Jump to content

Encyclopædia Britannica: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
[pending revision][pending revision]
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
←Blanked the page
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Featured article}}
{{Infobox Book
| name = Encyclopædia Britannica
| image = [[Image:Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911.png|200px|Title page of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Eleventh Edition]]]]
| image_caption = Title page of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Eleventh Edition]]
| author = 4,411 named contributors; editorial staff
| country of origin = [[United Kingdom]] {{flagicon|UK}}
| language = [[English language|English]]
| subject = General
| genre = [[Reference work|Reference]] [[encyclopedia]]
| publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]
| release_date = 1768–present
| media_type = 32 [[Hardback]] Volumes
| isbn = ISBN 1-59339-292-3
}}
The '''''Encyclopædia Britannica''''' is a general [[English language|English-language]] [[encyclopedia|encyclopaedia]] published by [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]], a [[privately held company]]. The articles in the ''Britannica'' are aimed at educated adult readers, and written by a staff of 19 full-time editors and over 4,000 expert contributors. It is widely perceived as the most scholarly of encyclopaedias.<ref name="kister_1994">{{cite book | last = Kister | first = KF | authorlink = Kenneth Kister | year = 1994 | title = Kister's Best Encyclopedias: A Comparative Guide to General and Specialized Encyclopedias | edition = 2nd ed. | publisher = Oryx Press | location = Phoenix, AZ | id = ISBN 0-89774-744-5}}</ref><ref name="sader_1995" />

The ''Britannica'' is the oldest English-language encyclopaedia still in print.<ref name="EB_encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Encyclopedias and Dictionaries | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] | date = 2007 | volume = 18 | pages = 257–286}}</ref> It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in [[Edinburgh]] and quickly grew in popularity and size, with its third edition in 1801 reaching 20 volumes.<ref name="kogan_1958">{{cite book | last = Kogan | first = Herman | year = 1958 | title = The Great EB: The Story of the Encyclopædia Britannica | publisher = The University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | id = {{LCCN|58|00|8379}}}}</ref><ref name="encyclopedia_1954" /> Its rising stature helped in recruiting eminent contributors, and the 9th edition (1875–1889) and the [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|11th edition]] (1911) are regarded as landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style.<ref name="kogan_1958" /> Beginning with the 11th edition, the ''Britannica'' gradually shortened and simplified its articles in order to broaden its [[North America]]n market.<ref name="kogan_1958" /> In 1933, the ''Britannica'' became the first encyclopaedia to adopt a "continuous revision" policy, in which the encyclopaedia is continually reprinted and every article is updated on a regular schedule.<ref name="encyclopedia_1954" />

The current 15th edition has a unique three-part structure: a 12-volume ''[[Micropædia]]'' of short articles (generally having fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume ''[[Macropædia]]'' of long articles (having from two to 310 pages) and a single ''[[Propædia]]'' volume intended to give a [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] outline of human knowledge. The ''Micropædia'' is meant for quick fact-checking and as a guide to the ''Macropædia''; readers are advised to study the ''Propædia'' outline to understand a subject's context and to find other, more detailed articles.<ref name="propedia_preface">{{cite book | year = 2007 | title = The New Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition, ''[[Propædia]]''| pages = 5–8}}</ref> The size of the ''Britannica'' has remained roughly constant over the past 70 years, with about 40 million words on half a million topics.<ref name="index_preface">{{cite book | year = 2007 | title = The New Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition, ''Index'' preface}}</ref> Although publication has been based in the [[United States]] since 1901, the ''Britannica'' has maintained its traditional [[American and British English spelling differences|British spelling]].<ref name="kister_1994" />

Over the course of its history, the ''Britannica'' has had difficulty remaining profitable—a problem faced by many encyclopaedias.<ref name="EB_encyclopedia" /> Some articles in certain earlier editions of the ''Britannica'' have been criticised for inaccuracy, bias or unqualified contributors.<ref name="kogan_1958" /><ref name="burr_1911" /> The accuracy of parts of the present edition has likewise been questioned,<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="Giles_Nature_study_2005" /> although such criticisms have been challenged by the ''Britannica's'' management.<ref name="fatally_flawed" /> Despite these criticisms, the ''Britannica'' retains its reputation as a reliable research tool.

==History==
{{main|History of the Encyclopædia Britannica}}
===Overview===
Ownership of the ''Britannica'' has changed many times, with past owners including the Scottish publisher [[A & C Black]], [[Horace Everett Hooper]], [[Sears Roebuck]] and [[William Benton]]. The present owner of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. is [[Jacqui Safra]], [[Switzerland|Swiss]] billionaire and actor. Recent advances in [[information technology]] and the rise of electronic encyclopedias such as ''[[Encarta]]'' and [[Wikipedia]] have reduced the demand for print encyclopedias.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/40033.stm | title = Encyclopaedia Britannica changes to survive | last = Day | first = Peter | date = [[17 December]] [[1997]] | publisher = [[BBC News]] | quote = Sales plummeted from 100,000 a year to just 20,000. | accessdate = 2007-03-27}}</ref> To remain competitive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has stressed the good reputation of the ''Britannica'', reduced its price and production costs, and developed electronic versions on [[CD-ROM]], [[DVD]] and the [[World Wide Web]]. Since the early 1930s, the company has also promoted [[spin-off]] reference works.<ref name="encyclopedia_1954"/>

===Editions===
[[Image:EB1 titlepage.gif|thumb|right|Title page of the first edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'']]
The ''Britannica'' has been issued in 15 official editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd and 5th editions (see the [[#Edition summary|Table]] below). Strictly speaking, the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th edition, just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th edition. The 15th edition underwent a massive re-organisation in 1985, but the updated, current version is still known as the 15th edition.

Throughout its history, the ''Britannica'' has been devoted to two aims: to be an excellent reference book and to provide educational material for those who wish to study.<ref name="EB_encyclopedia" /> In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematise all of human knowledge.<ref name="propedia_preface" /> The history of the ''Britannica'' can be divided into five main eras, punctuated by major changes in management or re-organisation of the encyclopaedia.

====First era====
In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1826), the ''Britannica'' was managed by its original founders, [[Colin Macfarquhar]] and [[Andrew Bell (engraver)|Andrew Bell]], and by their friends and relations, such as [[Thomas Bonar]], [[George Gleig]] and [[Archibald Constable]]. The ''Britannica'' was first published between 1768 and 1771 in [[Edinburgh]] as the ''Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A dictionary of arts and sciences, compiled upon a new plan''. It was conceived as a conservative reaction to the provocative French ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' of [[Denis Diderot]] (published 1751–1766), which in turn had been inspired by the earlier [[Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences|Chambers Cyclopaedia]]. The ''Britannica'' was primarily a Scottish enterprise, as symbolised by its [[thistle]] logo, the [[Scotland#National symbols|floral emblem]] of [[Scotland]]. The founding of the encyclopaedia is one of the most famous and enduring legacies of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Herman | first = Arthur | year = 2002 | title = How the Scots Invented the Modern World | publisher = Three Rivers Press | id = ISBN 978-0609809990}}</ref> In this era, the ''Britannica'' moved from being a three-volume set (1st edition) compiled by one young editor—[[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]]—<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Krapp |first=Philip |coauthors=Balou, Patricia K. |year=1992 |title=Collier's Encyclopedia |volume=9 |pages=p. 135 |publisher=Macmillan Educational Company |location=[[New York City|New York]] |id= {{LCCN|91|0|61165}}}} The ''Britannica's'' 1st edition is described as "deplorably inaccurate and unscientific" in places.</ref>to a 20-volume set written by numerous authorities. Although several other encyclopaedias competed with the ''Britannica'', such as ''[[Rees's Cyclopaedia]]'' and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge's]] ''[[Encyclopaedia Metropolitana]]'', these competitors either went bankrupt or were left unfinished due to disagreements among their editors. By the close of this era, the ''Britannica'' had developed a network of illustrious contributors, primarily through personal friendships with the editors, most notably Constable and Gleig.

[[Image:Rosetta Stone.jpg|thumb|left|The middle 19th century editions of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' included seminal research such as [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young's]] article on Egypt, which included the translation of the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphics]] on the [[Rosetta Stone]] (pictured).]]

====Second era====
During the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the ''Britannica'' was managed by the [[Edinburgh]] publishing firm, [[A & C Black]]. Although some contributors were again recruited through personal friendships of the chief editors, most notably [[Macvey Napier]], others were attracted by the ''Britannica's'' ever-improving reputation. The contributors often came from other countries and included some of the world's most respected authorities in their fields. A general index of all articles was included for the first time in the 7th edition, a practice that was maintained until 1974. The first English-born editor-in-chief was [[Thomas Spencer Baynes]], who oversaw the production of the famous 9th edition; dubbed the "Scholar's Edition", the 9th is often considered to be the most scholarly ''Britannica'' ever produced.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="kogan_1958" /> However, by the close of the 19th century, the 9th edition was outdated and the ''Britannica'' faced significant financial difficulties.

====Third era====
In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the ''Britannica'' was managed by [[United States|American]] businessmen, who introduced aggressive marketing practices, such as [[direct marketing]] and [[door-to-door]] sales, to increase profits. The American owners also gradually simplified the ''Britannica's'' articles, making them less scholarly but more intelligible to a mass market. The 10th edition was a rapidly produced supplement to the 9th edition, but the 11th edition is still praised for its excellence; its owner, [[Horace Everett Hooper|Horace Hooper]], lavished enormous effort on its perfection.<ref name="kogan_1958" /> When Hooper fell into financial difficulties, the ''Britannica'' was managed by [[Sears Roebuck]] for roughly 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943). In 1932, the vice-president of Sears, [[Elkan Harrison Powell]], assumed the presidency of the ''Britannica''; in 1936, he began the policy of continuous revision (still practiced today), in which every article is checked and possibly revised at least twice a decade. This was a major departure from earlier practice, in which the articles were not changed until a new edition was produced, at roughly 25-year intervals, with some articles being carried over unchanged from earlier editions.<ref name="encyclopedia_1954" /> Powell aggressively developed new educational products that built upon the ''Britannica's'' reputation. In 1943, ownership passed from Sears Roebuck to [[William Benton]], who managed the ''Britannica'' until his death in 1973. Benton also set up the [[Benton Foundation]], which managed the ''Britannica'' until 1996. In 1968, near the end of this era, the ''Britannica'' celebrated [[Bicentennial of the Encyclopædia Britannica|its bicentennial]].

