View source for Lum v. Rice

{{short description|1927 U.S. Supreme Court civil rights case}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox SCOTUS case
  |Litigants=Lum v. Rice
  |SubmitDate=October 12
  |SubmitYear=1927
  |DecideDate=November 21
  |DecideYear=1927
  |FullName=Gong Lum, et al. v. Rice et al.
  |USVol=275
  |USPage=78
  |ParallelCitations=48 S. Ct. 91; 72 [[L. Ed.]] 172; 1927 [[U.S. LEXIS]] 256
  |Prior=Trial court ordered writ of mandamus. Reversed by Supreme Court of Mississippi, 139 Miss. 760, 104 So. 105.
  |Holding=Chinese children do not meet the statutory definition of "White" and thus may lawfully be denied admission to schools reserved for children of that race only; attendance at school for Black students is constitutional as long as facilities are equal to those provided Whites. Classifying students by race and segregating them is within state authority under Fourteenth Amendment.<br>Mississippi Supreme Court affirmed.
  |Majority=Taft
  |JoinMajority=''unanimous''
  |LawsApplied=[[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|U.S. Const. amend. XIV]]
  |Overruled=''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' (1954, in part)
}}
'''''Lum v. Rice''''', 275 [[United States Reports|U.S.]] 78 (1927), is a [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] case in which the Court held that the [[Racial segregation in the United States|exclusion on account of race]] of a child of [[Chinese ancestry]] from a public school did not violate the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]. The decision effectively approved the exclusion of ''any'' [[Minority group|minority]] children from schools reserved for whites.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2004-04-01|title=BROWN V. BOARD: Timeline of School Integration in the U.S.|url=https://www.learningforjustice.org/magazine/spring-2004/brown-v-board-timeline-of-school-integration-in-the-us|access-date=2021-03-18|website=Learning for Justice|language=en}}</ref>

The case was brought by the Lum family of [[Rosedale, Mississippi]], Chinese immigrants with two American-born children who had attended local public schools for white children without incident until, in the wake of an increase in [[Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States|anti-Chinese sentiment nationwide]] after passage of the [[Immigration Act of 1924]], they were told by administrators that their children could only attend the district's school for black children. Adrienne Berard points out in <em>Water Tossing Boulders</em> that their reason for choosing to avoid black schools was motivated by racism. In fact, Katherine Lum later told a reporter, “I did not want my children to attend the ‘colored’ schools [because] the community would have classified us as Negroes.” They filed suit in local court to force the district to allow their daughters to continue attending the white school.

[[Earl Brewer]], a former governor of the state, represented the Lums, arguing that forcing the girls to attend the inferior school violated their [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]], and that since they were not Black they should be allowed to attend the schools for whites. He was able to win the writ of [[mandamus]] they sought, but then the school district appealed to the [[Mississippi Supreme Court]], which heard the case ''[[en banc]]'' and unanimously reversed the lower court, [[holding (law)|holding]] that Mississippi's constitution and laws clearly distinguished Asians ("Mongolians", it called them) from whites, so the Lums could not attend white schools.

The U.S. Supreme Court granted Brewer's ''[[certiorari]]'' petition to review the case. The case was never [[oral argument|argued]]; instead just decided on its briefs, and the Lums were so poor it led Justice [[Louis Brandeis]] to ask around if some other lawyer could be found on short notice to argue the case. [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[William Howard Taft]]'s unanimous opinion ended with a pronouncement that all racial segregation in schools was constitutional; while it was overturned by ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' a quarter-century later, it gave greater legal foundation to educational segregation in the short term and set back efforts to end it.

==Background==

===Legal discrimination against Blacks and Chinese in the late 19th century===

In the late 19th century, following the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], the United States began to deal with the place in society of two racial minorities: Blacks, especially those newly freed from slavery, and [[Chinese Americans|Chinese]], who had begun emigrating to the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] in large numbers first to try their luck in the [[California Gold Rush]] and later to work on railroad construction and mining. Both came to be seen as a threat to an existing social hierarchy dominated by whites: Blacks for their newly free status, and the Chinese as [[History of Chinese Americans#Indispensable workforce|cheap labor]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Norton|first=Henry K.|title=The Story of California From the Earliest Days to the Present|publisher=A.C. McClurg & Co.|year=1924|location=Chicago|pages=283–296|url=http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist6/chinhate.html|access-date=October 10, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509090327/http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist6/chinhate.html|archive-date=May 9, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> States that had formerly allowed slavery dealt with the former through [[Jim Crow]] laws mandating [[racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]] in public accommodations such as transport and public schools, [[Black Codes (United States)|Black Codes]] that made specific acts crimes when committed by Blacks, and vaguely worded anti-[[Vagrancy#United States|vagrancy]] laws that allowed many Black men to be taken into custody for purposes of [[convict leasing]].<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|73–74}}

