocentric to emerge.

70. Kepler-Discover the three Fundamental Laws of Planetary Motion which described the Copernican Theory.

71. Physical Geology-The study of the materials composing the Earth and the processes and phenomena that operate beneath and upon its surface.

72. Historical Geology-Deals with the study of the evolution of the Earth.

73. Tides-Periodic change in the elevation of the ocean surface at a particular place.

74. Solar Eclipse-A dark cast shadow on the Earth when the moon moves directly between the Earth and the sun.

75. Lunar Eclipse-When the moon moves within the shadow of the Earth.

76. Mercury –The innermost planet.

77. Venus-The most brilliant planet in the Solar System.

78. Mars-The red Planet. -Has a pink sky.

79. Jupiter-The largest planet.

80. Saturn-The most beautiful planet because of its ring. -Has three ringlets.

81. Uranus-The green planet.

82. Neptune-The twin of Uranus.

83. Moon-The only satellite of the Earth.

84. Meteoroid-Rock body, smaller than an asteroid that travels through space.

85. Gibbous Moon-Moon that appears more than half full but less than full.

86. Titan-Saturn’s moon that has an atmosphere.

87. Asteroid –Minor planet.

88. Io-Jupiter’s moon that has erupting volcanoes.

89. Comet-An icy object that travels in a long, thin ellipse.

90. Period-The time it takes a planet to make one complete orbit.

91. Great Red Spot-A mass of clouds in Jupiter.

92. Ellipse-An oval-shaped figure with foci.

93. New Moon-The dark phase of the moon.

94. Apollo-The space program that studied the moon.

95. Kepler’s Second Law-Earth moves faster in its orbit when it is closest to the sun.

Galaxies, Quasars, and the universe

96. Nebulae-Clouds of dust and gas in space.

97. Galaxy-A group of hundreds of Billions of stars, gas, and dust.

98. Local Group-Includes the milky way galaxy, another spiral galaxy, and two dozen elliptical and irregular galaxies.

99. Magellanic Clouds-Two irregular galaxies close to the Milky Way Galaxy, visible from the Southern Hemisphere.

100. Red Shift-Shift in wavelength that indicates that objects are moving away. 101. Irregular Galaxies-Galaxies that have no definite shape.

102. Quasars-Objects with the largest known red shifts.

103. Black hole-Provide Energy for quasars.

104. Milky Way-Band of light across the sky from stars, gas, and dust in our own galaxy.

105. Big bang-Event that may marked the beginning of the universe.

106. Peculiar-Galaxies with regular, but unusual, shape.

107. Spiral-Galaxies with arms that appear to unwind from a central region. -The galaxy that most resembles our own galaxy.

Stars

108. Light Year-9,500,000,000,000 km.

109. Parallax-Apparent shift in position of nearby star with respect to distant star.

110. Corona-Halo of glowing gas around the sun.

111. Dwarf-An ordinary star on the main sequence.

112. Black hole-A region of space from which light cannot escape.

113. Solar Flare-Explosions that erupts from the sun’s surface.

114. Pulsar-A neutron star that gives off beams of radiation.

115. Fusion-The combining of two or more nuclei.

116. Nucleus-The central part of an atom that contains moss of the mass.

117. Giant-A type of star that is brighter than main sequence stars of the same color.

118. Supernova-A brilliant Explosion.

Diastrophism, Vulcanism, Earthquakes

119. Diastrophism-Refers to all movements of the solid parts of the Earth.

120. Uplift-The rising of the crust.

121. Subsidence-The sinking of the crust.

122. Thrust-The sideway or horizontal motion of the crust.

123. Equal Standing-theory that holds that continents and the ocean basins are in a state of balance.

124. Theory of Isostasy-State that the earth’s crust maintains its balance as it floats on the mantle.

125. Contraction Theory-States that the Earth is gradually shrinking because it is cooling.

126. Convection Theory-States that convection current are formed under the crust. The liquids get heated and rise. They sink upon cooling and set up convection currents circulate and may result in the expansion of the rock layers just above them throwing them upward.

127. Continental Drift Theory-State that there was originally a single large continent called “Pangaea” and it made up the solid sphere3 of the Earth. This continent break up into several parts and these parts drifted apart over many millions of years.