[[Image:EncycBrit1913.jpg|right|thumb|U.S. advertisement for the 11th edition from the May 1913 issue of ''[[National Geographic Magazine]]'']]

====Fourth era====
In the fourth era (15th edition, 1974–1994), the ''Britannica'' introduced its 15th edition, which was re-organised into three parts: the ''[[Micropædia]]'', the ''[[Macropædia]]'' and the ''[[Propædia]]''. Under the influence of [[Mortimer J. Adler]] (member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and its chair from 1974; director of editorial planning for the fifteenth edition of ''Britannica'' from 1965),<ref>Mortimer J. Adler, ''A Guidebook to Learning: for the lifelong pursuit of wisdom''. MacMillan Publishing Company, New York, 1986. p.88 </ref> the ''Britannica'' sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool, but also to systematise all of human knowledge. The absence of a separate index and the grouping of articles into two parallel encyclopaedias (the ''Micro-'' and ''Macropædia'') provoked a "firestorm of criticism" of the initial 15th edition.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="15th_criticism">{{cite news | last = Baker | first = John F. | title = A New Britannica Is Born | publisher = [[Publishers Weekly]] | date = [[14 January]] [[1974]] | pages = 64–65}}<br />* {{cite news | last = Wolff | first = Geoffrey | title = Britannica 3, History of | publisher = [[The Atlantic Monthly|The Atlantic]] | date = June 1974 | pages = 37–47}}<br />* {{cite news | last = Cole | first = Dorothy Ethlyn | title = Britannica 3 as a Reference Tool: A Review | publisher = Wilson Library Bulletin | date = June 1974 | pages = 821–825 | quote = ''Britannica 3'' is difficult to use&nbsp;… the division of content between ''Micropædia'' and ''Macropædia'' makes it necessary to consult another volume in the majority of cases; indeed, it was our experience that even simple searches might involve eight or nine volumes.}}<br />* {{cite news | last = Davis | first = Robert Gorham | title = Subject: The Universe | publisher = [[The New York Times Book Review]] | date = [[1 December]] [[1974]] | pages = 98–100}}<br />* {{cite news | last = Hazo | first = Robert G. | title = The Guest Word | publisher = [[The New York Times Book Review]] | date = [[9 March]] [[1975]] | page = 31}}<br />* {{cite news | last = McCracken| first = Samuel | title = The Scandal of 'Britannica 3' | publisher = [[Commentary (magazine)|Commentary]] | date = February 1976 | pages = 63–68 | quote = This arrangement has nothing to recommend it except commercial novelty.}}<br />* {{cite news | last = Waite | first = Dennis V. | title = Encyclopaedia Britannica: EB 3, Two Years Later | publisher = [[Publishers Weekly]] | date = [[21 June]] [[1976]] | pages = 44–45}}<br />* {{cite news | last = Wolff | first = Geoffrey | title = Britannica 3, Failures of | publisher = [[The Atlantic Monthly|The Atlantic]] | date = November 1976 | pages = 107–110 | quote = It is called the ''Micropædia'', for 'little knowledge', and little knowledge is what it provides. It has proved to be grotesquely inadequate as an index, radically constricting the utility of the ''Macropædia''.}}</ref> In response, the 15th edition was completely re-organised and indexed for a re-release in 1985. This second version of the 15th edition continues to be published and revised; the latest version is the 2007 print version. The official title of the 15th edition is the ''New Encyclopædia Britannica'', although it has also been promoted as ''Britannica 3''.<ref name="kister_1994" />

====Fifth era====
In the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions of the ''Britannica'' have been developed and released on [[optical media]] and online. In 1996, the ''Britannica'' was bought from the [[Benton Foundation]] by [[Jacqui Safra]] at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties. The [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] company split in 1999. One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other part, [[Britannica.com Inc.]], developed the digital versions. Since 2001, these two companies share a single [[Chief executive officer|CEO]], [[Ilan Yeshua]], who has continued [[Elkan Harrison Powell|Powell's]] strategy of growing [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] by introducing new products branded with the ''Britannica'' name.

===Dedications===
The ''Britannica'' was [[Dedication#Book dedication|dedicated]] to the reigning [[British monarchy|British monarch]] from 1788 to 1901 and then, upon its sale to an [[United States|American]] partnership, to both the British monarch and the [[President of the United States]].<ref name="kister_1994" /> Thus, the 11th edition is "dedicated by Permission to His Majesty [[George V of the United Kingdom|George the Fifth]], King of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, and to [[William Howard Taft]], President of the United States of America."<ref name="EB_1911">{{cite book | year = 1910 | title = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition = 11<sup>th</sup> edition | pages = p.3}}</ref> The order of the two dedications has changed with the relative power of the United States and Britain, and with the relative sales of the ''Britannica'' in these countries; the 1954 version of the 14th edition is "Dedicated by Permission to the Heads of the Two English-Speaking Peoples, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Dwight David Eisenhower]], President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth the Second]]."<ref name="EB_1954">{{cite book | year = 1954 | title = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition = 14<sup>th</sup> edition | pages = p.3}}</ref> Consistent with this tradition, the 2007 version of the current 15th edition is "dedicated by permission to the current President of the United States of America, [[George W. Bush]], and Her Majesty, [[Queen Elizabeth II]]."<ref name="propedia_3">{{cite book | title = The New Encyclopædia Britannica | edition = 15<sup>th</sup> edition, ''Propædia'' | pages = p.3}}</ref>

==Critical and popular assessments==
===Reputation===
[[Image:EB1 Plate 003 lark flower.gif|thumb|right|A [[copperplate]] by [[Andrew Bell (engraver)|Andrew Bell]] from the [[History of the Encyclopædia Britannica|1st edition]].]]

Since the 3rd edition, the ''Britannica'' has enjoyed a popular and critical reputation for general excellence.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="sader_1995">{{cite book | last = Sader | first = Marian | coauthors = Lewis, Amy | year = 1995 | title = Encyclopedias, Atlases, and Dictionaries | publisher = R. R. Bowker (A Reed Reference Publishing Company) | location = New Providence, NJ | id = ISBN 0-8352-3669-2}}</ref><ref name="library_association_1996">{{cite book | year = 1996 | title = Purchasing an Encyclopedia: 12 Points to Consider | edition = 5th edition | publisher = Booklist Publications, American Library Association | id = ISBN 0-8389-7823-1}}</ref> Various editions from the 3rd to the 9th were pirated for sale in the [[United States]],<ref name="kogan_1958" /> beginning with [[Dobson's Encyclopædia]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Arner | first = Robert D. | year = 1991 | title = Dobson's Encyclopaedia: The Publisher, Text, and Publication of America's First Britannica, 1789–1803 | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press | location = Philadelphia}}</ref> On the release of the 14th edition, [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] dubbed the ''Britannica'' the "Patriarch of the Library".<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,732859-1,00.html | title = Patriarch Revised | publisher = [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] | volume = XIV | number = 13 | date = [[23 September]] [[1929]] | pages = 66–69}}</ref> In a related advertisement, naturalist [[William Beebe]] was quoted as saying that the ''Britannica'' was "beyond comparison because there is no competitor."<ref>{{cite news | title = A Completely New Encyclopaedia (''sic'') Britannica | publisher = [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] | volume = XIV | number = 12 | date = [[16 September]] [[1929]] | pages = 2–3}}</ref> References to the ''Britannica'' can be found throughout [[English literature]], most notably in one of [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s favourite [[Sherlock Holmes]] stories, "[[The Red-Headed League]]". The tale was highlighted by the [[Lord Mayor of London]], Gilbert Inglefield, at the [[Bicentennial of the Encyclopædia Britannica|bicentennial of the ''Britannica'']].<ref name="EB_bicentennial" />

The ''Britannica'' has a popular reputation for summarising all of human knowledge.<ref name="thomas_1992" /> To further their education, many have devoted themselves to reading the entire ''Britannica'', taking anywhere from three to 22 years to do so.<ref name="kogan_1958" /> When [[Fat′h Ali Shah Qajar|Fat'h Ali]] became the [[Iranian monarchy|Shah of Persia]] in 1797, he was given a complete set of the ''Britannica's'' 3rd edition, which he read completely; after this feat, he extended his royal title to include "Most Formidable Lord and Master of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''."<ref name="EB_bicentennial">{{cite book | year = 1968 | title = Banquet at Guildhall in the City of London, Tuesday 15 October 1968: Celebrating the 200th Anniversary of the Encyclopædia Britannica and the 25th Anniversary of the Honorable William Benton as its Chair and Publisher | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|Encyclopædia Britannica International, Ltd.]] | location = [[United Kingdom]]}}</ref> Writer [[George Bernard Shaw]] claimed to have read the complete 9th edition—except for the science articles<ref name="kogan_1958" />—and [[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] took the ''Britannica'' as reading material for his five-month stay at the [[South Pole]] in 1934. More recently, [[A.J. Jacobs]], an editor at ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' magazine, read the entire 2002 version of the 15th edition, describing his experiences in the well-received 2004 book, ''[[The Know-It-All: One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World]]''. Only two people are known to have read two independent editions: the author [[C. S. Forester]]<ref name="kogan_1958" /> and [[Amos Urban Shirk]], an American businessman, who read the 11th and 14th editions, devoting roughly three hours per night for four and a half years to read the 11th.<ref>{{cite news | title = Reader | publisher = The New Yorker | volume = 9 | date = [[3 March]] [[1934]] | page = 17}}</ref> Several editors-in-chief of the ''Britannica'' are likely to have read their editions completely, such as [[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]] (1st edition), [[William Robertson Smith]] (9th edition), and [[Walter Yust]] (14th edition).