Legal discrimination against Chinese immigrants began in California during the 1870s. The [[Naturalization Act of 1870]], which allowed unrestricted entry and a path to citizenship for any immigrants of African descent, denied it to anyone of Chinese descent. In 1882 Congress passed the first [[Chinese Exclusion Act]], limiting further Chinese immigration to narrowly defined categories of people, including a bar on family members of Chinese citizens already in the U.S., the only time the law has mandated immigrants be denied admission explicitly on the grounds of racial identity or national origin.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|19}}

In the 1885 case ''[[Tape v. Hurley]]'', [[California Supreme Court|California's Supreme Court]] held that a Chinese student's exclusion from a [[San Francisco]] public school was unconstitutional;<ref>{{cite court|litigants=Tape v. Hurley|vol=66|reporter=Cal.|opinion=473|date=1885|court=[[California Supreme Court|Cal.]]}}</ref> the state responded by allowing the establishment of segregated schools.<ref>{{cite web |year=1885|page=99 |title=An Act to amend section one thousand six hundred and sixty-two of an Act of the Legislature of the State of California, entitled "An Act to establish a Political Code," approved March 12, 1872, relating to public schools|url=https://clerk.assembly.ca.gov/sites/clerk.assembly.ca.gov/files/archive/Statutes/1885/1885.pdf#page=151|access-date=October 10, 2021}}</ref>

Two years earlier, in the ''[[Civil Rights Cases]]'', the Court had held that the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth]] and [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth]] Amendments to the Constitution, both passed in the years after the war, only barred racial discrimination by the government, not private parties.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=Civil Rights Cases|vol=109|reporter=[[United States Reports|U.S.]]|opinion=3|date=1883|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/109/3/}}</ref> In 1896's ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'', which went further and upheld the constitutionality of laws that mandated segregation in private facilities open to the public such as rail transport, Justice [[John Marshall Harlan]], the sole dissenter as he had been in the ''Civil Rights Cases'', noted the dissonance between the legal treatment of Blacks and Chinese:
{{blockquote|There is a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States. Persons belonging to it are, with few exceptions, absolutely excluded from our country. I allude to the Chinese race. But by the statute in question, a Chinaman can ride in the same passenger coach with white citizens of the United States, while citizens of the black race in Louisiana, [[Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War#Union|many of whom, perhaps, risked their lives for the preservation of the Union]], who are entitled, by law, to participate in the political control of the State and nation, who are not excluded, by law or by reason of their race, from public stations of any kind, and who have all the legal rights that belong to white citizens, are yet declared to be criminals, liable to imprisonment, if they ride in a public coach occupied by citizens of the white race.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]|vol=163|reporter=[[United States Reports|U.S.]]|opinion=537|pinpoint=561|date=1896|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=16038751515555215717}}</ref>}}
Harlan's belief that the Chinese were culturally incapable of assimilating into American society and thus properly barred from naturalizing was personal; in ''[[United States v. Wong Kim Ark]]'' two years later, where the Court held that [[American-born Chinese]] were citizens, he joined Chief Justice [[Melville Fuller]] in dissenting in part on those grounds.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=[[United States v. Wong Kim Ark]]|vol=169|reporter=[[United States Reports|U.S.]]|opinion=649|pinpoint=731|date=1898|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=3381955771263111765}}</ref>

