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Regum Maurorum et Romanorum
[[File:Exarchat von Karthago.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Regnum Maurorum et Romanorum]]
The '''Regnum Maurorum et Romanorum''' (or "Mauro-Roman kingdom" in English) was a berber kingdom that existed in the [[Maghreb]] between the fourth century and the Arab conquest of North Africa.

==Characteristics==

Emperor Diocletian reorganized the Roman Empire in 298 AD and later withdrew from the area of [[Volubilis]], the Rif mountains in northern Morocco and western Algerian Atlas mountain during and after the [[crisis of the 3rd century]]. Berber rulers created a small independent kingdom, centered around the capital [[Altava]] and the fully romanised city of [[Volubilis]]. 

This kingdom acted like a small Roman client-State, but sometimes the berber tribes living in that semi-free territory raided the Roman cities of the coast. This Mauro-Roman kingdom was never conquered by the [[Vandals]], who destroyed the Roman presence in the Maghreb in 429-435 AD.  The Vandal kingdom allowed the creation of other [[Romano-Berber states]] at the borders, but fell a century later, conquered by the Byzantines empire, who established an African prefecture, and later the [[Exarchate of Carthage]]. Since then there it is little historical accounts of the Mauro-Roman kingdom. It disappeared completely when the Arabs conquered the region around 708 AD.

==History==

Mauretania and western Numidia were annexed by Rome in 40 AD, and made a Roman Province in 43 and later enlarged with the name of [[Mauretania Tingitana]] ad [[Mauretania Caesariensis]]. But in the fourth century the [[Roman Empire]] lost an area in the border of actual [[Maroc]] and [[Algeria]] to the local berber tribes. 

Indeed [[Maximian]] (co-emperor with [[Diocletian]]) at the end of the third century was able to focus on the conflict in Mauretania ([[Northwest Africa]]).<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 16; Southern, 150; Williams, 75.</ref> As Roman authority weakened during the third century, nomadic Berber tribes harassed settlements in the region with increasingly severe consequences. In 289, the governor of [[Mauretania Caesariensis]] (roughly modern [[Algeria]]) gained a temporary respite by pitting a small army against the Bavares and [[Quinquegentiani]], but the raiders soon returned. In 296, Maximian raised an army, from [[Praetorian Guard|Praetorian cohorts]], [[Aquileia]]n, Egyptian, and Danubian legionaries, Gallic and German [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliaries]], and [[Thracian]] recruits, advancing through Spain that autumn.<ref>Barnes, ''New Empire'', 59; Williams, 75.</ref> He may have defended the region against raiding [[Moors]]<ref name="Barnes_2">Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 16.</ref> before crossing the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] into [[Mauretania Tingitana]] (roughly modern [[Morocco]]) to protect the area from Frankish pirates.<ref name="W75">Williams, 75.</ref>

By March 297, Maximian had begun a bloody offensive against the Berbers. The campaign was lengthy, and Maximian spent the winter of 297–298 AD resting in [[Carthage]] before returning to the field.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 16; Barnes, ''New Empire'', 59.</ref> Not content to drive them back into their homelands in the [[Atlas Mountains]] – from which they could continue to wage war – Maximian ventured deep into Berber territory. The terrain was unfavorable, and the Berbers were skilled at [[guerrilla warfare]], but Maximian pressed on. Apparently wishing to inflict as much punishment as possible on the tribes, he devastated previously secure land, killed as many as he could, and drove the remainder back into the [[Sahara]].<ref name="ODHW">Odahl, 58; Williams, 75.</ref> His campaign was concluded by the spring of 298 AD.

Anyway at the beginning of the fourth century, parts of Roman Mauretania were re-conquered by [[Berber people|Berber tribes]]. Direct Roman rule became confined to a few coastal cities (such as [[Ceuta|Septum (Ceuta)]] in [[Mauretania Tingitana]] and [[Cherchell]] in [[Mauretania Caesariensis]]) by the late 3rd century<ref>{{Cite book | last = Wickham | first = Chris | title = Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400 - 800  | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-19-921296-5 | page = 18 | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ev8mb_Inv5sC&pg=PA18}}</ref>. Historical sources about inland areas are sparse, but these were apparently controlled by local Berber rulers who, however, maintained a degree of Roman culture, including the local cities, and usually nominally acknowledged the suzerainity of the Roman Emperors.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Wickham | first = Chris | title = Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400 - 800 | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-19-921296-5 | page = 335 | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ev8mb_Inv5sC&pg=PA335}}</ref>
 
