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''Empoasca fabae'', belongs to family [[Cicadellidae]] and genus [[Empoasca]], within order [[Hemiptera]].<ref name=Lamp2011>”Lamp, W., D., Miranda, L., Culler & Alexander, L. (2011) “Host Suitability and Gas Exchange Response of Grapevines to Potato Leafhopper (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)”. ''Journal of Economic Entomology'' '''104''' (4): 1316-1322.</ref> 
They are more commonly referred to as the potato leafhopper.<ref name=Lamp2011 /> In North America they are a serious agricultural [[pest]].<ref name=Delayetal>”Delay, B., P, Mamidala, A, Wijeratne., S, Wijerante, O, Mittapalli, J, Wang., and Lamp, W. (2012). “Transcriptome analysis of the salivary glands of potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae”. ''Journal of Insect Physiology'' '''58''' (12): 1626-1634.</ref> Every year millions of dollars are lost from reduced [[crop]] yields and on pest management.<ref name=Backus2005>”., M, Serrano., & Ranger, C. (2005). “Mechanisms of Hopperburn: An Overview of Insect Taxonomy, Behavior, and Physiology.” ''Annual Review Entomology'' '''50'''(1): 125-151..</ref>  Crops that are impacted the most are potatoes, clover, beans, apples and alfalfa .<ref name=Bland2010>"Bland R.G., Jaques H.E. (2010). How to Know the Insects 3rd Edition. Waveland Press Inc. p.163.</ref>