===The Lum family===

Jeu Gong Lum, a native of [[southern China]], [[illegal immigration to the United States|illegally immigrated to the U.S.]]{{efn|At the time, the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] severely limited which Chinese could lawfully enter the U.S.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders">{{Cite book|title=Water Tossing Boulders: How a Family of Chinese Immigrants Led the First Fight to Desegregate Schools in the Jim Crow South| publisher =[[Beacon Press]]|last=Berard|year =2016| first=Adrienne| isbn=9780807033531 | location=Boston|oclc=939994405|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JKEwDwAAQBAJ&q=water+tossing+boulders|access-date=October 8, 2021}}</ref>}} from Canada in 1904 and settled in the lower [[Mississippi Delta]], where immigration laws were less enforced as employers sought to replace Black workers who had left for the [[Northern United States|North]]. There he married Katherine Wong, a Chinese American woman who had been adopted as an orphan in China and raised mostly in the U.S. by a Chinese father who grew wealthy operating a [[general store]]. Lum, too, opened a general store in the small [[Bolivar County, Mississippi|Bolivar County]] town of [[Benoit, Mississippi|Benoit]] that primarily served the area's Black population, barred from many business establishments by strict [[racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]] laws. Operating a store made Lum a merchant and thus exempt from the Exclusion Act. Black patrons preferred shopping at Chinese-owned stores since the Chinese were less insistent on being addressed with honorifics.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 1, 2}}

The couple had two daughters, Berda and Martha, and later a son, Hamilton. Both Gong Jeu and Katherine especially sought to make sure their children lived a better life than they had.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 1, 2}} While Berda resisted her parents' efforts to educate her, desiring to leave the Delta region when she grew up, Martha consistently earned good grades in the local school.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 5}}

==Underlying dispute==

In 1923, the Lums bought a house in [[Rosedale, Mississippi|Rosedale]] and moved there. The girls attended [[Rosedale Consolidated High School]] of the [[Rosedale Consolidated School District]] for two semesters. The following September, that ended when the school district, in response to the passage of the [[Immigration Act of 1924]], which effectively ended all immigration from Asia, told the Lum girls they could no longer attend its schools for whites because they were not considered white.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 5}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Asian American Children: A Historical Handbook and Guide|editor=Tong, Benson|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uK6xhcu-4hAC&pg=PA182|chapter=10|date=2004|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|isbn=9780313330421}}</ref>

There was no school in the district maintained for Chinese students, and the Lum daughters were required to attend school. That left the district's school for colored children as the only public school available. It was underfunded and poorly equipped; the Lums did not want their daughters educated there. They retained local lawyer [[Earl L. Brewer]], a former [[Governor of Mississippi|governor]] who had just overwhelmingly lost an election to the [[U.S. Senate]], to represent them in legal action against the district. The Lums and their daughters were the [[plaintiff]]s; all the members of the school district's board of trustees, and other state education officials, were named as defendants, with the head of the board of trustees, Greek Rice, as the lead. Among the state officials was the state superintendent of education, Willard Faroe Bond, whom Brewer believed to have betrayed him politically while he was governor; Brewer thus drew some satisfaction from the knowledge that Bond would be personally served with the legal papers.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 5}}

A lower court granted the plaintiff's request of a [[writ of mandamus]] to force the members of the board of trustees to admit the Lums. Their case was not that racial discrimination as such was illegal but that his daughter, had incorrectly been classified as ''[[colored]]'' by the authorities.<ref name="MS SC decision">{{cite court|litigants=Rice v. Gong Lum|vol=139|reporter=Miss.|opinion=760|date=1925|court=[[Mississippi Supreme Court|Miss.]]|url=https://casetext.com/case/rice-v-gong-lum}}</ref>

===Mississippi Supreme Court===

The trustees appealed to the [[Supreme Court of Mississippi]], which decided to hear the case ''[[en banc]]'', with all six justices participating. Assistant attorney general Elmer Clinton Sharp argued the case for the school district, reiterating the history of segregation in the state and saying that Asians and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] were not considered white. Brewer argued in response that while the state constitution had indeed not put whites and Asians on equal footing, it had also distinguished Asians and Blacks, and therefore the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] required that the Lum children be schooled with whites.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|101–107}}

The court reversed the lower court's decision and allowed the board of trustees to exclude Martha Lum from the school for white children.<ref name="MS SC decision" /> Justice George Ethridge, a former teacher to whom his colleagues generally deferred in matters related to education, wrote for a unanimous court that considered the case as a question of whether the Lum children were within the statutory definition of white. While some other states' courts and statutes had extended the definition of "white" to include members of other races who were not Black, [[Constitution of Mississippi#1890 constitution|Mississippi's constitution]] and statutes were clearer in defining white people as those not "colored". "[W]e think," he wrote, "that the constitutional convention used the word 'colored' in the broad sense rather than the restricted sense; its purpose being to provide schools for the white or [[Caucasian race]], to which schools no other race could be admitted, carrying out the broad dominant purpose of preserving the purity and integrity of the white race and its social policy."<ref name="Rice 788">''Rice'', at 788</ref>