One of these rulers, [[Masuna]], described himself as ''Rex gentium Maurorum et Romanorum'' ("King of the Roman and Moorish peoples").  Masuna is known only from an inscription on a fortification in [[Altava]] (modern [[Ouled Mimoun]], in the region of [[Oran]]), dated 508, and he is known to have possessed Altava and at least two other cities, Castra Severiana and Safar, as mention is made of officials he appointed there.<ref>In full, the inscription reads: "Pro sal(ute) et incol(umitate) reg(is) Masunae gent(ium) Maur(orum) et Romanor(um) castrum edific(atum) a Masgivini pref(ecto) de Safar. Iidir proc(uratore) castra Severian(a) quem Masuna Altava posuit, et Maxim(us) pr(ocurator) Alt(ava) prefec(it). P(ositum) p(rovinciae) CCCLXVIIII".  The three officials are Masgiven in Safar, Iidir in Castra Severiana (exact location uncertain) and Maximus in Altava.  469 is provincial founding date, meaning 508.  From Graham (1902: [http://books.google.com/books?id=GR4DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA281#v=onepage&q&f=false p.281]). See also Martindale (1980: pp. 536, 734) and Merrills (2004: p.299).</ref>

Altava was later the capital of another ruler, [[Garmul]] or Garmules, who resisted Byzantine rule in Africa but was finally defeated in 578.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Aguado Blazquez | first = Francisco | title = El Africa Bizantina: Reconquista y ocaso | year = 2005 | page = 46 | url = http://www.biblioteca-tercer-milenio.com/sala-de-lectura/HistoriaUniversal/ImperioRomano/AfricaBizantina-conquistayocaso.pdf}}</ref>Indeed in the late 560s, the Moorish king [[Garmul]] of the "Regnum Maurorum et Romanorum" launched raids into Roman territory, and although he failed to take any significant town, three successive generals (the praetorian prefect Theodore and the ''magister militum'' Theoctistus in 570 AD, and Theoctistus' successor Amabilis in 571) are recorded by [[John of Biclaro]] to have been killed by Garmul's forces.<ref>PLRE IIIa, p. 504</ref> His activities, especially when regarded together with the simultaneous [[Visigoth]] attacks in [[Spania]], presented a clear threat to the province's authorities. Garmul was not the leader of a mere semi-nomadic tribe, but of a fully-fledged barbarian kingdom, with a standing army. Thus the new emperor, [[Tiberius II Constantine]], re-appointed Thomas as praetorian prefect, and the able general [[Gennadius (6th century)|Gennadius]] was posted as ''magister militum'' with the clear aim of reducing Garmul's kingdom. Preparations were lengthy and careful, but the campaign itself, launched in 577–78, was brief and effective, with Gennadius utilizing terror tactics against Garmul's subjects. Garmul was defeated and killed by 579, and the coastal corridor between Tingitana and Caesariensis secured.<ref>El Africa Bizantina, pp. 45-46</ref>
 
The Byzantine historian [[Procopius]] also mentions another independent ruler, [[Mastigas]], who controlled most of [[Mauretania Caesariensis]] in the 530s.But some historians argue that Mastigas and Masuna were the same king.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=gbkLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT260&lpg=PT260&dq=king+mastigas&source=bl&ots=S5LHVAGojG&sig=cZjZM_3GDes9XV7KJtEf5h45PJ8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=5l9dU8aGHZXQsQTPlYGABw&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=king%20mastigas&f=false Masuna and Mastigas]</ref>

==Notes==
<references/>

==Bibliography==
* Barnes, Timothy . ''The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982. {{ISBN|0-7837-2221-4}}


[[:Category: Berber history]]


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CHRISTIAN BERBERS

'''Christian Berbers''' are [[Berber people|Berbers]] who worship or worshipped the [[christian faith]]. Usually the term is referred to the centuries when [[Roman Africa|North Africa]] was ruled by the [[Roman Empire]]. These initial Christian Berbers probably disappeared around the fifteenth century <ref>[http://rhr.revues.org/5401 The last native Christian communities in north Africa]</ref> and only in the nineteenth century some Berbers embraced again Christianity, when [[Europe|European]] colonialism started conquering the region.

==Characteristics==

Actually there are nearly half a million Christian berbers, many living even in [[Western Europe]] and in the [[Americas]]. Nearly three hundred thousands live in the [[Maghreb]], from [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] to [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]].

For several centuries after the Arab conquest, some communities of native Christians remained in the southern part of [[Tunisia]], without receiving external assistance to revive their faith. The oases of [[Jarîd]] and [[Nafzâwa]], controlled by Ibadite Muslims, certainly constituted the last refuge for those North-African Christians. Many contemporary historians consider that they could live on there, until the 14th or even until the 18th century. 

According to Claude Lepelley, Latin Western Christianity was born in [[Roman Africa|North Africa]]. After [[Augustus]], some decades before the end of the first century, Christian communities were already numerous and dynamic. Africa saw the birth of the berber [[Augustine of Hippo]] (Saint'Augustine), father of the Church whose thought was to have a decisive influence on Christianity in the Middle Ages and in the Modern Era <ref> Alain Corbin ''History of Christianity (St. Augustine )'' Ed Seuil Paris,2007  p.120</ref>

==History==

The first appearance document that allows us to understand Christianity in Africa is located in the Africa of the early Christians, before the year 180 AD: the "Acts of the Martyrs scillitans" . This is the record of attendance of a dozen Christians in a village of [[Africa Proconsularis]] still not identified, in front of the proconsul of Africa <ref>[http://www.abbaye-saint-benoit.ch/martyrs/martyrs0001.htm#_Toc90633641 LES MARTYRS I]</ref>. 