===Awards===
The ''Britannica'' continues to win awards. The online ''Britannica'' won the 2005 [[Codie awards|Codie award]] for "Best Online Consumer Information Service";<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.siia.net/codies/2005/winners.asp#Content | title = 2005 CODiE Award Winners: Content Categories | year = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-04-11 | publisher = [[Software and Information Industry Association]]}}</ref> the Codie awards are granted yearly by the [[Software and Information Industry Association]] to recognise the best products among categories of software. In 2006, the ''Britannica'' was again a finalist.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.siia.net/codies/2006/finalists.asp | title = 2006 Codie Award Finalists: Content Categories | year = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-04-11 | publisher = Software and Information Industry Association}}</ref> Similarly, the CD/DVD-ROM version of the ''Britannica'' received the 2004 Distinguished Achievement Award from the [[Association of Educational Publishers]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.edpress.org/awards/04tech.htm | title = 2004 Distinguished Achievement Awards Winners: Technology | date = [[August 1]], [[2003]] | accessdate = 2007-04-11 | publisher = [[Association of Educational Publishers]]}}</ref> and Codie awards in 2000, 2001 and 2002.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.siia.net/codies/2005/history_2001.asp | title = 2001 Codie Awards Winners | year = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-04-11 | publisher = Software and Information Industry Association}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.siia.net/codies/2005/history_2002.asp | title = 2002 Codie Awards Winners | year = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-04-11 | publisher = Software and Information Industry Association}}</ref>

===Coverage of topics===
As a general encyclopaedia, the ''Britannica'' seeks to describe as wide a range of topics as possible. The topics are chosen in part by reference to the ''[[Propædia]]'' "Outline of Knowledge".<ref name="propedia_preface" /> The bulk of the ''Britannica'' is devoted to geography (26% of the ''[[Macropædia]]''), biography (14%), biology and medicine (11%), literature (7%), physics and astronomy (6%), religion (5%), art (4%), Western philosophy (4%), and law (3%).<ref name="kister_1994" /> A complementary study of the ''[[Micropædia]]'' found that geography accounted for 25% of articles, science 18%, social sciences 17%, biography 17%, and all other humanities 25%.<ref name="sader_1995" /> Writing in 1992, one reviewer judged that the "range, depth, and catholicity of coverage [of the ''Britannica''] are unsurpassed by any other general encyclopedia."<ref>{{cite book | last = Lang | first = JP | year = 1992 | title = Reference Sources for Small and Medium-Sized Libraries | edition = 5th ed. | publisher = American Library Association | location = Chicago | page = 34}}</ref>

The ''Britannica'' does not cover similar topics in equivalent detail; for example, the whole of [[Buddhism]] and most other religions is covered in a single ''[[Macropædia]]'' article, whereas 14 articles are devoted to [[Christianity]], comprising nearly half of all religion articles.<ref name="macropaedia_2007">{{cite book | year = 2007 | title = The New Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition, ''[[Macropædia]]''}} See also the [[list of 2007 Macropædia articles]].</ref> However, the ''Britannica'' has been lauded as the ''least'' biased of general encyclopedias marketed to Western readers<ref name="kister_1994" /> and praised for its biographies of important women of all eras.<ref name="sader_1995" />

{{cquote|It can be stated without fear of contradiction that the 15th edition of the ''Britannica'' accords non-Western cultural, social, and scientific developments more notice than any general English-language encyclopedia currently on the market.|20|20|[[Kenneth Kister]]|in ''Kister's Best Encyclopedias'' (1994)}}

===Criticisms===
The ''Britannica'' has also received criticism, especially as its editions become outdated. It is expensive to produce a completely new edition of the ''Britannica,''<ref>According to Kister (1994, reference 1 above), the initial 15th edition (1974) required over $32 million dollars to produce.</ref> and its editors generally delay this for as long as fiscally sensible (usually about 25 years).<ref name="encyclopedia_1954">{{cite encyclopedia | year = 1954 | title = Encyclopædia | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 14<sup>th</sup> edition}} Aside from providing an excellent summary of the ''Britannica's'' history and early spin-off products, this article also describes the life-cycle of a typical ''Britannica'' edition. A new edition typically begins with strong sales that gradually decay as the encyclopedia becomes outdated. When work on a new edition is begun, word leaks out and sales of the old edition effectively stop, just at the time when the fiscal needs are greatest: a new editorial staff must be assembled, articles commissioned, etc. [[Elkan Harrison Powell]] identified this cyclic fluctuation of income as a key danger to the fiscal health of any encyclopaedia, one that he hoped to overcome with his innovative policy of continuous revision.</ref> For example, despite the policy of continuous revision, the 14th edition had become significantly outdated after 35 years (1929–1964). When American physicist [[Harvey Einbinder]] detailed its failings in his 1964 book, ''The Myth of the Britannica'',<ref>{{cite book | last = Einbinder | first = Harvey | authorlink = Harvey Einbinder | year = 1964 | title = The Myth of the Britannica | publisher = Grove Press | location = New York | id = ISBN 978-0384140509}}</ref> the encyclopedia was provoked to produce the 15th edition, which required 10 years of work.<ref name="kister_1994" /> It is still difficult to keep the ''Britannica'' current; one recent critic writes, "it is not difficult to find articles that are out-of-date or in need of revision," noting that the longer ''Macropædia'' articles are more likely to be outdated than the shorter ''Micropædia'' articles.<ref name="kister_1994" /> Information in the ''Micropædia'' is sometimes inconsistent with the corresponding ''Macropædia'' article(s), mainly because of the failure to update one or the other.<ref name="sader_1995" /><ref name="library_association_1996" /> The bibliographies of the ''Macropædia'' articles have been criticised for being more out-of-date than the articles themselves.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="sader_1995" /><ref name="library_association_1996" />

Historically, the ''Britannica'''s authors have included eminent authorities, such as [[Albert Einstein]], [[Marie Curie]] and [[Leon Trotsky]]. However, some of its contributors have been criticised for their lack of expertise:<ref name="burr_1911">{{cite journal | last = Burr | first = George L. | authorlink = George Lincoln Burr | year = 1911 | title = The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information | journal = American Historical Review | volume = 17 | pages = 103–109}}</ref>

{{cquote|With a temerity almost appalling, [the ''Britannica'' contributor, Mr. Philips] ranges over nearly the whole field of European history, political, social, ecclesiastical… The grievance is that &#91;this work&#93; lacks authority. This, too—this reliance on editorial energy instead of on ripe special learning—may, alas, be also counted an "Americanizing": for certainly nothing has so cheapened the scholarship of our American encyclopaedias.|20px|20px|Prof. [[George Lincoln Burr|George L. Burr]]|in the ''American Historical Review'' (1911)}}

====Opinionatedness====
Various authorities ranging from [[Virginia Woolf]] to academic professors criticised the 11th edition ''Britannica'' for having [[bourgeois]] and old-fashioned opinions on art, literature and social sciences.<ref name="thomas_1992">{{cite book| last = Thomas | first = Gillian | authorlink = Gillian Thomas | year = 1992 | title = A Position to Command Respect: Women and the Eleventh Britannica | publisher = Scarecrow Press | id = ISBN 0-8108-2567-8}}</ref> For example, it was faulted for neglecting the work of [[Sigmund Freud]]. A contemporary [[Cornell University|Cornell]] professor, [[Edward B. Titchener]], wrote in 1912, "the new ''Britannica'' does not reproduce the psychological atmosphere of its day and generation… Despite the halo of authority, and despite the scrutiny of the staff, the great bulk of the secondary articles in general psychology&nbsp;… are not adapted to the requirements of the intelligent reader."<ref>{{cite journal | last = Titchener | first = EB | authorlink = Edward B. Titchener | year = 1912 | title = The Psychology of the new 'Britannica' | journal = American Journal of Psychology | volume = 23 | pages = 37–58}}</ref>

====Editorial choices====
The ''Britannica'' is occasionally criticised for its editorial choices. Given its roughly constant size, the encyclopaedia has needed to reduce or eliminate some topics to accommodate others, resulting in some controversial decisions. The initial 15th edition (1974–1985) was faulted for having drastically reduced or eliminated its coverage of [[children's literature]], [[military decoration]]s, and the French poet [[Joachim du Bellay]]; editorial mistakes were also alleged, such as an inconsistent sorting of Japanese biographies.<ref name="Newsweek_1974" /> Its elimination of the index was condemned, as was the apparently arbitrary division of articles into the ''[[Micropædia]]'' and ''[[Macropædia]]''.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="15th_criticism" /> Summing up, one critic called the initial 15th edition a "qualified failure…&#91;that&#93; cares more for juggling its format than for preserving information."<ref name="Newsweek_1974">{{cite journal | last = Prescott | first = Peter S. | title = The Fifteenth Britannica | journal = Newsweek | date = [[8 July]] [[1974]] | pages = 71–72}}</ref> More recently, reviewers from the [[American Library Association]] were surprised to find that most educational articles had been eliminated from the 1992 ''Macropædia'', along with the article on [[psychology]].<ref name="library_association_1992" />