Ethridge found the most relevant [[precedent]] to be ''Moreau v. Grandich'', a 1917 case where, in an opinion he had also authored, a unanimous court upheld the dismissal of several children of a white couple from the [[Bay St. Louis, Mississippi|Bay St. Louis]] schools after it was learned that they had a Black great-grandmother.<ref name="Moreau v. Grandich">{{cite court|litigants=Moreau v. Grandich|vol=114|reporter=Miss.|opinion=560|court=[[Supreme Court of Mississippi|Miss.]]|date=1917|url=https://cite.case.law/miss/114/560/}}</ref>{{efn|The record suggests that she was a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] with dark skin who was considered Black since she socialized with Black people and worshipped at a [[black church]].<ref name="Moreau v. Grandich" />}} While that case had not gone beyond the instant issue in deciding that those whose racial heritage was colored above a certain threshold were themselves legally colored, Ethridge wrote, "a careful reading of the opinion ... shows that the court did not intend to restrict the term 'colored' to persons having negro blood in their veins or who were descendants of negroes or of the negro race."<ref>''Rice'', at 779</ref>

The state had also, since 1892, prohibited marriages between whites and Asians, for whom it used the term "Mongolians", the latter being defined as anyone with more than one-eighth Asian ancestry. Asians and coloreds, also barred from marrying whites, were free to marry each other, Ethridge noted. He added that a pair of U.S. Supreme Court decisions<ref>{{cite court|litigants=[[Ozawa v. United States]]|vol=260|reporter=[[United States Reports|U.S.]]|opinion=178|date=1922|url=https://casetext.com/case/ozawa-v-united-states}} and {{cite court|litigants=[[Yamashita v. Hinkle]]|vol=260|reporter=[[United States Reports|U.S.]]|opinion=199|date=1922|url=https://casetext.com/case/yamashita-v-hinkle}}</ref> had both held that Asians were not white or Caucasian in the historical sense of how that word had been understood in the United States.<ref>''Rice'', 781–784</ref>

Lum's right to an education was not affected by the decision, Ethridge concluded. She could attend the colored school, but did not have to, as she could also be educated privately, as long as she was educated.<ref name="Rice 788" /> Lum and Brewer petitioned the U.S. Supreme Court for ''[[certiorari]]''.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 9}}

==U.S. Supreme Court==

===Before the Court===

After the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case in 1927, Brewer was preoccupied with representing the relatives of a Black man in Bolivar County who had been murdered immediately following his acquittal on murder charges in the death of a local white farmer's son, as they sought to have the killers brought to justice. Brewer handed the Lum case to a younger associate, James Flowers, who had prior to his employment with Brewer worked primarily as corporate counsel for several railroads in Mississippi. Flowers was aware that he was ignorant in the areas of law related to the case, especially the Fourteenth Amendment.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 9}}

Flowers' [[Brief (law)|brief]] for the Supreme Court justices was inconsistent, alternating between defending segregation but attacking it inasmuch as he argued the Constitution protected Lum from being forced to attend a colored school, yet ending with a suggestion that segregated schools were inherently unequal. Justice [[Louis Brandeis]], who believed the Fourteenth Amendment allowed too much federal interference with state authority yet was open to arguments that discrimination against members of minority groups violated their [[Due Process Clause|due process rights]] under the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]], to the point that he had written several majority opinions to that effect (most recently ''[[Ng Fung Ho v. White]]'',<ref>{{cite court|litigants=[[Ng Fung Ho v. White]]|vol=259|reporter=[[United States Reports|U.S.]]|opinion=276|date=1922|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/259/276/}}</ref> another case involving Chinese petitioners) was deeply disturbed by the brief; he asked a friend, [[Felix Frankfurter]] (himself later appointed to the Court), if it might be possible to find more competent counsel for the Lums.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 9}}