The early history of Christianity in Africa is closely linked to the person of [[Tertullian]] . Born of pagan parents, he joined the Christian community in Carthage in 195 Ad and became close to the localmunicipal elite, which protected him against repression by the authorities. Having received the priesthood, he fought in his early writings for the Christian Church to be officially recognized by the [[Roman Empire]].

We can talk, after Tertullian, of "African Christianity" as it adopts a specific character, making himself conspicuous by his intransigence. To grow in number of followers he anchored in popular berber life the Christian doctrine, in order to emancipate all the institutions that structured the pagan Roman society of the time. 
But what separates and most opposed the Roman authorities and the community of Christians, it is undoubtedly the fact that they refuse to serve in the army of the Empire. Tertullian emphasizes the difficulty of reconciling the military oath with that given at baptism <ref> [ http://www.tertullian.org/french/g2_04_de_corona_militis.htm Tertullian, De corona militis '' '' I. ] < / ref > . Besides the ubiquitous pagan rituals in military life, the greatest dilemma for Christians is the probability of kill opponents during the fighting, something incompatible with the message of Christ's life : it is a violation of the sixth commandment .

[ [File : ChapelleSantaCruzInterieur.jpeg | thumb | Chapel Santa Cruz , Oran ]].

This politico -religious choice was causing sometimes violent conflict , Christians were accused of endangering the city when they refused military service was during a period which required a greater need for soldiers. He led sanctions that were sometimes to the killing , creating the position of [ [ martyr]] very specific to the Christian religion. The proliferation of martyrs , their worship and their stories, as the martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas , was one of the hallmarks of African Christianity <ref> See on this issue the work of Victor Saxer , '' Dead martyrs relics in Africa in the early Christian centuries. The testimony of Tertullian , Cyprian and Augustine in the light of African archeology '' , Paris , Beauchesne, 1980 , 340 p. </ref> .
Tertullian himself advocated suffering and martyrdom as a way to salvation <ref> [ http://www.tertullian.org/french/g2_13_ad_martyras.htm Tertullian, Ad Martyras '' ''] </ref> , bringing quite eloquent on the part of Christians choice : some chose dead "heroic " fighting against eg Egyptian wrestlers { { reference necessary }} . Martyrdom became an act of resistance and memory, part of a commemorative calendar , basic Christian calendar.

[ [File : Tunisian - christian- mosaic.jpg | thumb | 300px | Christian Mosaic at [ [ National Museum of Bardo (Tunisia) ] ].]]

Through this very strict and difficult to defend in a population that does not include most of the time the choice of Christian doctrinal basis , Tertullian seeks to avoid his community to mix with pagan rites and customs to retain its specificity and preserve his chances of hatching. However, he will not get away from city life , much less that of the Empire <ref> "We do not separate us from the world : sailors, soldiers , laborers, traders , buyers, people of art or craft we live like you and our trade with you ; excess , abuse, these are just what we run , " Tertullian, Apology , XLII , cited by [ http://www.persee.fr/showPage.do?urn=mefr_0223-4874_1888_num_8_1_6535 The Blant Edmond , " The Christians in pagan society in the early ages of the Church " , '' Mixtures of Archaeology and History '' , 1888 , 8, pp . 46-53 ] </ref> . He loves Empire and is convinced of its benefits in the African provinces.

Christians , however, have helped through their uncompromising need both dividing and affirmation within African society , to create a climate of tension between them and the rest of the population , but especially with the imperial power to this threat of division , not slow to respond .

Christian doctrine has taken root in the first place on the African coast is developed by following the inland. If we do not precisely located the city of origin of scillitains martyrs ( Scillium , Scillitium in the region of Carthage, today [ [ Kasserine ]]) , those of [ [ Madaure]] Miggin and [ [ Namphamon]] are attested at the same time : Christians know their first martyrs in a politico- religious context in constant evolution.

The { { s- | III | e }} is experiencing a significant weakening of the religious foundations of imperial power . Supposed to be protected by the gods , the myth of the emperor, who is above men is called into doubt by the pagans , especially after the death of [ [ Decius]] in combat, [ [251]] . The culprits are quickly found their wickedness , Christians are accused of having provoked the anger of the gods.

Decius himself had already introduced the notion of " scapegoat " for the so-called " [ [ persecution of Decius]] " of [ [249] ] to [ [251]] . Roman persecution , the first official attack against the African Church is endorsed by an edict promulgated in 249 which obliges Christians to pray for the salvation of the Emperor, and to proceed according to the sacrifices and libations .

This forces Christians to a choice. Several attitudes are identified: some follow the instructions relayed by African authorities cited and fold the edict , ranging up animal sacrifices - something forbidden by their dogma - ; others for whom it is inconceivable to deny the Gospel prefer to flee ; others choose to openly declare their dissatisfaction with the population , putting their lives in danger.