128. Expansion Theory-States that the Earth is neither shrinking nor remaining at the same size, it is expanding.

129. Sea Floor Spreading Theory-States that the sea floor is spreading because of the volcanic activity beneath the ocean.

130. Plate Tectonics Theory-States that the Earth’s crust is divided into large plates, moving very slowly in particular directions with respect to one another-this movement is referred to as tectonics.

131. Vulcanism-The movement of hot molten rock materials toward the surface of the Earth.

132. Alfred Wegener-He believed that there was once a super continent (Pangaea) that existed.

133. Divergent Boundaries-The plates move away from each other leaving a gap in between.

134. Convergent Boundaries-The plates move together causing one to go under the other, as in oceanic crust or causing plates to collide, as in continental crust.

135. Transform Fault Boundaries-The plates slide past one another, Scrapping and deforming as they pass.

136. Faults-Fractures where movements took place.

137. Normal Fault-The rock above the fault plane moves down relative to the rock below.

138. Reverse Fault-The rock move up above the fault line.

139. Strike slips Fault-Horizontal Fault movement.

140. Earthquake-A shaking of the ground caused by movement of rock masses below the Earth’s surface.

141. Focus or Hypocenter-The exact center of the Earthquake below the Earth’s surface.

142. Epicenter-Point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.

143. Tsunamis-Large sea waves generated by earthquakes along the ocean floor.

144. Liquefaction-Occurs when loose water field sediments lose their strength, producing fractures and sliding of the ground.

145. Seismic Waves-Vibrations produce by Earthquake.

146. p wave-Pass through solids, liquids, gases. -First to arrive in the seismic station.

147. S wave-Move the rocks from side to side. -Can pass only through solids. -Second to arrive in a seismic station.

148. L wave-Cause side to side movement of the ground. -Can cause the big damage. -Last to arrive in a seismic station.

149. Seismograph-An instrument used to detect, measure and record vibrations within the Earth.

150. Seismogram-Zigzag lines in a seismograph.

151. Magnitude-Amount of energy released of an Earthquake.

152. Richter Magnitude Scale-A measure of the magnitude.

153. Mercalli Intensity Scale-A measure of intensity.

154. Tectonic Earthquakes-Earthquake caused by faulting.

155. Volcanic Earthquakes-Earthquake caused by volcanic activity or by the flow of magma in the crust.

156. Laccolith-A domed mass of igneous rock formed by intrusion beneath other rocks.

157. Batholith-A large mass of intrusive igneous rocks whose lower limit is unknown.

158. Dike-Solidified magma in vertical cracks or fissures.

159. Sill-Solidified magma in horizontal rock formation.

160. Crater-Depression at the summit of a volcano, connected by a vent or pipe to the magma chamber below.

161. Main Vent-Where magma mainly passes toward the surface during an eruption.

162. Side Vent-Some lave and steams flow also occurs.

163. Volcano-An opening or vent in the Earth’s surface where hot gases, lava, and rock fragments are ejected.

164. Lava-Refers to the magma reaching the surface of the Earth.

165. Quiet volcanoes-these volcanoes discharge fluid lava which overflows at the side, spreading fast and reaching far down the slopes of the volcano, resulting in a broad base.

166. Explosive Volcanoes-This type of volcano bursts. Loud rumblings and shaking precede an eruption, throwing up ashes, cinders and other materials high up in the sky. The rumbling can be felt from afar and is caused by the movement of magma and gases held under tremendous pressure.

167. Intermediate Volcanoes-this type is half way between the quiet and explosive types of volcano. But at other times volcanic materials erupt with a big explosion.

168. Active Volcano-These are volcanoes that are erupting or have recently erupted.

169. Dormant Volcano-These volcano show no signs of activity, have not erupted for a considerable time of length, but it can be active again.

170. Extinct Volcano-These volcanoes have remained dormant for a great many years all activity has ceased.

171. Rocks-Formed from sticky magma blasted into fragments by intense pressure inside the Earth.

172. Gas-Composed mostly of steam, but may also include such gases as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and sulfur dioxide.

173. Mudflows or debris flow or lahar-Mixtures of volcanic debris and water. The water usually comes from two sources: rainfall or the melting of snow and ice by hot volcanic debris.