The Lums themselves, realizing that the case had implications for all Chinese Americans, had similar concerns, and had arranged for a longtime friend of theirs, not a lawyer, to travel to Washington and be present at [[oral argument]]. That would be unnecessary. Within a week of filing the brief, the Court informed Flowers by telegram that it had scheduled the case for argument within the next week.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 9}}

The short time available to travel to Washington, and the possibility that the case would be forfeited to the state if no one argued for the Lums, was the least of Flowers' concerns. He had never argued a case before any court, considering himself a poor public speaker. First he sought a [[continuance]] but learned that was unlikely, so then he and Brewer asked if the case could be decided purely on the basis of the briefs. The Court allowed that, and there would be no oral argument of ''Lum v. Rice'' before it.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 9}}

===Opinion of the Court===

Late in November 1927 the Court announced its decision. In a nine-page unanimous opinion, with no footnotes, written by [[Chief Justice]] and former U.S. President [[William Howard Taft]], it affirmed the Mississippi Supreme Court's ruling and thus the position of the board of trustees. Taft held that the petitioner had not shown that there were no segregated schools accessible for the education of Martha Lum in Mississippi:
{{blockquote|We must assume, then, that there are school districts for colored children in Bolivar county, but that no colored school is within the limits of the Rosedale consolidated high school district. This is not inconsistent with there being at a place outside of that district and in a different district, a colored school which the plaintiff Martha Lum may conveniently attend.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=Lum v. Rice|vol=275|reporter=[[United States Reports|U.S.]]|opinion=78|pinpoint=84|date=1927|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10134974778109446554}}</ref>}}

Taft further stated that given the accessibility of segregated schools, the question then was whether a person of Chinese ancestry, born in and a citizen of the United States, was denied equal protection of the law by being given the opportunity to attend a school that received "only children of the brown, yellow or black races." In reference to ''[[Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education]]'', Taft concluded that the "right and power of the state to regulate the method of providing for the education of its youth at public expense is clear." Additionally, Taft pointed to a number of federal and state court decisions, most prominently ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'', all of which had upheld segregation in the public sphere and particularly in the realm of public education. Accordingly, Taft concluded:
{{blockquote|Most of the cases cited arose, it is true, over the establishment of separate schools as between white pupils and black pupils; but we cannot think that the question is any different, or that any different result can be reached, assuming the cases above cited to be rightly decided, where the issue is as between white pupils and the pupils of the yellow races. The decision is within the discretion of the state in regulating its public schools, and does not conflict with the Fourteenth Amendment.<ref>''Lum'', at 86–87</ref>}}

==Aftermath==

The Lums had pre-emptively moved across the river to [[Arkansas]], which did not restrict Chinese attendance at its schools as strictly, in case the decision went down against them. When it did, they settled in [[Elaine, Arkansas|Elaine]], where they opened another grocery and Katherine was able to find a high school that would accept her daughters. It was not as prosperous a market as the one in Rosedale, and in later years the family left the Delta region entirely.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 10}}

Other Chinese residents in Mississippi likewise began leaving the Delta, some even returning to China; save for those who found a few school districts still willing to accept their children in their white schools. Other Chinese families established private schools; in the late 1930s the state of Mississippi formally established some schools for Chinese students. They were never well-attended, and the last one closed in 1947.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 10}}

Earl Brewer continued to pursue civil rights cases in the courts. In 1936 he successfully argued ''[[Brown v. Mississippi]]'' before the Supreme Court, which held that [[Forced confession|confessions obtained through beatings and torture]] were inadmissible as evidence, reversing the convictions of several of his clients.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=[[Brown v. Mississippi]]|vol=297|reporter=[[United States Reports|U.S.]]|opinion=278|date=1936|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=3444593443250044452}}</ref> Brewer died in 1942, before he could live to see schools desegregated, but that had happened by the time Jeu Gong died in 1965 and Katherine in 1988.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 10}}

===Press reaction===

Newspapers around the country carried the [[Associated Press]] account of the decision. Some responded with editorials. The ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' put its response, praising the Court and advocating for further segregation, on the front page:
{{blockquote|The Supreme Court's opinion points the way toward making [segregation] still more effective. So far segregation depends largely upon private agreement, and private agreements sometimes break down when they are submitted to severe strain. It will be better all around when they can be given legal backing.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 9}}}}