The Roman authority in making this edict divided the Christian community as a result of this crisis once again shows his intransigence . Those who have yielded to the demands of Decius and participated in supplication - the '' [ [ lapsed]] '' - are very badly received by the "resistant" when the time comes reintegration. The bishops who "sin" are mostly forgiven but refused to see a return to their function. The persecution caused such a crisis in the African Church that the Council of Carthage offers , 256 , rename mongers so they revert pure. He faces there violently to the Bishop of Rome that this double baptism is simply inconceivable as it de- lend credibility and unique sacred rite of the bishop. ( '' See also [ [ Donatism]] '')

After a brief period of calm , persecutions begin again in 257 under the leadership of [ [ Valerian]] . The Roman senator , close elites hostile to Christianity , employs a new tactic to weaken the Christians. He decided to cut the Christian elite base. Provincial governors have orders to banish any bishop or cleric who refuses to indulge in sacrificial rites.
And [ [ Cyprian of Carthage]] , a major figure of African Christianity is put in exile ; others are condemned to the mines . Bloody persecution becomes a year later when Cyprien and other clergy , victims of the new Roman measures are condemned to death and beheaded.

It was not until the death of Valerian in 260 peace reigns again in Africa. His son [ [ Galen]] was much more conciliatory : it stops lawsuits against Christians and promulgate a [ [ Edict of Toleration]] which begins the period of the [ [ Peace Church | small peace of the Church]] . This peaceful coexistence allows the African Church to grow in the provinces and to increase the number of his followersSelon [[Claude Lepelley]], le christianisme occidental latin est né en [[Afrique romaine|Afrique du Nord]]. Au milieu du II<sup>e</sup> siècle, les communautés chrétiennes y étaient déjà très nombreuses et dynamiques. Au IV<sup>e</sup> siècle, l'Afrique vit la naissance de [[Augustin d'Hippone]], père de l'Église dont la pensée devait avoir une influence déterminante sur le christianisme au Moyen Âge et à l'époque moderne<ref>Alain Corbin, ''Histoire du christianisme'' p.120 (Saint Augustin), Ed. Seuil, 2007</ref>.

==Notes==
<references/>
==Bibliography==
==See also==

[[:Category:Berber history]]


On peut parler, à la suite de Tertullien, de « christianisme africain » tant ce dernier adopte un caractère spécifique, se faisant remarquer par son intransigeance. Afin de progresser en nombre d’adeptes et de s’ancrer dans la vie populaire africaine, la doctrine chrétienne à travers les écrits de Tertullien cherche à s’émanciper de toutes les institutions païennes qui structurent la société romaine de l’époque. Il faut voir dans ce travail d’écriture plus une transcription et une mise en valeur des problèmes spécifiques d’une nouvelle communauté que la volonté d’un homme d’imposer à de fervents croyants une doctrine qui ne leur convient pas.

Les chrétiens refusent donc de participer aux nombreuses cérémonies fondant la vie civique. Dans son œuvre ''De l’idolâtrie'', Tertullien précise la nature des activités déconseillées aux chrétiens : ils doivent, pour les plus riches, refuser de participer à la vie politique de la cité en tenant un quelconque poste, refuser tout métier agricole qui pourrait fournir des produits et animaux aux séances de sacrifices. Les chrétiens ne doivent pas non plus exercer le professorat qui les obligerait à enseigner les mythes et cultes païens<ref>Tertullien, ''De idololatria'', ''De spectaculis''</ref>.

[[Fichier:ChapelleSantaCruz2.jpeg|thumb|Chapelle Santa Cruz, Oran.]]

Mais ce qui sépare et oppose le plus les autorités romaines et la communauté de chrétiens, c’est sans aucun doute le fait que ces derniers refusent de servir l’armée de l’Empire. Tertullien souligne la difficulté de concilier le serment militaire avec celui prononcé lors du baptême<ref>[http://www.tertullian.org/french/g2_04_de_corona_militis.htm Tertullien, ''De corona militis'', I.]</ref>. Outre l’omniprésence des rites païens dans la vie militaire, le plus grand dilemme pour les chrétiens est la probabilité de tuer des adversaires pendant les combats, chose incompatible avec le message de la vie du Christ : c’est une transgression du sixième commandement.

[[Fichier:ChapelleSantaCruzInterieur.jpeg|thumb|Chapelle Santa Cruz, Oran.]]

Ce choix politico-religieux a été à l’origine de conflits parfois violents, les chrétiens étant accusés de mettre en péril la cité quand leur refus de service militaire se faisait pendant une période qui nécessitait un besoin accru de soldats. Il a amené des sanctions qui ont parfois été jusqu’à la mise à mort, créant la situation de [[martyr]] très spécifique à la religion chrétienne. La multiplication des martyrs, de leurs cultes  et de leurs récits, comme le martyre de Perpétue et Félicité, fut l'un des traits marquants du christianisme africain<ref>Voir sur cette question l'ouvrage de Victor Saxer, ''Morts, martyrs, reliques en Afrique chrétienne aux premiers siècles. Les témoignages de Tertullien, Cyprien et Augustin à la lumière de l'archéologie africaine'', Paris, Beauchesne, 1980, 340 p.</ref>.
Tertullien lui-même prône la souffrance et le martyre comme issue vers le salut<ref>[http://www.tertullian.org/french/g2_13_ad_martyras.htm Tertullien, ''Ad Martyras'']</ref>, amenant des choix assez éloquents de la part des chrétiens : certains choisissaient des morts « héroïques », en combattant par exemple contre des lutteurs égyptiens {{citation needed}}. Le martyre devenait un acte de résistance et de mémoire, inscrit dans un calendrier commémoratif, base du calendrier chrétien.