{{Speciesbox| taxon = Empoasca fabae}}
==Appearance==  
Adults have a pale to iridescent green bodies with 6 or 8 white spots on their [[pronotum]]. <ref name=Bland2010 /> They have a distinctive white H shape mark between their head and wing base.<ref name=Dudley1921>”Dudley, J. (1921). “The Potato Leafhopper and its control”. United States Department of Agriculture: Farmers Bulletin 1225, 1-16..</ref> Adults grow to approximately 3 mm long and have on their front wings near its tip a crossvein. <ref name=Bland2010 /> Adults and nymphs move by hopping among host plants.<ref name=Dudley1921 /> However, it’s only the adults that can fly .<ref name=Hoffmanhoggboush1991>” Hoffman, G., D, Hogg, & Boush, M. (1991).  “Potato Leafhopper (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) Life History Traits on Water-Stressed Alfalfa in the Early Regrowth and Bud Stage”. ''Environmental Entomology'' '''20'''(4): 10581066 .</ref>             
[[File:Cicadellidae Empoasca.jpg|thumb|175x200px|alt=Cicadellidae Empoasca| Appearance of a closely related species from family ''[[Cicadellidae]]'' genus''[[Empoasca]]''.]]
==Diet==
They are able to feed and reproduce on at least 200 different plant species across twenty-six families.<ref name=Lamp2011 />      Herb genera represents 64% of their [[hosts]] .<ref name=Lampetal2004>” Lamp, W., Nielsen, G., Fuentes, C., & Quebedeaux, B. (2004) “Feeding Site Preference of Potato Leafhopper (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) on Alfalfa and its Effect on Photosynthesis”. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 21 (1): 25-38 </ref> Adults prefer to feed on the [[leaves]] and [[stems]], while the nymphs prefer the leaves .<ref name=Lamp2004>”Lamp, W., Nielsen, G., Fuentes, C., & Quebedeaux, B. (2004) “Feeding Site Preference of Potato Leafhopper (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) on Alfalfa and its Effect on Photosynthesis”. ''Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology'' '''21''' (1): 25-38</ref> Their specialized mouth parts are able to pierce into the plant tissue and remove its [[sap]].<ref name=PotterSpicer1993>”Potter, D., & Spicer, P. (1993). “Seasonal Phenology, Management, and Host Preferences of Potato Leafhopper on Nursery-Grown Maples” ''Journal of Environmental Horticulture'' '''11'''(3): 101-106..</ref> The ability to inhabit a wide range of hosts, is due to the variation in their feeding behaviors .<ref name=LampNieDan1994 />  
==Migration==
''E. Fabae'' is a seasonal [[migration]] species.<ref name=TaylorReling1986>”Taylor, R., & Reling, D. (1986). Preferred Wind Direction of Long-Distance Leafhopper (Empoasca fabae) Migrants and its Relevance to the Return Migration of Small Insects. ''Journal of Animal Ecology'' '''55'''(3): 1103-1114 </ref> They are able to reach their summer range by flying at night for two or three days .<ref name=CarlsonWhalonLandisGage1992 /> Research suggests that they are using winds as a passive means to help migrate. .<ref name=TaylorReling1986 />The direction of the winds influence their distribution within their summer range.<ref name=TaylorReling1986 /> Factors such as warm temperatures and lack of [[Precipitation]] increases their range .<ref name=CarlsonWhalonLandisGage1992 /> Typically, the winds blow in a north-northeast direction towards Northern and Midwest United States .<ref name=TaylorReling1986 /> Cold temperatures, major precipitation, and unsuitable environmental conditions are factors that will stop migration to continue more north .<ref name=CarlsonWhalonLandisGage1992 />  In late summer [[cold fronts]] start to appear sending cues for them to leave .<ref name=TaylorReling1986 /> As they leave they get caught up in these fronts and carry south to southwest to their overwintering range.<ref name=TaylorReling1986 />
==Habitat and Range==
===Winter===
Due to their inability to tolerate the cold winter temperatures they must migrate south.<ref name=TaylorReling1986>”Taylor, R., & Reling, D. (1986). Preferred Wind Direction of Long-Distance Leafhopper (Empoasca fabae) Migrants and its Relevance to the Return Migration of Small Insects. ''Journal of Animal Ecology'' '''55'''(3): 1103-1114.</ref> Adults overwinters on hosts in the pine and mixed hardwood forests along the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and in the Southern [[United States]].<ref name=TaylorSheilds1995>”Taylor, P., & Sheilds, E. (1995). “Phenology of Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in its Overwintering Area and Proposed Seasonal Phenology”. ''Environmental Entomology'' '''24''' (5): 1096-1108.</ref> Eastern Texas and Oklahoma, Virginia, Louisiana, Florida, Georgia, South and North Carolina, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi, have documented populations. .<ref name=TaylorSheilds1995 /> Before migrating back to their summer range they change their hosts to [[herbaceous]] legumes then to new spring foliage of [[deciduous]] trees .<ref name=TaylorSheilds1995 />
===Summer===
Their summer range extends across the Midwest and eastern parts of Canada and the United States.<ref name=MedeirosTingeyDejong2004>”Medeiros, A., W, Tingey., & De Jong, W. (2004).  “Mechanisms of Resistance to Potato Leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Harris), in Potato”. ''American Journal of Potato Research'' '''81'''(6): 431-441..</ref> In Canada, they are found only in the [[Great Lakes]] region .<ref name=TaylorReling1986 />  They are able to inhabit a wide range of habitats  .<ref name=LampNieDan1994>” Lamp, W., G, Nielson., & Danielson, S. (1994). “Patterns among Host Plants of Potato Leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae.” Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 67(4): 354-368.</ref> Only about 32% of individuals actually occupies croplands. <ref name=LampNieDan1994 /> The remaining individuals will reside in fields, woodlands, scrublands, waste places, and parks. <ref name=LampNieDan1994 /> Precipitation will deposit individuals upon plant hosts where they will quickly re-establish themselves .<ref name=VanTimWiseVandervootIsaacs2011>”Van Timmeren, S., J, Wise, C, Vandervoort., & Isaacs, R. (2011). “Comparison of foliar and soil formulations of neonicotinoid insecticides for control of potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), in wine grapes.” ''Pest Management Science''  '''67'''(5): 560-567.</ref>
==Development and Reproduction==
===Dispause===
Before migrating they mate and enter reproductive [[diapause]]  .<ref name=TaylorSheilds1995>”Taylor, P., & Sheilds, E. (1995). “Phenology of Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in its Overwintering Area and Proposed Seasonal Phenology”. ''Environmental Entomology'' '''24''' (5): 1096-1108.</ref> E. Fabae will begin to enter into reproductive dispause at the end of July .<ref name=ErlandsonObrycki2015>” Erlandson, W., & Obrycki, J. (2015). “Population Dynamics of Empoasca fabae (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in Central Iowa Alfalfa Fields.” ''Journal of Insect Science'' '''15'''(1): 1-6.</ref> The entire population will remain in this state for the migration and overwintering period .<ref name= TaylorSheilds1995/> This diapause period ends between mid-January and February, and they begin to sexually mature .<ref name= TaylorSheilds1995/>
===Egg laying===
During the spring migration north the majority of the individuals are females 
.<ref name=MalettaHenningerHolmstrom2006/> When they return if temperatures are above 10°C they can start oviposition and populations will grow and re-establish themselves .<ref name=Sidumosheildslembo2005/> ''E fabae'' arrives back to their summer ranges during April or early May depending on the location. <ref name=BentzTownsend2004>”Bentz, J., & Townsend, A. (2004). “Spatial and temporal patterns of abundance of the potato leafhopper among red maples.” ''Annal of Applied Biology'' '''145'''(2): 157-164. .</ref>