''Britannica''-appointed contributors are occasionally mistaken or unscientific. A notorious instance from the ''Britannica's'' early years is the rejection of [[Newtonian gravity]] by [[George Gleig]], the chief editor of the 3rd edition (1788–1797), who wrote that gravity was caused by the [[fire (classical element)|classical element of fire]].<ref name="kogan_1958" /> In the 11th edition (1911), an article on [[poltergeist]]s, a then-popular topic of superstition, suggests: "there remains the chance that some agency of an unexplored nature is, at least in certain cases, actually at work."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Lang | first = Andrew | year = 1911 | title = Poltergeist | url = http://1911encyclopedia.org/Poltergeist | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 11<sup>th</sup> edition | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc]]}}</ref> However, the ''Britannica'' has also staunchly defended a scientific approach to emotional topics, as it did with [[William Robertson Smith]]'s articles on religion in the 9th edition, particularly his article stating that the [[Bible]] was not historically accurate (1875).<ref name="kogan_1958" />

====Racism and sexism in prior editions====
By modern standards, past editions of the ''Britannica'' have contained articles marred by racism and sexism.<ref name="thomas_1992" /> The 11th edition characterises the [[Ku Klux Klan]] as protecting the white race and restoring order to the [[Confederate States of America|American South]] after the [[American Civil War]], citing the need to "control the negro", to "prevent any intermingling of the races" and "the frequent occurrence of the crime of rape by negro men upon white women."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Fleming | first = Walter Lynwood | year = 1911 | title = Lynch Law | url = http://1911encyclopedia.org/Lynch_Law | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 11<sup>th</sup> edition | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Fleming | first = Walter Lynwood | year = 1911 | title = Ku Klux Klan | url = http://1911encyclopedia.org/Ku_Klux_Klan | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 11<sup>th</sup> edition | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc]]}}</ref> The 11th edition has no biography of [[Marie Curie]], despite her winning of the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1903 and the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1911, although she is mentioned briefly under the biography of her husband [[Pierre Curie]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | year = 1911 | title = Pierre Curie | url = http://1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_Curie | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 11<sup>th</sup> edition | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc]]}}</ref>

====Inaccuracy====
In 1912 mathematician [[L. C. Karpinski]] criticised the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]'' for its many inaccuracies in the articles on the [[history of mathematics]], none of which had been written by specialists in the field.<ref>{{cite journal|first=L. C.|last=Karpinski|authorlink=Louis Charles Karpinski|title=History of Mathematics in the Recent Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica|journal=Science|year=1912|pages=29-31|volume=35|issue=888}}</ref> In 1917, art critic [[S. S. Van Dine|Willard Huntington Wright]] published a book, ''Misinforming a Nation'',<ref>{{cite book | last = Wright | first = WH (pen-name S. S. Van Dine) | authorlink = S. S. Van Dine | title = Misinforming a Nation | publisher = B. W. Huebsch | location = New York | year = 1917 | url = http://www.archive.org/details/misinformingnati00vanduoft | id = ASIN B000861CHG}}</ref> that highlighted inaccuracies and English biases of the ''Eleventh Edition'', particularly in the humanities articles. Many of Wright's criticisms were addressed in later editions of the ''Britannica''. However, his book was denounced as a polemic by some contemporary reviewers; for example, the ''[[New York Times]]'' wrote that a "spiteful and shallow temper…pervades the book," while ''[[The New Republic]]'' opined, "it is unfortunate for Mr. Wright's remorseless purpose that he has proceeded in an unscientific spirit and given so little objective justification of his criticism."<ref name="kogan_1958" /> Another critic, English writer and former priest [[Joseph McCabe]], claimed that the ''Britannica'' was susceptible to editorial pressure from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in his book, ''Lies And Fallacies Of The Encyclopedia Britannica'' (1947).<ref>{{cite book | last = McCabe | first = J | authorlink = Joseph McCabe | year = 1947 | title = Lies And Fallacies Of The Encyclopedia Britannica | url = http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_mccabe/lies_of_britannica.html | publisher = Haldeman-Julius | id = ASIN B0007FFJF4}}</ref>

The ''Britannica'' has always conceded that errors are inevitable in an encyclopaedia. Speaking of the 3rd edition (1788–1797), its chief editor [[George Gleig]] wrote that "perfection seems to be incompatible with the nature of works constructed on such a plan, and embracing such a variety of subjects." More recently (March 2006), the ''Britannica'' wrote that "we in no way mean to imply that ''Britannica'' is error-free; we have never made such a claim."<ref name="fatally_flawed" />
The sentiment is expressed by its original editor, [[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]].

{{cquote|With regard to errors in general, whether falling under the denomination of mental, typographical or accidental, we are conscious of being able to point out a greater number than any critic whatever. Men who are acquainted with the innumerable difficulties of attending the execution of a work of such an extensive nature will make proper allowances. To these we appeal, and shall rest satisfied with the judgment they pronounce.|20px|20px|[[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]]|in the [[s:Preface to the 1st edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica|Preface]] to the 1st edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica}}

==Present status==
[[Image:Encyclopaedia Britannica 15 with 2002.jpg|thumb|15th edition of the ''Britannica''. The initial volume with the green spine is the ''Propædia''; the red-spined and black-spined volumes are the ''Micropædia'' and the ''Macropædia'', respectively. The last three volumes are the 2002 Book of the Year (black spine) and the two-volume index (cyan spine).]]

===2007 print version===
Since 1985, the ''Britannica'' has had four parts: the ''[[Micropædia]],'' the ''[[Macropædia]],'' the ''[[Propædia]],'' and a two-volume index. The ''Britannica'''s articles are found in the ''Micro-'' and ''Macropædia,'' which encompass 12 and 17 volumes, respectively, each volume having roughly one thousand pages. The 2007 ''Macropædia'' has 699 in-depth articles, ranging in length from 2 to 310 pages and having references and named contributors. In contrast, the 2007 ''Micropædia'' has roughly 65,000 articles, the vast majority (about 97%) of which contain fewer than 750 words, no references, and no named contributors.<ref name="library_association_1996" /> The ''Micropædia'' articles are intended for quick fact-checking and to help in finding more thorough information in the ''Macropædia''. The ''Macropædia'' articles are meant both as authoritative, well-written articles on their subjects and as storehouses of information not covered elsewhere.<ref name="kister_1994" /> The longest article (310 pages) is on the [[United States]], and resulted from the merger of the articles on the individual [[U.S. state|states]].

Information can be found in the ''Britannica'' by following the cross-references in the ''Micropædia'' and ''Macropædia''; however, these are sparse, averaging one cross-reference per page.<ref name="sader_1995" /> Hence, readers are recommended to consult instead the alphabetical index or the ''Propædia,'' which organises the ''Britannica'''s contents by topic.<ref name="index_preface" />

The core of the ''Propædia'' is its "Outline of Knowledge," which aims to provide a logical framework for all human knowledge.<ref name="propedia_preface" /> Accordingly, the Outline is consulted by the ''Britannica'''s editors to decide which articles should be included in the ''Micro-'' and ''Macropædia''.<ref name="propedia_preface" /> The Outline is also intended to be a study guide, to put subjects in their proper perspective, and to suggest a series of ''Britannica'' articles for the student wishing to learn a topic in depth.<ref name="propedia_preface" /> However, libraries have found that it is scarcely used, and reviewers have recommended that it be dropped from the encyclopedia.<ref name="library_association_1992">{{cite book | year = 1992 | title = Purchasing an Encyclopedia: 12 Points to Consider | edition = 4th edition | publisher = [[Booklist]] Publications, [[American Library Association]] | id = ISBN 0-8389-5754-4}}</ref> The ''Propædia'' also has color transparencies of human anatomy and several appendices listing the staff members, advisors, and contributors to all three parts of the Britannica.

Taken together, the ''Micropædia'' and ''Macropædia'' comprise roughly 40 million words and 24,000 images.<ref name="index_preface" /> The two-volume index has 2,350 pages, listing the 228,274 topics covered in the ''Britannica,'' together with 474,675 subentries under those topics.<ref name="sader_1995" /> The ''Britannica'' generally prefers [[British English|British spelling]] over [[American English|American]];<ref name="sader_1995" /> for example, it uses ''colour'' (not ''color''), ''centre'' (not ''center''), and ''encyclopaedia'' (not ''encyclopedia''). However, there are exceptions to this rule, such as ''defense'' rather than ''defence''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Defense mechanism | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] | date = 2007 | volume = 3 | pages = p. 957}}</ref> Common alternative spellings are provided with cross-references such as "Color: ''see'' Colour."

Since 1936, the articles of the ''Britannica'' have been revised on a regular schedule, with at least 10% of them considered for revision each year.<ref name="sader_1995" /><ref name="encyclopedia_1954" /> According to one Britannica web-site, 46% of its articles were revised over the past three years;<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.eb.com/library/print/eb.html | title = Encyclopædia Britannica: School & Library Site, promotional materials for the 2007 ''Britannica'' | accessdate = 2007-04-11}}</ref> however, according to another Britannica web-site, only 35% of the articles were revised.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.britannica.com.au/product.asp?prod=HLMPKG07 | title = Australian Encyclopædia Britannica, promotional materials for the 2007 ''Britannica'' | accessdate = 2007-04-10}}</ref>

The alphabetisation of articles in the ''Micropædia'' and ''Macropædia'' follows strict rules.<ref name="micropedia_preface">{{cite book | year = 2007 | title = The New Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition, ''Micropædia'' preface}}</ref> [[Diacritic|Diacritical marks]] and non-English letters are ignored, while numerical entries such as "[[War of 1812|1812, War of]]" are alphabetised as if the number had been written out ("Eighteen-twelve, War of"). Articles with identical names are ordered first by persons, then by places, then by things. Rulers with identical names are organised first alphabetically by country and then by chronology; thus, [[Charles the Simple|Charles III]] of [[France]] precedes [[Charles I of England]], listed in ''Britannica'' as the ruler of Great Britain and Ireland. (That is, they are alphabetised as if their titles were "Charles, France, 3" and "Charles, Great Britain and Ireland, 1".) Similarly, places that share names are organised alphabetically by country, then by ever-smaller political divisions.