[[Fichier:Tunisian-christian-mosaic.jpg|thumb|300px|Mosaïque chrétienne au [[Musée national du Bardo (Tunisie)]].]]

À travers cette base doctrinale extrêmement stricte et difficile à défendre devant une population qui ne comprend pas la plupart du temps les choix des chrétiens, Tertullien cherche à éviter à sa communauté de se mélanger aux rites et coutumes païens afin de garder toute sa spécificité et de préserver ses chances d’éclosion. Pour autant, il ne veut pas s’éloigner de la vie de la cité, encore moins de celle de l’Empire<ref>« Nous ne nous séparons pas du monde: marins, soldats, laboureurs, négociants, acheteurs, gens d'art ou de métier nous vivons comme vous et de notre commerce avec vous ; l'excès, l'abus, voilà seulement ce que nous fuyons », Tertullien, Apologétique, XLII,  cité par [http://www.persee.fr/showPage.do?urn=mefr_0223-4874_1888_num_8_1_6535 Edmond Le Blant, « Les chrétiens dans la société païenne aux premiers âges de l'Église », ''Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire'', 1888, 8, pp. 46-53]</ref>. Il aime l’Empire et est convaincu de ses bienfaits dans les provinces africaines.

Les chrétiens ont cependant aidé, via leur intransigeant besoin à la fois de démarcation et d’affirmation au sein de la société africaine, à instaurer un climat de tension entre eux et le reste de la population, mais surtout avec le pouvoir impérial qui devant cette menace de division, ne tarde pas à réagir.

La doctrine chrétienne qui a pris pied en premier lieu sur les côtes africaines s’est développée par la suite à l’intérieur des terres. Si l'on ne situe pas précisément la ville dont sont originaires les martyrs scillitains (Scillium, Scillitium, dans la région de Carthage, aujourd'hui [[Kasserine]]), ceux de [[Madaure]], Miggin et [[Namphamon]], sont attestés à la même époque : les chrétiens connaissent leurs premiers martyrs dans un contexte politico-religieux en constante évolution.

Le III<sup>e</sup> siècle connait une fragilisation importante des fondements religieux du pouvoir impérial. Censé être protégé des dieux, le mythe de l’empereur qui se situe au-dessus des hommes est remis en doute par les païens, en particulier après la mort de [[Dèce]] au combat, en [[251]]. Les coupables sont vite trouvés : par leur impiété, les chrétiens sont accusés d’avoir provoqué la colère des dieux.

Dèce lui-même avait déjà instauré cette notion de « bouc émissaire » pendant ce qu’on appelle la « [[persécution de Dèce]] », de [[249]] à [[251]]. La persécution romaine, la première attaque officielle contre l'Église africaine, est entérinée par un édit promulgué dès 249 qui oblige les chrétiens à prier pour le salut de l’empereur, et à procéder en suivant à des sacrifices ou des libations.

Cette nouvelle donne force les chrétiens à un choix. Plusieurs attitudes sont relevées : certains suivent les consignes des autorités relayées par les cités africaines et se plient à l’édit, allant jusqu’aux sacrifices d’animaux - chose formellement interdite par leur dogme - ; d’autres pour qui il est inconcevable de renier l’Évangile préfèrent fuir ; d’autres encore choisissent de déclarer ouvertement leur mécontentement à la population, mettant leur vie en péril.

L’autorité romaine en formulant cet édit a divisé la communauté chrétienne qui à la suite de cette crise montre encore une fois toute son intransigeance. Ceux qui ont cédé aux demandes de Dèce et ont participé aux supplications – les ''[[lapsi]]'' - se voient très mal accueillis par les « résistants » quand vient l’heure de leur réintégration. Les évêques qui ont « péché » sont pour la plupart pardonnés mais se voient refusé le retour à leur fonction. La persécution a engendré une telle crise au sein de l'Église africaine que le concile de Carthage propose, en 256, de rebaptiser les fauteurs afin qu’ils redeviennent purs. Il se heurte là violemment à l’évêque de Rome pour qui ce double baptême est tout bonnement inconcevable car il dé-crédibiliserait le rite sacré et unique de l’évêque. (''Voir aussi [[Donatisme]]'')

Après une brève période de calme, les persécutions recommencent en 257 sous l’impulsion de [[Valérien]]. Ce sénateur romain, proche des élites hostiles au christianisme, emploie une nouvelle tactique pour affaiblir les chrétiens. Il décide de couper l’élite chrétienne de sa base. Les gouverneurs de province ont pour ordre d’exiler tout évêque ou clerc qui refuserait de s’adonner aux rites sacrificatoires.
Ainsi [[Cyprien de Carthage]], grande figure du christianisme africain est mis en exil ; d’autres sont condamnés aux mines. La persécution devient sanglante un an plus tard quand Cyprien et d’autres clercs, victimes des nouvelles mesures romaines, sont condamnés à mort et décapités.