174. Caldera-A basin like depression formed by the destruction of a volcanic cone.

175. Shield cone-Developed from non explosive volcanic eruptions of flowing lavas.

176. Composite Cone-Develop from alternating eruptions of dust, ash, and rocks followed by quiet lava flows.

177. Cinder cone-Forms when the eruptions throw out mostly rocks and ash very little lava.

178. Stock-Similar but smaller to batholith.

179. Fissures-Cracks in the earth’s crust.

180. Aftershocks-Small earthquake usually follow a strong earthquake.

Mineral, Rock, Soil

181. Mineral-Naturally occurring inorganic substance with an orderly atomic arrangement.

182. Hardness-The ability of the mineral to resist being scratch.

183. Streak-The color of a thin layer of powder on the mineral when it is being scratch.

184. Luster-The appearance of the surface of the mineral in reflected light.

185. Cleavage-Property of a mineral that causes it to break along one or more smooth, flat surfaces.

186. Fracture-Term used to describe the way some mineral break-curved surface, splintered, uneven.

187. Specific Gravity-A comparison of the density of mineral with the density of water.

188. Fluorescent-minerals that can absorb the ultraviolet light and give off visible rays.

189. Phosphorescent-A mineral that continue to give off light rays even after the ultraviolet rays have been cut off.

190. Radioactivity-Property of mineral by which it can emit radiations through the spontaneous break down of their atomic nuclei.

191. Silicious Minerals-Group of minerals that contain the chemical element silicon. Ex. 1.Quartz 4.Amphiboles 2.Feldspar 5.Olivine 3.Mica 6.Talc

192. Nonmetallic Minerals-Minerals that contain calcium or magnesium which are metal but they are not considered sources of metals. Ex. 1.Calcite 4.Halite 7.Apatite 2.Dolomite 5.Kernite 8.Flourite 3.Sulfur 6.Gypsum 9.Graphite

193. Metal Ore Minerals-This group includes the common metal ores. An ore is a rock or mineral deposit from which a metal may be extracted on a commercial scale. Ex 1.Gold 3.Iron 5.Lead 7.Tin 2.Silver 4.Copper 6.Zinc 8.Aluminum 9.Mercury 10.Titanium 11.Uranium

194. Gem Minerals-This group includes minerals made into precious and semi-precious stones. Ex. 1.Diamond 4.Aquamarine 7.Jade 2.Zircon 5.Topaz 8.Garnet 3.Sapphire 6.Opal 9.Tourmaline 10.Corundum

195. Rock-Solid masses at the lithosphere.

196. Igneous Rock-Formed by molten material that has cooled and solidified. Ex. 1.Granite 3.Obsidian 5.Gabbro 2.Basalt 4.Pumice 6.Diorite

197. Sedimentary Rocks-Formed from pieces of rocks naturally cemented together. Ex. 1.Sandstone 4.Conglomerate 2.Limestone 5.Dolomite 3.Shale 6.Gypsum

198. Metamorphic Rock-Formed from igneous or sedimentary but have been changed in texture or mineral composition on both through great heat and pressure. Ex. Shale-Slate Sandstone-Quartzite Conglomerate-Gneiss Pure Limestone-Marble

199. Igneous Extrusive Rock-The rock formed when magma reaches the surface and hardens.

200. Igneous Intrusive Rock-The rock formed when magma stopped from reaching the surface by other rocks, and it cools inside the Earth.

201. Soil-A layer of fine loose material.

202. Residual Soil-Soil formed by the weathering of the bedrock on which it rests.

203. Humus-Layer of soil which decaying plant and animal is added.

204. Sandy Soil-Soil which has mostly sand in it plus a little clay.

205. Clay Soil-Soil which has mostly clay in it plus a little sand and humus.

206. Loam-Soil which has proper amounts of gravel, sand, and clay in it plus a large amount of humus.

207. Soil Profile-Refers to the arrangement of the soil into layer like horizons of varying texture, color and consistency.

208. A-Horizon: Topsoil-The uppermost layer and is mostly humus.

209. B-Horizon: Subsoil-This is the layer where the material brought down from above has accumulated.

210. C-Horizon: Substratum-This is composed of decayed parent rock and extends downward into unweathered bedrock.

211. R: Bedrock-Impenetrable Layer.

212. O-Horizon: Surface Litter-Layer where freshly fallen leave and organic debris and partially decomposed organic matter.