===Related printed material===
There have been and are several abbreviated ''Britannica'' encyclopedias. The single-volume ''Britannica Concise Encyclopædia'' has 28,000 short articles condensing the larger 32-volume ''Britannica''.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://britannicashop.britannica.co.uk/epages/Store.sf/?ObjectPath=/Shops/Britannicashop/Products/SVOL_REF_0302 | title = 2003 Britannica Concise Encyclopedia | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Ltd. | accessdate = 2007-04-11}}</ref> ''Compton's by Britannica,'' which incorporates the former ''[[Compton's Encyclopedia]],'' is aimed at adolescents ages 10–17 and consists of 26 volumes and 11,000 pages.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://britannicashop.britannica.co.uk/epages/Store.sf/?ObjectPath=/Shops/Britannicashop/Products/CHLD_PRNT_0710_0715_0696 | title = 2007 Compton's by Britannica | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Ltd. | accessdate = 2007-04-11}}</ref> A ''Children's Britannica'' was published by the company's London office in 1960; this was edited by John Armitage and dedicated to His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales; contributors were almost all British, and editorial consultants were "The Headmaster, Staff and Children of the William Austin Primary School, Luton, Bedfordshire".<ref>Children's Britannica. ed. John Armitage. 1960. Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. London.</ref> Other products include ''My First Britannica'', aimed at children ages six to twelve, and the ''Britannica Discovery Library'', written for children ages three to six.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://britannicashop.britannica.co.uk/epages/Store.sf/?ObjectPath=/Shops/Britannicashop/Products/CHLD_PRNT_0551 | title = Britannica Discovery Library (issued 1974–1991) | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Ltd. | accessdate = 2007-04-11}}</ref> Since 1938, [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] has published annually a ''Book of the Year'' covering the past year's events, which is available online back to the 1994 edition (covering the events of 1993). The company also publishes several specialized reference works, such as ''Shakespeare: The Essential Guide to the Life and Works of the Bard'' (Wiley, 2006).

===Optical disc and online and mobile versions ===
[[Image:Encyclopedia Britannica Online.PNG|right|thumb|''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'']]
The ''Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2006 DVD'' contains over 55 million words and just over 100,000 articles.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://britannicashop.britannica.co.uk/epages/Store.sf/?ObjectPath=/Shops/BritannicaShop/Products/ENCL_ADLT_0713 | title = 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Ltd. | accessdate = 2007-04-11}}</ref> This includes 73,645 regular ''Britannica'' articles, with the remainder drawn from the ''Britannica Student Encyclopædia,'' the ''Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia'' and the ''Britannica Book of the Year'' (1993–2004), plus a few "classic" articles from early editions of the encyclopaedia. The package includes a range of supplementary content including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links. It also offers study tools and dictionary and thesaurus entries from [[Merriam-Webster]].

''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'' is a [[Web site]] with more than 120,000 articles and is updated regularly.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.britannica.com/premium | title = Britannica Online | publisher = [[Britannica.com]] | accessdate = 2006-10-23}}</ref> It has daily features, updates and links to news reports from ''[[The New York Times]]'' and the [[BBC News|BBC]]. Subscriptions are available on a yearly, monthly or weekly basis.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.britannica.co.uk/BT_Click_Buy.htm | title = Britannica Online Store—BT Click&Buy | publisher = [[Britannica.com]] | accessdate = 2006-09-27}}</ref> Special subscription plans are offered to schools, colleges and libraries; such institutional subscribers constitute an important part of Britannica's business. Articles may be accessed online for free, but only a few opening lines of text are displayed. Beginning in early 2007, the ''Britannica'' made articles freely available if they are linked to from an external site;<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.britannica.com/webmaster | title = Instructions for linking to the ''Britannica'' articles | publisher = [[Britannica.com]] | accessdate = 2007-03-26}}</ref> such external links often improve an article's [[Search engine optimization|rankings]] in [[search engine]] results.

On [[20 February]] [[2007]], Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that it was working with [[mobile phone]] search company [[AskMeNow]] to launch a mobile encyclopedia.<ref>{{cite press release | url = http://www.mirror99.com/20070221/encyclopaedia_britannica_selects_askmenow_to_launch_mobile_geae.jspx | title = Encyclopaedia Britannica Selects AskMeNow to Launch Mobile Encyclopedia | date = [[21 February]] [[2007]] | publisher = [[AskMeNow|AskMeNow, Inc.]] | accessdate = 2007-03-26}}</ref> Users will be able to send a question via [[text message]], and AskMeNow will search ''Britannica'''s 28,000-article concise encyclopedia to return an answer to the query. Daily topical features sent directly to users' mobile phones are also planned.

Encyclopædia Britannica has also partnered with [[online video|video]] encyclopedia site [[5min.com]] to create a video version of their encyclopedia. The video version comprises 92 videos, with a focus on history, science and geography, and includes archival news footage.

==Personnel and management==
===Contributors===
The 2007 print version of the ''Britannica'' boasts 4,411 contributors, with many eminent in their fields, such as Nobel Laureate economist [[Milton Friedman]], astronomer [[Carl Sagan]], and surgeon [[Michael DeBakey]].<ref name="macropaedia_contributors">{{cite book | year = 2007 | title = The New Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition, ''[[Propædia]]''| pages = 531–674}}</ref> Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as long ago as 1947 ([[Alfred North Whitehead]]), while another quarter are retired or [[emeritus]]. Most (approximately 98%) contribute to only a single article; however, 64 contributed to three articles, 23 contributed to four articles, 10 contributed to five articles, and 8 contributed to more than five articles. An exceptionally prolific contributor is Dr. [[Christine Sutton]] of the [[University of Oxford]], who contributed 24 articles on [[particle physics]].

===Staff===
{{Details|Staff of the Encyclopædia Britannica}}
[[Image:Thomas Spencer Baynes painted 1888.gif|frame|right|Portrait of [[Thomas Spencer Baynes]], editor of the 9th edition. Painted in 1888, it now hangs in the Senate Room of the [[University of St. Andrews]] in [[Scotland]].]]

[[Dale Hoiberg]], a [[sinology|sinologist]], is currently the ''Britannica's'' Senior Vice President and editor-in-chief.<ref name="propedia_staff">{{cite book | year = 2007 | title = The New Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition, ''[[Propædia]]''| pages = p.745}}</ref> Among his predecessors as editors-in-chief were [[Hugh Chisholm]] (1902–1924), [[James Louis Garvin]] (1926–1932), [[Franklin Henry Hooper]] (1902–1938), [[Walter Yust]] (1938–1960), [[Harry Ashmore]] (1960–1963), [[Warren E. Preece]] (1964–1968, 1969–1975), Sir [[William Haley]] (1968–1969), [[Philip W. Goetz]] (1979–1991),<ref name="kister_1994" /> and [[Robert McHenry]] (1992–1997).<ref name="Britannica History">{{cite web |url=http://corporate.britannica.com/company_info.html
|title=History of Encyclopædia Britannica and Britannica Online |accessdate=2006-10-17 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc}}</ref> [[Anita Wolff]] and [[Theodore Pappas]] serve as the current Deputy Editor and Executive Editor, respectively.<ref name="propedia_staff" /> Prior Executive Editors include [[John V. Dodge]] (1950–1964) and [[Philip W. Goetz]].

The ''Britannica'' maintains an editorial staff of five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors, supervised by [[Dale Hoiberg]] and four others. The editorial staff help in authoring the articles of the ''[[Micropædia]]'' and some sections of the ''[[Macropædia]]''.<ref name="EB_biochemistry">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Biochemical Components of Organisms | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed. | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc]] | date = 2007 | volume = 14 | pages = 1007–1030}}</ref>

===Editorial advisors===
The ''Britannica'' has an Editorial Board of Advisors, which currently includes 14 distinguished scholars:<ref name="propedia_editorial advisors">{{cite book | year = 2007 | title = The New Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition, ''[[Propædia]]''| pages = p.5}}</ref><ref>[http://corporate.britannica.com/board/ Encyclopædia Britannica Board of Editors.] Britannica.com. Retrieved on [[2006-09-27]]</ref>
* former [[Ecuador]]ian president [[Rosalía Arteaga]],
* Physiology/Medicine Nobel laureate [[David Baltimore]],
* religion scholar [[Wendy Doniger]],
* political economist [[Benjamin M. Friedman]],
* [[Council on Foreign Relations]] President Emeritus [[Leslie H. Gelb]],
* Physics Nobel laureate [[Murray Gell-Mann]],
* [[Carnegie Corporation of New York]] President [[Vartan Gregorian]],
* [[Pritzker Architecture Prize]] winner [[Zaha Hadid]],
* [[American Civil War]] historian [[James M. McPherson]],
* philosopher [[Thomas Nagel]],
* cognitive scientist [[Donald Norman]],
* musicologist [[Don Michael Randel]],
* Economics Nobel laureate [[Amartya Sen]], and
* [[Stewart Sutherland, Baron Sutherland of Houndwood]] and a [[Order of the Thistle|Knight of the Thistle]].