Il faut attendre la mort de Valérien en 260 pour que le calme règne à nouveau en Afrique. Son fils [[Gallien]] se montre beaucoup plus conciliant : il arrête les poursuites contre les chrétiens et promulgue un [[édit de tolérance]] qui débute la période de la [[Paix de l'Église|petite paix de l’Église]]. Cette cohabitation pacifique permet à l’Église africaine de se développer dans les provinces et d’augmenter le nombre de ses fidèles.
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Roman Coloniae in Berber Africa

Roman Coloniae in Berber Africa are the cities -populated by Roman citizens- created in western northern Africa by the [[Roman Empire]] mainly from [[Augustus]] to [[Trajan]].

==Characteristics==

Since the second half of the first century before Christ and as a result of increasing communities of Roman citizens living in the North African centers, [[Rome]] started to create "Coloniae" (colonies of Roman citizens) in Berber Africa. 

==History==

[[Julius Caesar]] undertook a vast program of new city developments. He started projecting the creation of the colony "Concordia Iulia Karthago", where 3,000 colonists settled on its vast territory (called 'pertica'), as a rebirth of the destroyed old [[Cathago]]. He also founded other colonies, all with a port: [[Clupea]] (actual Qlbia), [[Curubis]] (Korba), [[Carpi]] (Mraisa) and [[Neapolis]] (Nabeul) , and probably also in [[Diarrhytus Hippo]] (Biserta). After his death and during triunmviral period, [[Lepidus]] gave the status of municipality to Thabraca (Tabarca), while with Octavius, [[Utica]] became a Roman municipality (36 AD). The urban Policy of emperor [[Augustus]] was very intense and huge. In 29 AD he proceeded to colonize the coastal zone of berber north Africa. Augustus created the colony Iulia Sittianorum (actual Cirta) and also founded other eleven smaller colonies named: Thiburbo Minus, Hippo Diarrhytus, Maxula, Caspis, Clupea, Curubis, Neapolis, Thuburnica, Simitthu, Sicca and Assuras .

With the Flavian emperors the Roman Empire entered a new phase of urban developments. In 75 AD taking advantage of the [[legio III Augusta]] move to Theveste from Ammaedara, 40 miles west, the old legionary camp became the colony "Flavia Augusta Emerita Ammaedara". To enhance communication with Theveste was founded, on the route between this city and Hippo Regius, a colony of veterans in "Madauros", called colony "Flavia Augusta veteranorum Madauriensium" . It was probably then that Hippo Regius, a municipality under Augustus, became colony. The presence of these military troops -more than 10,000 legionaries- was a supplementary stimulus to economic activities in the area and should not be neglected.

En el siglo II, en tiempos de Trajano, se llevó a cabo un nuevo avance colonizador hacia el oeste. La base de esos esfuerzos se localizó con el traslado del campo legionario de Theveste a Lambaesis (Lambesa), a 70 Km. al oeste. Para reforzar las zonas abandonadas por el ejército, Trajano erigió cerca de Ammaedara una nueva colonia, Thelepte, y más al sur, en el limes, el municipio de Capsa. Seguramente también Theveste debió pasar a ser entonces colonia, como también ocurrió con Hadrumetum y Leptis Minus. Junto al gran centro legionario de Lambaesis se creó la gran colonia romana de Thamugadi, mientras se reforzaban las ciudades de la costa otorgándoles la categoría colonial: Cuicul, Milev, Chullu y Rusicade, que formaban una confederación alrededor de Cirta. Algunas ciudades del África Proconsular gozaron de privilegios especiales, como la concesión del ius italicum, la exacción del impuesto territorial. Septimio Severo recompensó de esta manera a las principales ciudades de su tierra: Leptis Magna, Carthago y Utica.

In the second century, mainly under [[Trajan]], was done a new westward advance in the colonization process. The basis of these efforts was located with the transfer of a legionary camp from Theveste to [[Lambaesis]] (actual Lambesa), 70 km further to the west. To reinforce the areas abandoned by the army, Trajan erected near Trajan Ammaedara a new colony, "Thelepte" , and further south, in the [[African limes]], the town of [[Capsa]] (actual Gafsa). Theveste surely become then a colony, as happened with "Hadrumetum" and "Leptis Minus". Along with the great legionary center of Lambaesis, the large Roman colony called [[Thamugadi]] was established. At the same time Trajan reinforced the coastal cities and granted the category of colonies to: Cuicul, Milev, Chullu and Rusicade, that formed a confederation near Cirta. 