During the summer months they can on average lay eggs over a span of 96 days.<ref name=Poos1932>”Poos, F. (1932). “Biology of the Potato Leafhopper, Empoasca Fabae (Harris), and Some Closely Related Species of Empoasca.” ''Journal of Economic Entomology'' '''25'''(3): 639-646. </ref> Peak population densities occur during late May to late June .<ref name=PotterSpicer1993 /> Many overlapping generations will appear.<ref name=PotterSpicer1993 /> After this their population densities begin to decline slowly .<ref name=BentzTownsend2004 /> Individuals have a tendency to aggregate as their populations increase .<ref name=BentzTownsend2004 /> At the end of the summer individuals will either die or migrate south .<ref name=taylorsheildstaubertauber1995>”Taylor, P., E, Sheilds., M, Tauber., & Tauber, C. (1995). “Induction of Reproductive Diapause in Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) and Its Implications Regarding Southward Migration”. ''Environment Entomology'' '''24''' (5): 1086-1095.</ref>

===Eggs and hatchlings===
Eggs are laid on their hosts, they are transparent and small in size .<ref name=Dudley1921 /> Every day females will lay 2 or 3 eggs a day on the plant’s stem and leaf veins .<ref name=Townsend>”Townsend, L. (2012). “Potato Leafhoppers.” University of Kentucky. Version 2012.2. ENT facts http://www2.ca.uky.edu/entomology/entfacts/ef115.asp Retrieved 28 November 2015 </ref> The egg’s incubation period ranges from 4 to 23 days, the hatchings are called [[nymphs]].<ref name=Poos1932>”Poos, F. (1932). “Biology of the Potato Leafhopper, Empoasca Fabae (Harris), and Some Closely Related Species of Empoasca.” ''Journal of Economic Entomology'' '''25'''(3): 639-646. </ref> New hatchlings are white in colour and will develop their green colouring as they age .<ref name=Poos1932 /> The nymphs undergo five [[instars]] before becoming fully mature adults.<ref name=MalettaHenningerHolmstrom2006 /> As they develop they lose their skin and develop their wings  .<ref name=Dudley1921 /> ''E fabre'' evolves into adults after 8 to 37 days. .<ref name=Poos1932 /> Their entire lifecycle is a month long .<ref name=Townsend /> 
==As a Pest==
===Hopperburn===
Hopperburn in plants is caused by ''E. Fabae’s'' feeding on its hosts .<ref name=MalettaHenningerHolmstrom2006>”Maletta, M., M, Henninger, & Holmstrom, K. (2006). “Potato Leafhopper Control and Plastic Mulch Culture in Organic Potato Production”. ''HortTechnology'' '''16''' (2): 199-204.</ref> As they feed their saliva mechanically injures the [[phloem]] and [[parenchyma]] cells .<ref name=Delayetal /> The plant also suffers damage to its [[vascular cambium]], and to its vascular bundles .<ref name=MalettaHenningerHolmstrom2006 /> Within 24 hours of being infested rates of [[photosynthesis]],and [[transpiration]] are reduced, leaves accumulate starch, and transport of photoassimilates are reduced .<ref name=Lampetal2004 />

The first symptoms of hopperburn is that the leaflet margins will start to curl up.<ref name=Lampetal2004 /> As plant infestation increases the leaves cup downward and they start to turn from green to yellow .<ref name=Murrayetal2001>"Murray, J., M, Paul., & Schaafma, A. (2001) “Determination of traits associated with leafhopper (Empoasca fabae and Empoasca kraemeri) resistance and dissection of leafhopper damage symptoms in the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)”. ''Annals of Applied Biology''. '''139'''(3): 319-327.</ref> In severe infestations this leads to leaf [[necrosis]] where the leaf margins and intervein areas will turn brown.<ref name=Murrayetal2001/> Older plants will completely lose their leaves.<ref name=BackusSerranoranger2005>” Backus, E., M, Serrano., & Ranger, C. (2005). “Mechanisms of Hopperburn: An Overview of Insect Taxonomy, Behavior, and Physiology.” ''Annual Review Entomology'' '''50'''(1): 125-151.</ref> Young plants will display tip-wilting and will be stunted in normal height.<ref name=BackusSerranoranger2005 /> Plants that were damaged by stem feeding suffered more damaged to its physiology than those who were damaged by leaf eating .<ref name=Lamp2004 />