The ''[[Propædia]]'' and its ''Outline of Knowledge'' were produced by dozens of editorial advisors under the direction of [[Mortimer J. Adler]].<ref name="propedia_other_editorial_advisors">{{cite book | year = 2007 | title = The New Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition, ''[[Propædia]]''| pages = 524–530}}</ref> Roughly half of these advisors have since died, including some of the Outline's chief architects: [[Rene Dubos]] (d. 1982), [[Loren Eiseley]] (d. 1977), [[Harold D. Lasswell]] (d. 1978), [[Mark Van Doren]] (d. 1972), [[Peter Ritchie Calder]] (d. 1982) and [[Mortimer J. Adler]] (d. 2001). The ''Propædia'' also lists just under 4,000 advisors who were consulted for the unsigned ''[[Micropædia]]'' articles.<ref name="micropaedia_consultants">{{cite book | year = 2007 | title = The New Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition, ''[[Propædia]]''| pages = 675–744}}</ref>

===Corporate structure===
In January 1996, the ''Britannica'' was purchased from the [[Benton Foundation]] by [[billionaire]] [[Switzerland|Swiss]] financier [[Jacqui Safra]],<ref>{{cite news | url = http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/960104/britannica.shtml | title = Britannica sold by Benton Foundation | publisher = University of Chicago Chronicle | date = [[4 January]] [[1996]]}}</ref> who serves as its current Chair of the Board. In 1997, [[Don Yannias]], a long-time associate and investment advisor of Safra, became [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] of [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]<ref>{{cite press release | url = http://corporate.britannica.com/press/releases/yannias.html | title = Encyclopædia Britannica Announces Appointment Of Don Yannias As Chief Executive Officer | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | date = [[4 March]] [[1997]] | accessdate = 2007-04-11}}</ref> A new company, [[Britannica.com Inc.]] was [[spun off]] in 1999 to develop the digital versions of the ''Britannica''; Yannias assumed the role of CEO in the new company, while that of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. remained vacant for two years. Yannias' tenure at [[Britannica.com Inc.]] was marked by missteps, large lay-offs and financial losses.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Abramson | first = Ronna | date = [[9 April]] [[2001]] | title = Look Under "M" for Mess—Company Business and Marketing | journal = The Industry Standard | url = http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HWW/is_14_4/ai_73746980 | accessdate = 2007-03-26}}</ref> In 2001, Yannias was replaced by [[Ilan Yeshua]], who reunited the leadership of the two companies.<ref>{{cite press release | title = Ilan Yeshua Named Britannica CEO. Veteran Executive to Consolidate Operations of Encyclopaedia Britannica and Britannica.com | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | date = [[16 May]] [[2001]] | accessdate = 2007-03-26}}</ref> Yannias later returned to investment management, but remains on the ''Britannica's'' [[Board of Directors]].

In 2003, former management consultant [[Jorge Aguilar-Cauz]] was appointed President of [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] Cauz is the senior executive and reports directly to the ''Britannica's'' Board of Directors. Despite his subdued and scholarly manner, Cauz has been aggressively pursuing alliances with other companies and extending the ''Britannica'' brand to new educational and reference products, continuing the strategy pioneered by former CEO [[Elkan Harrison Powell]] in the mid-1930s.<ref name="propedia_Chair_President">{{cite book | year = 2007 | title = The New Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15<sup>th</sup> edition, ''[[Propædia]]''| pages = p.2}}</ref>

Under Safra's ownership, the company has experienced financial difficulties, and has responded by reducing the price of its products and implementing drastic cost cuts. According to a 2003 report in the ''[[New York Post]]'', the ''Britannica'' management has eliminated employee [[401(k)]] accounts and encouraged the use of free images. These changes have had negative impacts, as freelance contributors have waited up to six months for checks and the ''Britannica'' staff have gone years without pay rises.<ref>{{cite news | title = Cash-shy Britannica | page = 6 | publisher = [[New York Post]] | date = [[11 September]] [[2003]] | url = http://www.pagesix.com/story/cash-shy+britannica | accessdate = 2007-03-26}}</ref>

[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] now owns registered [[trademark]]s on the words ''Britannica'', ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', ''Macropædia'', ''Micropædia'', and ''Propædia'', as well as on its [[thistle]] logo. It has exercised its trademark rights as recently as 2005.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/domains/decisions/html/2002/d2002-0487.html | title = WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center, Case No. D2002-0487, ''Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. v. null John Zuccarini, Country Walk'' | publisher = World Intellectual Property Organization | date = [[2002-08-12]] | accessdate = 2007-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/domains/decisions/html/2005/d2005-0865.html | title = WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center, Case No. D2005-0865, ''Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. v. Michele Dinoia/SZK.com'' | publisher = World Intellectual Property Organization | date = [[2005-10-10]] |accessdate = 2007-03-29}}</ref>

==Competition==
As the ''Britannica'' is a general encyclopaedia, it does not seek to compete with specialised encyclopaedias such as the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Mathematics]]'' or the ''[[Dictionary of the Middle Ages]]'', which can devote much more space to their chosen topics. In its first years, the ''Britannica'''s main competitor was the general encyclopaedia of [[Ephraim Chambers]] and, soon thereafter, ''[[Rees's Cyclopaedia]]'' and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge's]] ''[[Encyclopaedia Metropolitana]]''. In the 20th century, successful competitors included ''[[Collier's Encyclopedia]],'' the ''[[Encyclopedia Americana]],'' and the ''[[World Book Encyclopedia]]''. Each of these encyclopaedias has qualities that make it outstanding, such as exceptionally clear writing or superb illustrations. Nevertheless, from the 9th edition onwards, the ''Britannica'' was widely considered to have the greatest authority of any general English language encyclopaedia,<ref name="thomas_1992" /> especially because of its superlatively broad coverage and eminent authors.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="sader_1995" /> However, the print version of the ''Britannica'' is significantly more expensive than its competitors.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="sader_1995" />

[[Image:Stc1795.gif|thumb|left|[[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] initiated the competitor encyclopedia, the ''[[Encyclopaedia Metropolitana]]'', with his essay, ''Preliminary Treatise on Method''.]]

Since the early 1990s, the ''Britannica'' has faced new challenges from digital information sources. The Internet, facilitated by the development of [[search engine]]s, has grown into a common source of information for many people, and provides easy access to reliable original sources and expert opinions, thanks in part to initiatives such as [[Google Book Search|Google Books]], [[MIT]]'s [[MIT OpenCourseWare|release of its educational materials]] and the open [[PubMed Central]] library of the [[National Library of Medicine]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lawrence S., Giles C. |title=Accessibility of information on the web |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v400/n6740/abs/400107a0.html |journal=Nature |volume=107 |issue=6740 |pages=107 |year=1999 |doi=10.1038/21987}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Lawrence S., Giles C. |title= Searching the Web: general and scientific information access | url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=739314 |journal=Communications Magazine, IEEE |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=116–122 |year=1999 |doi=10.1109/35.739314}}</ref> In general, the Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media, due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated.<ref>{{cite web | title=Electronic publishing takes journals into a new realm |publisher=American Chemical Society | url=http://pubs.acs.org/hotartcl/cenear/980518/elec.html |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref> In rapidly changing fields such as science, technology, politics, culture and modern history, the ''Britannica'' has struggled to stay up-to-date, a problem first analysed systematically by its former editor [[Walter Yust]].<ref name="EB_1954" /> Although the ''Britannica'' is now available both in multimedia form and over the Internet, its preeminence is being challenged by other online encyclopaedias, such as ''[[Encarta]]'' and [[Wikipedia]].

===Print encyclopedias===
The ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' has been compared with other print encyclopaedias, both qualitatively and quantitatively.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="sader_1995" /><ref name="library_association_1996" /> A well-known comparison is that of [[Kenneth Kister]], who gave a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the ''Britannica'' with two comparable encyclopaedias, ''[[Collier's Encyclopedia]]'' and the ''[[Encyclopedia Americana]]''.<ref name="kister_1994"/> For the ''quantitative'' analysis, ten articles were selected at random ([[circumcision]], [[Charles Drew]], [[Galileo]], [[Philip Glass]], [[heart disease]], [[IQ]], [[panda bear]], [[sexual harassment]], [[Shroud of Turin]] and [[Uzbekistan]]) and letter grades (A–D, F) were awarded in four categories: coverage, accuracy, clarity, and recency. In all four categories and for all three encyclopaedias, the four average grades fell between [[grade conversion|B− and B+]], chiefly because not one encyclopaedia had an article on [[sexual harassment]] in 1994. In the accuracy category, the ''Britannica'' received one ''D'' and eight ''A''s. ''Encyclopedia Americana'' received eight ''A''s, and ''Collier's'' received one ''D'' and seven ''A''s; thus, ''Britannica'' received an average score of 92% for accuracy to ''Americana''’s 95% and ''Collier's''’ 92%. The 1994 ''Britannica'' was faulted for publishing an inflammatory story about [[Charles Drew]] that had long been discredited. In the timeliness category, ''Britannica'' averaged an 86% to ''Americana''’s 90% and ''Collier's''’ 85%. After a more thorough ''qualitative'' comparison of all three encyclopedias, [[Kenneth Kister|Kister]] recommended ''[[Collier's Encyclopedia]]'' as the superior encyclopaedia, primarily on the strength of its excellent writing, balanced presentation and easy navigation.