213. E-Horizon: Zone of leaching-Area through which dissolved or suspended materials move downward.

214. Soil Horizon-The separated soil layers.

215. Alluvial Soil-Soil that develops from materials deposited by stream.

Erosion and Weathering

216. Erosion-The process by which weathered rock and soil particles are from one place to another.

217. Deposition-The process by which sediments are laid down in new locations.

218. Mass Wasting-The downhill movement of sediment caused by gravity.

219. Deflation-A type of wind erosion which removes loose material such as clay, silt and sand from the land.

220. Abrasion-A type of wind erosion in which the particle often act like a sand blaster, cutting and polishing rock.

221. Sand Dune-A mound of sand deposited by wind.

222. Loess-When many layers of fine sand and silt are deposited in the same area.

223. Terracing-Building terraces along slopes.

224. Contour Farming-Crops are planted on sloping land so each rows runs around the slope at the same level. The method of farming helps prevent soil erosion on the mountain side.

225. Riprapping-Building on a slope a sustaining wall of stone held together by mud or cement.

226. Reforestation-Planting trees in deforested areas.

227. Aforestation-Planting trees in areas which were not forests before.

228. Covercropping-Growing plant such as grasses and vines mainly to cover the soil.

229. Croprotation-Systematically planting different crops in succession, such as rice followed by mungbean; same plants remove more of one kind of mineral to prevent the continues loss of the same mineral from the soil, farmer rotate crops to keep up soil fertility.

230. Strip Cropping-Use to prevent the washing down of soil after slopes have been smoothed and planted. The farmer plants a row crop such as corn in one strip, and in another strip the plants another kind of crop.

231. Weathering-The breaking down of rock and other materials on the Earth’s surface.

232. Talus-Piles of rock fragments.

233. Exfoliation-Pieces break off in curved sheets or slabs parallel to the rock surface.

234. Frost Action-The repeated freezing and melting of water is a common cause of mechanical weathering.

235. Landslides-Large movement of loose rocks and soils.

236. Mechanical Weathering-Breaking down of rock into different shapes and smaller pieces.

237. Physical Weathering-The breakdown of mineral or rock material by entirely mechanical methods brought about by variety of causes.

238. Chemical Weathering-Involves the alternation of the chemical and mineralogical composition of the weathered material.

239. Hydrolysis-The weathering reaction that occurs when the two surfaces of water and compound meet.

240. Solution-A chemical weathering processes where a kind of rock or parts of rock that dissolve when in contact with a particular kind of liquid undergoes solution.

Earth’s Interior and the Scenic Landforms

241. Crust-Outermost layer of the Earth.

242. Moho-The boundary that separates the crust from the mantle.

243. Mantle-Layer of the Earth by which iron, calcium, magnesium and other molten materials.

244. Gutenberg Discontinuity-The boundary between the mantle and the core.

245. Lithosphere-The solid part of the Earth.

246. Asthenosphere-A relative narrow, mobile zone in the mantle and found below the lithosphere.

247. Core-The central part of the Earth. -The core has two parts the: liquid outer core and the liquid inner core.

248. Mountain-A surface feature characterized by a steep rise from a base to a narrow top or summit.

249. Folded Mountain-A type of mountain formed from tectonic plates.

250. Fault Block Mountain-In some cases, instead of folding, they break, creating a fault. In these mountains, one side is steep while the other has a small inclined plane.

251. Volcanic Mountain-A type of mountain formed from the sides of a big chain of volcano. 252. Erosional Mountain-Mountain that is formed by erosional activity.

253. Plain-A region of horizontal rock layers which has low relief due to a comparatively low elevation.

254. Relief-The irregularity in elevation of parts of the Earth’s surface.

255. Coastal Plains-This are plains near the seacoast.

256. Lava Plains-Plains formed by volcanism.

257. Alluvial Plain-Plain formed when transport rack fragments, and deposit these at the mouths of rivers or along river beds.

258. Flood Plain-A plain formed along the river course.

259. Delta Plain-A plain formed at the mouth of a river.

260. Plateau-A table like land surface bounded on at least one side by steep slopes descending to areas several hundred meters lower.

261. Fault Plateau-A high region of horizontal rocks in which much faulting has accompanied the uplifting process.

262. Lava Plateaus-A similar Highland that has been formed by products of volcanism.

263. Mountain Range-A ridge or a continuous group of peaks and valleys.

264. Mountain chain-A group of ridges running in a parallel pattern.

265. Cordillera-A belt of mountain system.