Indeed some cities in [[Africa Proconsular]] enjoyed special privileges, such as the granting of the "ius italicum", the exemption from the property tax levy. [[Septimius Severus]] (who was a romano-berber emperor) rewarded in this way around 220 AD the major cities of the land where he was born: [[Leptis Magna]], Carthage and Utica.

No fue menos importante la actividad urbanizadora desarrollada en la costa oriental de la proconsular, en la Tripolitania. Lepcis Magna, en origen una ciudad dependiente de Carthago, que después pasó a control númida, para incorporarse con César a la proconsular en calidad de una civitas foederata, a la que Roma defendió entre el años 6 al 7 del ataque de los gétulos (campañas de Coso Cornelio Léntulo Getúlico); después pasó a municipio romano, para ser declarada colonia con Trajano. Otras ciudades destacadas del área fueron Sabratha y Oea. Antes de la anexión de las Mauritanias ya hubo colonización romana. Aprovechando el interregno Augusto fundó algunas colonias costeras (Igilgili, Saldae, Tubusuctu, Rusuzus, Rusguniae, Icosium –adscrita a Ilici en la Citerior- Aquae, Zucchabar, Cartennae, Tingis, Zulil –que dependía de la Bética-.Babba y Banasa. Otras tuvieron que esperar, al ser centros importantes de la administración del rey Juba II. Así ocurrió con la capital, Iol, después Caesarea, Volubilis, Lixus,Rusucurium del tiempo de Claudio.

Even in Roman [[Tripolitania]] was very important and huge the development of the urban policy done by the Roman Empire. Leptis Magna , originally a subsidiary of Carthago city, was declared a colony with Trajan.  Other top area cities were [[Oea]] and [[Sabratha]].
 
Before the annexation of [[Mauritania]], there was Roman colonization . Taking advantage of the interregnum Augustus founded some coastal colonies ( Igilgili , Saldae , Tubusuctu , Rusuzus , Rusguniae , Icosium - attached to Ilici in the Citerior-Aquae, Zucchabar, Cartennae, Tingis, Zulil, Babba and Banasa). Later were named coloniae even the capital, Iol, after called [[Caesarea]], with[[Volubilis]], Lixus,  Siga, Sala, Tipasa and Rusucurium when [[Claudius]] was emperor.

==List of main Roman coloniae==

==Notes==
<references/>

==Bibliography==

==See Also==


[[:Category: Berber history]]

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Gaerisa

''Gaerisa'' or "Gerisa" was an ancient city of [[Roman Libya]] near the [[Limes Tripolitanus]].

=History=

Even if there was a small local settlement, it was only when roman legionaries arrived in [[Tripolitania]] that the city of Gaerisa was created. Initially its population was mainly local berbers, but some roman merchants settled there during late [[Augustus]] times.

The Limes Tripolitanus was expanded under [[Roman Emperor|emperors]] [[Hadrian]] and [[Septimius Severus]], in particular under the legatus [[Quintus Anicius Faustus]] in 197-201 AD. 

Indeed Anicius Faustus was appointed ''[[legatus]]'' of the [[Legio III Augusta|Legio III ''Augusta'']] and built several defensive forts of the Limes Tripolitanus in Tripolitania, among which Garbia <ref>[http://www.livius.org/ga-gh/gheriat/gheriat_el-garbia.html Gheriat el-Garbia]</ref> and Golaia (actual Bu Ngem)<ref>J.S. Wacher, ''The Roman world'', Volume 1, Taylor & Francis, 2002, {{ISBN|0-415-26315-8}}, pp. 252-3</ref> in order to protect the province from the raids of nomadic tribes. He fulfilled his task quickly and successfully. 
[[File:Wadi buzra.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Remnants of "Centenaria" at Suq al-Awty]]

As a consequence the Roman city of Gaerisa, situated away from the coast and south of Leptis Magna, developed quickly in a rich agricultural area<ref name=Livius2>{{cite web |url=http://www.livius.org/ga-gh/ghirza/ghirza.html |title=Ghirza: Town (Gh127) |author=Jona Lendering |authorlink=Jona Lendering |date=2006 (revised May 23, 2009) |work=Livius |accessdate=October 3, 2011}}</ref> Gaerisa became a "boom town" after 200 CE, when the Roman emperor Septimius Severus (born in Leptis Magna) had organized in a better way the Limes Tripolitanus. 

Former soldiers were settled in this area, and the arid land was developed.<ref name=flikr>{{cite web |url=http://www.flickr.com/photos/23222457@N04/3006088026 |title=Tarhuna: A map of the cultivated libyan lands in ancient times |author=al_allgi |date=November 5, 2008 |work=Flickr |accessdate=October 3, 2011}}</ref> Dams and cisterns were built in the Wadi Ghirza (then not dry like today) to regulate the flash floods. These structures are still visible:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lexicorient.com/libya/ghirza.htm |title=Ghirza National monuments |author= |date= |work=LookLex |accessdate=October 3, 2011}}</ref> there it is among the ruins of Gaerisa a temple, which may have been dedicated to the [[Berber mythology|Berber]] semi-god "[[Gurzil]]", and the name of the town itself may even be related to his name.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/16819163/Recherches-Sur-La-Religion-Des-Berberes-1910 |title=Recherches Sur La Religion Des Berberes |trans_title=Research on Berber Religion |author=René Basset |year=1910 |work=Revue de L’Histoire des Religions |accessdate=October 3, 2011}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref> The farmers produced cereals, figs, vines, olives, pulses, almonds, dates, and perhaps melons. Gaerisa consisted of some forty buildings, including six fortified farms ([[Centenaria]]). Two of them were really large. It was abandoned in the [[Middle Ages]].