Research has shown that water stressed plants increase nymph's development time .<ref name=Hoffmanhoggboush1991 /> 
This causes sever hopperburn due to the increase plant stress response .<ref name=Townsend />

===Economic Impacts===
Hopperburn leads to reduced plant growth and reproduction .<ref name=BackusSerranoRanger2005>" Backus, E., M, Serrano., & Ranger, C. (2005). “Mechanisms of Hopperburn: An Overview of Insect Taxonomy, Behavior, and Physiology.” ''Annual Review Entomology'' '''50'''(1): 125-151.</ref> In some heavily infested fields up to 75% of the yield is lost, it depends on what stage of development the plants are in .<ref name=MedeirosTingeyDejong2004/> Obviously, this leads to reductions in crop yields and large economic losses  .<ref name=BackusSerranoRanger2005 /> For example in 1988 the losses of [[alfalfa]]crops in Northeast United states ranged from $32-$66 per hectare .<ref> Lamp,W., Nielsen, G., & Dively, G. (1991)“Insect Pest-Induced Losses in Alfalfa: Patterns in Maryland and Implications for Management.” ''Journal of Economic Entomology'' '''84'''(2): 610-618..</ref> The amount of crop damage is directly proportional to the population density .<ref name=MedeirosTingeyDejong2004/> Most crop damage comes from the future generations of the initial arrivals back to the summer range .<ref name=CarlsonWhalonLandisGage1992>”Carlson, J., M, Whalon., D, Landis., & Gage, S. ( 1992). “Springtime weather patterns coincident with long-distance migration of potato leafhopper into Michigan.” ''Agricultural and Forest Meteorology'' '''59'''(3-4): 183-206 </ref>
===Climate Change===
Research has indicated that over the last 62 years they have been arriving back to their summer range earlier by ten days.<ref name=Bakervenugopallamp2015>” Baker, M., P, Venugopal., & Lamp, W. (2015). “Climate Change and Phenology: Empoasca fabae (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) Migration and Severity of Impact”. ''Plos One'' '''10''' (5): 1-12 </ref> Warmer temperatures increases the time and speed of egg hatching and nymph development  .<ref name=Sidumosheildslembo2005>”Sidumo, A., E, Sheilds., & Lembo, A. (2005).  “Estimating the Potato Leafhopper Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) Overwintering Range and Spring Premigrant Development by Using Geographic Information System.” ''Journal of Economic Entomology'' '''98''' (3): 757-764. </ref> There is increasing concern that [[climate change]] will shift the overwintering and summer ranges more northward.<ref name=Bakervenugopallamp2015 /> This will exacerbate the problem of pest management and increase economic losses.
.<ref name=Bakervenugopallamp2015 />
===Pest Management===
Usually, crop detection of ''E. Fabae'' is too late as hopperburn is the first visual symptom of a major infestation .<ref name=Townsend /> Regular crop inspections with a sweep net is essential to help reduce massive economic losses .<ref name=Townsend /> Another visual cue is the death of leaves with small pits holes throughout it resulting from their eggs .<ref name=Dudley1921 /> Host expansion is likely caused from the loss of natural resistance through extensive [[plant breeding ]] .<ref name=Lamp2011 />

Currently, the only effective method that exists for controlling ''E. Fabae’s'' infestations is the heavy application of [[insecticides ]].<ref name=MedeirosTingeyDejong2004 /> Short-lived insecticides such as carbaryl are commonly used; however they require costly reapplications .<ref name=VanTimWiseVandervootIsaacs2011 /> 

Research is indicating the possibility of being able to control populations by increasing ''E. Fabae’s'' natural enemies as part of  pest management plan .<ref name=Erlandsonobrycki2010>”Erlandson, W., & Obrycki, J. (2010). “Predation of Immature and Adult Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) by Three Species of Predatory Insects.” ''Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society'' '''83'''(1): 1-6.</ref> Percent mortality has been shown to be highest in individuals in younger instars <ref name=ErlandsonObrycki2015/> Research has shown that natural resistance and pesticide use are just as effective, but neither is capable to fully contain populations  .<ref>Ghidiu, G., D, Douches., K, Flecher., & Coombs, J. (2011). “Comparing Host Plant Resistance, Engineered Resistance, and Insecticide Treatment for Control of Colorado Potato Beetle and Potato Leafhopper in Potatoes.” ''International Journal of Agronomy'' '''11'''(6): 516-523 To create more effective management programs and reduce pesticide use it’s essential to understand their dispersion, temporal and spatial patterns .<ref name=BentzTownsend2004 .</ref>

=References=