===Digital encyclopedias on optical media===

The most notable competitor of the ''Britannica'' among CD/DVD-ROM digital encyclopedias is ''[[Encarta]]'',<ref name="seymour_2006" /> a modern, multimedia encyclopedia that incorporates three print encyclopedias: ''[[Funk and Wagnalls]]<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', ''[[Collier's Encyclopedia|Collier's]]'' and the ''[[New Merit Scholar's Encyclopedia|New Merit Scholar]]''. ''[[Encarta]]'' is the top-selling multimedia encyclopaedia, based on total U.S. retail sales from January 2000 to February 2006.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = [[Microsoft]] | title = Microsoft Encarta—Premium 2007: Overview | url = http://www.microsoft.com/products/encarta/ProductDetails.aspx?pid=002 | accessdate = 2007-04-06}} Sales figures for January 2000 – February 2006 as provided by the [[NPD Group]].</ref> Both occupy the same price range, with the 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate CD or DVD costing [[United States dollar|US$]]50<ref name="Britannica Store">{{cite web |url= http://store.britannica.com/shopping/product/detailmain.jsp?itemID=765&itemType=PRODUCT&iMainCat=4&iSubCat=14&iProductID=765&show=all|title= The Britannica Store| publisher = britannica.com | accessdate = 2006-11-21}}</ref> and the Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD costing [[United States dollar|US$]]45.<ref name="Encarta Store">{{cite web |url= http://www.amazon.com/Microsoft-FB7-00442-Encarta-Premium-2007/dp/B000FL2DQS|title= Amazon.com: Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007: Software|accessdate=2006-11-21}}</ref> The ''Britannica'' contains 100,000 articles and ''[[Webster's Dictionary|Merriam-Webster's Dictionary and Thesaurus]]'' (U.S. only), and offers Primary and Secondary School editions.<ref name="Britannica Store"/> ''Encarta'' contains 66,000 articles, a user-friendly Visual Browser, interactive maps, math, language and homework tools, a U.S. and UK dictionary, and a youth edition.<ref name="Encarta Store"/> Like ''Encarta'', the ''Britannica'' has been criticised for being biased towards [[United States]] audiences; the [[United Kingdom]]-related articles are updated less often, maps of the United States are more detailed than those of other countries, and it lacks a UK dictionary.<ref name="seymour_2006">{{cite web |url= http://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/reviews/index.cfm?reviewid=502|title= Encyclopedia face-off: Encarta vs Britannica|accessdate= 2006-11-21|last= Seymour|first= Ursula|date= [[2006-11-09]]|work= PC Advisor|publisher= IDG}}</ref> Like the ''Britannica'', ''[[Encarta]]'' is available online by subscription, although some content may be accessed for free.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://encarta.msn.com/artcenter_0/Encyclopedia_Articles.html | title = Encarta's Encyclopedia Article Center | accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref>

===Internet encyclopedias===
Online alternatives to the ''Britannica'' include [[Wikipedia]], this freely available [[World Wide Web|Web]]-based [[free-content]] encyclopedia. Wikipedia receives roughly 450 times more traffic than the online version of the ''Britannica'', based on independent page-view statistics gathered by [[Alexa Internet|Alexa]] in the first three months of 2007.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.alexa.com/data/details/traffic_details/wikipedia.org | title = Web-traffic data for Wikipedia | publisher = [[Alexa (Internet)|Alexa]] | accessdate = 2007-03-26}}</ref>

A key difference between the two encyclopaedias lies in article authorship. The 699 ''[[Macropædia]]'' articles are generally written by identified contributors, and the roughly 65,000 ''[[Micropædia]]'' articles are the work of the editorial staff and identified outside consultants. Thus, a ''Britannica'' article either has known authorship <!--"…identified authors" can parse as verb--> or a set of possible authors (the editorial staff). With the exception of the editorial staff, most of the ''Britannica'''s contributors are experts in their field—some are Nobel laureates.<ref name="macropaedia_contributors" /> By contrast, the articles of Wikipedia are written by a community of editors with varying levels of expertise: most editors do not claim any particular expertise; of those who do, many are [[anonymous]] and have no verifiable credentials.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Statistics | title = Total number of users of the English-language Wikipedia | accessdate = 2007-04-11}}</ref><ref>Giles, Jim ([[2005-12-15]]). "[http://www.nature.com/news/2005/051212/box/438900a_BX1.html Challenges of being a Wikipedian]" In: "[http://www.nature.com/news/2005/051212/full/438900a.html Internet encyclopaedias go head to head]". ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' 438: 900–901. {{doi|10.1038/438900a}}. Retrieved on [[2007-04-11]].</ref> Another difference is the pace of article change: the ''Britannica'' is published in print every few years, while Wikipedia's articles are likely to change frequently. [[Criticism of Wikipedia|Wikipedia has been criticised]] in other respects as well,<ref>"[http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/01/26/wiki A Stand Against Wikipedia]", ''Inside Higher Ed'' ([[January 26]] [[2007]]). Retrieved on [[January 27]] [[2007]].</ref> and it has been argued<ref name="FBE">{{cite news | first=Robert | last=McHenry | title=The Faith-Based Encyclopedia | work=TCS Daily | date=[[2004-11-15]] | url=http://www.tcsdaily.com/article.aspx?id=111504A}}</ref> that Wikipedia cannot hope to rival the ''Britannica'' in [[accuracy]].

On [[14 December]] [[2005]], the scientific journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' reported that, within 42 randomly selected general science articles, there were 162 mistakes in Wikipedia versus 123 in ''Britannica''.<ref name="Giles_Nature_study_2005">{{cite journal
| url = http://www.nature.com/news/2005/051212/full/438900a.html
| title = Internet encyclopedias go head to head
| accessdate = 2006-10-21
| last = Giles
| first = Jim
| date = 2005-12-15
| journal = Nature
| volume = 438
| pages = 900–901
| doi = 10.1038/438900a
}}</ref> In its detailed 20-page rebuttal, [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] characterized ''Nature'''s study as flawed and misleading<ref name="fatally_flawed">{{cite web
| url = http://corporate.britannica.com/britannica_nature_response.pdf
| title = Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature
| accessdate = 2006-10-21
| year = 2006
| month = March
| format = PDF
| publisher = Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc
}}</ref> and called for a "prompt" retraction. It noted that two of the articles in the study were taken from a ''Britannica'' year book, and not the encyclopedia; another two were from ''Compton's Encyclopedia'' (called the ''Britannica Student Encyclopedia'' on the company's web site). The rebuttal went on to mention that some of the articles presented to reviewers were combinations of several articles, and that other articles were merely excerpts but were penalized for factual omissions. The company also noted that several facts classified as errors by ''Nature'' were minor spelling variations, and that several of its alleged errors were matters of interpretation. ''Nature'' defended its story and declined to retract, stating that, as it was comparing Wikipedia with the web version of Britannica, it used whatever relevant material was available on Britannica's website.<ref>{{cite press release
| url = http://www.nature.com/press_releases/Britannica_response.pdf
| title = Encyclopedia Britannica: a response
| accessdate = 2006-10-21
| date = [[2006-03-23]]
| format = PDF
| publisher = ''Nature''
}}</ref>

==Edition summary==
{{main|History of the Encyclopædia Britannica}}

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%"
|-----
! abbr="Edition" | Edition/supplement
! abbr="Publication" | Publication years
! Size
! abbr="Editor" | Chief editor(s)
! Notes
|-----
! align="right" | 1st
| 1768–1771
| 3 volumes, 2,670 pages, 160 plates
| [[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]]
| Largely the work of one editor, Smellie; 30 articles longer than three pages
|-----
! align="right" | 2nd
| 1777–1784
| 10 volumes, 8,595 pages, 340 plates
| [[James Tytler]]
| 150 long articles; pagination errors; all maps under "Geography" article
|-----
! align="right" | 3rd
| 1788–1797
| 18 volumes, 14,579 pages, 542 plates
| [[Colin Macfarquhar]] and [[George Gleig]]
| 42,000&nbsp;pounds profit on 10,000 copies sold; introduction of chemical symbols
|-----
! align="right" | supplement to 3rd
| 1801
| 2 volumes, 1,624 pages, 50 plates
| George Gleig
| Copyright owned by [[Thomas Bonar]], first dedication to monarch
|-----
! align="right" | 4th
| 1801–1809
| 20 volumes, 16,033 pages, 581 plates
| [[James Millar]]
| Authors first allowed to retain copyright
|-----
! align="right" | 5th
| 1817
| 20 volumes, 16,017 pages, 582 plates
| James Millar
| Financial losses by Millar and [[Andrew Bell]]'s heirs; EB rights sold to [[Archibald Constable]]
|-----
! align="right" | supplement to 5th
| 1816–1824
| 6 volumes, 4,933 pages, 125 plates<sup>[[#editionnote1|1]]</sup>
| [[Macvey Napier]]
| Famous contributors recruited, such as Sir [[Humphry Davy]], [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Malthus]]
|-----
! align="right" | 6th
| 1820–1823
| 20 volumes
| [[Charles Maclaren]]
| [[Archibald Constable|Constable]] went bankrupt on [[19 January]] [[1826]]; EB rights eventually secured by [[Adam Black]]
|-----
! align="right" | 7th
| 1830–1842
| 21 volumes, 17,101 pages, 506 plates, 187-page index
| [[Macvey Napier]], assisted by [[James Browne]], LLD
| Widening network of famous contributors, such as Sir [[David Brewster]], [[Thomas de Quincey]], [[Antonio Panizzi]]
|-----
! align="right" | 8th
| 1853–1860
| 21 volumes, 17,957 pages, 402 plates; separate 239-page index, published 1861<sup>[[#editionnote2|2]]</sup>
| [[Thomas Stewart Traill]]
| Many long articles were copied from the 7th edition; 344 contributors including [[William Thomson]]
|-----
! align="right" | 9th
| 1875–1889
| 24 volumes, plus one index volume
| [[Thomas Spencer Baynes]] (1875–80); then [[W. Robertson Smith]]
| Some carry-over from 8th edition, but mostly a new work; high point of scholarship; pirated widely in the U.S.<sup>[[#editionnote3|3]]</sup>
|-----
! align="right" | 10th,<br />supplement to 9th
| 1902–1903
| 11 volumes, plus the 24 volumes of the 9th<sup>[[#editionnote4|4]]</sup>
| Sir [[Donald Mackenzie Wallace]] and [[Hugh Chisholm]] in [[London]]; [[Arthur T. Hadley]] & [[Franklin Henry Hooper]] in [[New York City]]
| American partnership bought EB rights on [[9 May]] [[1901]]; high-pressure sales methods
|-----
! align="right" | [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|11th]]
| 1910–1911 || 28 volumes, plus one index volume
| Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Another high point of scholarship and writing; more articles than the 9th, but shorter and simpler; financial difficulties for owner, [[Horace Everett Hooper]]; EB rights sold to [[Sears, Roebuck and Company|Sears Roebuck]] in 1920
|-----
! align="right" | 12th,<br />supplement to 11th
| 1921–1922
| 3 volumes, plus the 28 volumes of the 11th<sup>[[#editionnote5|5]]</sup>
| Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Summarized state of the world before, during, and after [[World War I]]
|-----
! align="right" | 13th,<br />supplement to 11th
| 1926
| 3 volumes, plus the 28 volumes of the 11th<sup>[[#editionnote6|6]]</sup>
| James Louis Garvin in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Replaced 12th edition volumes; improved perspective of the events of 1910–1926
|-----
! align="right" | 14th
| 1929–1933
| 24 volumes <sup>[[#editionnote7|7]]</sup>
| James Louis Garvin in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Publication just before Great Depression was financially catastrophic
|-----
! align="right" | revised 14th
| 1933–1973
| 24 volumes <sup>[[#editionnote7|7]]</sup>
| Franklin Henry Hooper until 1938; then [[Walter Yust]], [[Harry Ashmore]], [[Warren E. Preece]], [[William Haley]]
| Began continuous revision in 1936: every article revised at least twice every decade
|-----
! align="right" rowspan=2 | 15th
| 1974–1984
| 30 volumes <sup>[[#editionnote8|8]]</sup>
| [[Warren E. Preece]], then [[Philip W. Goetz]]
| Introduced three-part structure; division of articles into ''[[Micropædia]]'' and ''[[Macropædia]]''; ''[[Propædia]]'' Outline of Knowledge; separate index eliminated
|-----
| | 1985–present || 32 volumes <sup>[[#editionnote9|9]]</sup>
| [[Philip W. Goetz]], then [[Robert McHenry]], currently [[Dale Hoiberg]]
| Restored two-volume index; merged ''Micropædia'' and ''Macropædia'' articles; slightly longer overall; new versions issued every few years
|}
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" style="font-size:90%"
|-
| class="toccolours" |'''Edition notes'''