With [[Diocletian]] the limes was partially abandoned and the defense of the area was done even by the [[Limitanei]], local soldier-farmers. The Limes survived as an effective protection until [[Byzantine]] times (Emperor [[Justinian]] restructured the Limes in 533 AD. After then Gaerisa fell in importance and slowly disappeared after the arab invasions of the late seventh century.<ref>Bacchielli, L. ''La Tripolitania'', in "Storia Einaudi dei Greci e dei Romani", Geografia del mondo tardo-antico, vol.20</ref>

By the tenth century Gaerisa was totally forgotten and covered by sand. Only a few centuries later the area was repopulated and now -near the excavated ruins of Gaerisa- there it is a small town named "Ghirza".

==Notes==
<references/>

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Septem (roman Ceuta)

"Septem (roman Ceuta)" was a roman colonia in [[Mauretania Tingitana]], an ancient city that existed in what is now downtown of [[Ceuta]].

==Characteristics==

Septem's location in the southern side of the [[Gibraltar Strait]] has made it an important commercial trade and military way-point for many cultures, beginning with the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] in the 5th century BC, who called the city ''Abyla''. It was not until the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] took control of the region in 42 AD that the port city, then named ''Septem Frates'', assumed an almost exclusive military purpose. The city become a [[Roman 'Coloniae' in Berber Africa|roman colonia]] with full rights for the citizens under emperor [[Claudius]].

In the beginning of the first century, under Augustus the citizens of Septem used mainly the Phoenician language. Soon started the process of [[Romanitas|Romanization]] of the inhabitants. Consequently, most of the Septem population spoke latin in the fourth century, but there was a huge community of local romanised berbers. When the city fell to the Bizantines in the sixth century the greek was added to the latin as the official language.

Septem was an important Christian center since the fourth century (as recent discovered ruins of a Roman basilica show<ref>[http://www.ceutaturistica.com/basilica/basilica.html Roman basilica article, with related Video]</ref>), and consequently is the only place in the [[Maghreb]] where Roman heritage (represented by [[Christianity]]) has continuously been present and survived until our days.

==History==

It changed hands again approximately 400 years later, when [[Vandal]] tribes ousted the Romans in 426 AD according to historian Vilaverde <ref>[http://www.uam.es/personal_pdi/filoyletras/afuen/trabajos/ceuta/Marcos%20Perez,%20Alvaro%20-%20septem_bizantina.pdf Septem bizantina]</ref>. After being controlled by the [[Visigoths]], it then became an [[Hispania#Byzantine reconquest|outpost]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] (called in {{lang-grc|Άβυλα}}). 


Around 710 AD, as Muslim armies approached the city, its Byzantine governor, [[Julian, count of Ceuta|Julian]] (described as ''King of the [[Ghomara people|Ghomara]]'') changed his allegiance, and exhorted the Muslims to invade the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. Under the leadership of the [[Berber people|Berber]] general [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]], the Muslims used Ceuta as a [[staging area|staging ground]] for an assault on [[Visigoths|Visigothic]] Iberian Peninsula. After Julian's death, the Berbers took direct control of the city, which the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Berber people|Berber]] tribes resented. They destroyed Ceuta during the [[Kharijite]] rebellion led by [[Maysara al-Matghari]] in 740 AD.

Septem remained as a small village (populated even by a few Christians) nearly all in ruins until it was resettled in the 9th century by Mâjakas, chief of the Majkasa Berber tribe, who started the short-lived [[Banu Isam]] dynasty.<ref name="GibbKramers1994">{{cite book|author1=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|author2=Johannes Hendrik Kramers|author3=Bernard Lewis|coauthors=Charles Pellat, Joseph Schacht|title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BZXrAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=8 July 2013|year=1994|publisher=Brill|page=690}}</ref>

The episode of the martyrdom of , showed that Christians were still present in "Septa" (as was called in Arab) in the twelfth century: this Christian continuity remained in the outskirts of the city until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 1400s. Since then the city -renamed Ceuta- has remained in Christian hands (Portuguese and Spanish) and now has a majority of population speaking [[Spanish language|Spanish]], a neolatin language.


==Note==
<references/>

==Bibliography==

==See Also==
* [[Tingis]]
* [[Mauretania Tingitana]]
* [[Tamuda]]
* [[Rusadir]]

[[:Category: Berber history]]
[[:Category:Ancient Rome]]