The ''[[Chicago Defender]]'', a prominent Black newspaper, also ran a front-page editorial, condemning the decision as ignoring the "[[separate but equal]]" provisions supposedly governing segregation in light of the conditions found in many schools for Black children only:
{{blockquote|It is the opinion of Chief Justice William Howard Taft that these opportunities are equal ... The little shacks you attend, in which a large coal stove in the center of the room furnishes both heat and smoke—the ramshackle, tumble-down contraption, situated far down among the cotton stalks—is equal of the beautiful stone and brick structure attended by whites. You see, the three months you are allowed to attend this institution, between the sowing, chopping and picking of cotton, are equal to the nine months white children go to school. Your teachers, barely out of the primary school themselves, possessing no special training for teachers, are the equals of white teachers all especially trained and prepared for the work they undertake.<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 9}}}}

==Legacy==
''Lum'' continued to be cited in briefs supporting racial segregation, and court decisions upholding it,<ref>{{cite court|litigants=Epps v. Carmichael|vol=93|reporter=[[Federal Reporter|F.Supp.]]|opinion=327|pinpoint=330–331|court=[[United States District Court for the Middle District of North Carolina|M.D.N.C.]]|date=1950|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=9461756861461693429}}</ref> until it was effectively overruled 27 years later by the Court's decision in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'', which outlawed segregation in public schools. An important part of the decision still stands—the power of the state to make racial distinctions in its school system, and to determine the race of its students. It has not been overturned because it was not an issue in ''Brown''.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=[[Brown v. Board of Education]]|vol=347|reporter=[[United States Reports|U.S.]]|opinion=483|date=1954|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/483/}}</ref><ref>{{cite podcast|url=https://legaltalknetwork.com/podcasts/aba-journal-modern-law-library/2017/05/how-a-chinese-american-family-challenged-school-segregation-in-1920s-mississippi/ |title=How a Chinese American Family Challenged School Segregation in 1920s Mississippi|publisher=[[American Bar Association]]|host=Lee Rawles|date=May 17, 2017|time= |access-date=}}</ref>

It is remembered today for increasing the scope of permissible segregation. Historian and educator [[James Loewen]] called ''Lum'' "the most racist Supreme Court decision in the twentieth century".<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" /> Legal scholar [[Jamal Greene]] has called it an "ugly and unfortunate" decision. "The Court's ruling had established a precedent more powerful than the Lum family could have imagined", observed Adrienne Berard, in ''Water Tossing Boulders'', a history of the case. "By fighting, they had only made the enemy stronger."<ref name="Water Tossing Boulders" />{{rp|Ch. 9}}

==See also==
{{portal|Law|Mississippi}}
*[[1927 in the United States]]
*[[List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 275]]
*[[List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court]]
*[[Chinese Americans in the Mississippi Delta]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==

*{{cite journal |last=Payne |first=Charles |year=1984 |title=Multicultural Education and Racism in American Schools |journal=Theory into Practice |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=124–131 |doi= 10.1080/00405848409543102| jstor= 1476441|publisher=Taylor & Francis }}
* White, G. Edward. "The lost episode of Gong Lum v. Rice." ''Green Bag'' 18.2 (2015): 191–205. [http://www.greenbag.org/v18n2/v18n2_articles_white.pdf online]

==External links==
*{{wikisource-inline|Gong Lum v. Rice|''Gong Lum v. Rice''}}
*{{caselaw source
 |case=''Lum v. Rice'', {{ussc|275|78|1927|el=no}}
 | courtlistener =https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/101145/gong-lum-v-rice/
 |findlaw=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=275&invol=78
 |justia=http://supreme.justia.com/us/275/78/case.html
 | loc =http://cdn.loc.gov/service/ll/usrep/usrep275/usrep275078/usrep275078.pdf
}}

{{US14thAmendment|equalprotection}}

[[Category:United States school desegregation case law]]
[[Category:United States Supreme Court cases]]
[[Category:United States equal protection case law]]
[[Category:1927 in United States case law]]
[[Category:Education in Bolivar County, Mississippi]]
[[Category:Overruled United States Supreme Court decisions]]
[[Category:Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States]]
[[Category:Asian-American issues]]
[[Category:Legal history of Mississippi]]
[[Category:United States Supreme Court cases of the Taft Court]]
[[Category:Education segregation in Mississippi]]
[[Category:United States racial discrimination case law]]
[[Category:1927 in Mississippi]]