<sup id="editionnote1">1</sup>''Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. With preliminary dissertations on the history of the sciences.''

<sup id="editionnote2">2</sup> The 8th to 14th editions included a separate index volume.

<sup id="editionnote3">3</sup> The 9th edition featured articles by notables of the day, such as [[James Clerk Maxwell|James Maxwell]] on electricity and magnetism, and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]] (who became Lord Kelvin) on heat.

<sup id="editionnote4">4</sup> The 10th edition included a maps volume and a cumulative index volume for the 9th and 10th edition volumes: ''the new volumes, constituting, in combination with the existing volumes of the 9th ed., the 10th ed.&nbsp;… and also supplying a new, distinctive, and independent library of reference dealing with recent events and developments''

<sup id="editionnote5">5</sup> ''Vols. 30–32&nbsp;… the New volumes constituting, in combination with the twenty-nine volumes of the eleventh edition, the twelfth edition''

<sup id="editionnote6">6</sup> This supplement replaced the previous supplement: ''The three new supplementary volumes constituting, with the volumes of the latest standard edition, the thirteenth edition.''

<sup id="editionnote7">7</sup> This edition was the first to be kept up to date by continual (usually annual) revision.

<sup id="editionnote8">8</sup> The 15th edition (introduced as "Britannica 3") was published in three parts: a 10-volume ''Micropædia'' (which contained short articles and served as an index), a 19-volume ''Macropædia'', plus the ''Propædia'' (see text). It was reorganised in 1985 to have 12 and 17 volumes in the ''Micro-'' and ''Macropædia''.

<sup id="editionnote9">9</sup> In 1985, the system was modified by adding a separate two-volume index; the ''Macropædia'' articles were further consolidated into fewer, larger ones (for example, the previously separate articles about the 50 U.S. states were all included into the "United States of America" article), with some medium-length articles moved to the ''Micropædia''.

The first CD-ROM edition was issued in 1994. At that time also an online version was offered for paid subscription. In 1999 this was offered for free, and no revised print versions appeared. The experiment was ended in 2001 and a new printed set was issued in 2002.
|}

==References==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<references/>
</div>

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | last = Einbinder | first = Harvey | authorlink = Harvey Einbinder | year = 1964 | title = The Myth of the Britannica | publisher = Grove Press | location = New York | id = ISBN 978-0384140509}}
* {{cite book | last = Jacobs | first = Arnold Stephen, Jr. | authorlink = A.J. Jacobs | year = 2004| title = The Know-It-All: One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York | id = ISBN 978-0743250627}}
* {{cite book | last = Kister | first = Kenneth F. | authorlink = Kenneth Kister | year = 1994 | title = Kister's Best Encyclopedias: A Comparative Guide to General and Specialized Encyclopedias | edition = 2nd ed. | publisher = Oryx Press | location = Phoenix, AZ | id = ISBN 978-0897747448}}
* {{cite book | last = Kogan | first = Herman | authorlink = Herman Kogan | year = 1958 | title = The Great EB: The Story of the Encyclopædia Britannica | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | id = {{LCCN|58|00|8379}} }}

==External links==
{{Wikisource}}
{{Commonscat|Images from Encyclopædia Britannica}}
{{Wiktionarypar|Britannica|britannica}}
;Official site:
*[http://www.britannica.com/ ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online]. The official website.

;Historical articles:
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032600/Encyclopaedia-Britannica "Encyclopaedia Britannica"]. In ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' Online.
* [http://www.britannica.fr/TESTbritannica2.html 1768–2005:l'aventure Britannica]. History of the ''Britannica'', from the French Britannica site.
*{{waybackdate|site=http://heritage.scotsman.com/ingenuity.cfm?id=634942005&20050610140559|title=Scotland and the ultimate reference book|date=20070516205919}}, history of the ''Britannica'' on ''[[The Scotsman]]'s'' Heritage and Culture pages.
*[http://www.britannica.com/original?content_id=1395 Vintage Britannica or "Evolving Knowledge"]. Excerpts on various topics drawn from [[History of the Encyclopædia Britannica|various ''Britannica'' editions]].

;Earlier editions (in the [[public domain]] in the U.S.A.):
*[[s:Preface to the 1st edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica|Preface]] to the [[History of the Encyclopædia Britannica#1st edition|1st edition]] of the ''Britannica'', by [[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]].
*[http://www.eliohs.unifi.it/testi/700/history3/ The article "History"] in the [[History of the Encyclopædia Britannica#3rd edition|3rd edition]] of the ''Britannica''.
*[http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/ Articles and illustrations] from the [[History of the Encyclopædia Britannica#9th edition.2C The Scholar.27s Edition|9th and 10th editions]] of the ''Britannica''.
*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/ Scanned version] of the [[History of the Encyclopædia Britannica#11th edition|famous 11th edition]] of the ''Britannica''.
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13600 Text version] of the [[History of the Encyclopædia Britannica#11th edition|famous 11th edition]] of the ''Britannica''. (Partial)
*[http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/xmilgov.htm James Mill's essay on "Government"], from the [[History of the Encyclopædia Britannica#Supplement to the 5th edition|Supplement to the 5th edition]] of the ''Britannica'' (1820).

;Recent events:
* [http://java.sun.com/features/2003/02/britannica.html Technical aspects of the ''Britannica's'' online and CD/DVD-ROM editions].
*[http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2152666/britannica-snaps-wikipedia Britannica disagrees with Wikipedia comparison study].
*[http://www.ifets.info/journals/5_1/alevizou.html To wire or not to wire? Encyclopædia Britannica vs. Microsoft Encarta]
:A comparison of the two encyclopedias by Panagiota Alevizou, published in the ''[[Educational Technology & Society]]'' journal.

;Business history:
*[http://www.businessweek.com/1997/42/b3549124.htm "Dusting off the Britannica"]. Article from ''[[BusinessWeek]]'' magazine (1997).
*[http://www.salon.com/media/media960510.html "Death of a salesforce"]. Article from [[Salon.com|Salon]] (1996).
*[http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue3_9/pang/index.html "The Work of the Encyclopedia in the Age of Electronic Reproduction"]. Article by Alex Soojung-Kim Pang in ''[[First Monday (journal)|First Monday]]''.

<!--several editions were edited in England-->
[[Category:Encyclopædia Britannica|*]]
[[Category:British encyclopedias]]
[[Category:English-language encyclopedias]]
[[Category:Online encyclopedias]]
[[Category:Scottish non-fiction literature]]
[[Category:Scottish Enlightenment]]

{{Link FA|pt}}

[[ar:الموسوعة البريطانية]]
[[bn:এনসাইক্লোপিডিয়া ব্রিটানিকা]]
[[bs:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[bg:Енциклопедия Британика]]
[[ca:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[cs:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[cy:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[da:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[de:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[es:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[eo:Encyclopaedia Britannica]]
[[eu:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[fa:دانشنامه بریتانیکا]]
[[fr:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[zh-classical:大英百科]]
[[ko:브리태니커 백과사전]]
[[hr:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[bpy:এনসাইক্লোপিডিয়া ব্রিটানিকা]]
[[id:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[is:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[it:Enciclopedia Britannica]]
[[he:אנציקלופדיה בריטניקה]]
[[ka:ბრიტანიკა]]
[[sw:Encyclopedia Britannica]]
[[la:Encyclopaedia Britannica]]
[[lb:Encyclopaedia Britannica]]
[[lt:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[hu:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[ml:എന്‍സൈക്ലോപീഡിയ ബ്രിട്ടാനിക്ക]]
[[mr:एनसायक्लोपीडिया ब्रिटानिका]]
[[ms:Ensiklopedia Britannica]]
[[nl:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[ja:ブリタニカ百科事典]]
[[no:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[nn:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[pl:Encyklopedia Britannica]]
[[pt:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[ro:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[ru:Энциклопедия Британника]]
[[sco:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[simple:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[sk:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[sl:Enciklopedija Britannica]]
[[sr:Енциклопедија Британика]]
[[fi:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[sv:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[ta:பிரித்தானிக்கா கலைக்களஞ்சியம்]]
[[th:สารานุกรมบริเตนนิกา]]
[[vi:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[uk:Британська енциклопедія]]
[[zh-yue:不列顛百科全書]]
[[zh:大英百科全书]]

Revision as of 22:57, 8 February 2008

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclopædia_Britannica&oldid=190059421"