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a fringe theory of linguistics, remerging back to Kunigami language
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{{Infobox language
#REDIRECT[[Kunigami language]]
|name=Okinoerabu
|states=[[Japan]]
|region=[[Okinoerabu Island]] of the [[Amami Islands]], [[Kagoshima Prefecture]]
|speakers=3,200
|date=2004
|ref=e17
|familycolor=Altaic
|fam1=[[Japonic languages|Japonic]]
|fam2=[[Ryukyuan languages|Ryukyuan]]
|fam3=[[Amami–Okinawan languages|Amami–Okinawan]]
|fam4=[[Amami languages|Amami]] ?
|fam5=Southern Amami ?
|iso3=okn |iso3comment=(as Oki-No-Erabu)
|glotto=okin1246 |glottoname=Oki-No-Erabu
}}
The '''Okinoerabu language''' is a [[dialect cluster]] spoken on [[Okinoerabu Island]], [[Kagoshima Prefecture]] of southwestern [[Japan]]. It is part of the [[Amami–Okinawan languages]], which are part of the [[Japonic languages]].

==Classification==
{{main|Amami–Okinawan languages#Subgroups}}
The classification of Okinoerabu is a matter of scholarly debate as there are two competing hypotheses regarding the number of primary branches of the Amami–Okinawan languages. The two-subdivision hypothesis gives the following hierarchy.
*Amami–Okinawan / Northern Ryukyuan
**[[Amami languages|Amami]]
***[[Amami language|Northern Amami]]
***Southern Amami
****'''Okinoerabu'''
**[[Okinawan languages|Okinawan]]
On the other hand, the three-subdivision hypothesis has a shallower hierarchy.
*Amami–Okinawan / Northern Ryukyuan
**[[Amami language|Ōshima–Tokunoshima / Amami–Tokunoshima / Amami]]
**[[Kunigami language|Okinoerabu–Northern Okinawan / Okinoerabu–Yoron-Northern Okinawan / Kunigami]]
***'''Okinoerabu'''
**[[Okinawan language|Southern Okinawan / South–Central Okinawan / Central Okinawan / Okinawan]]

==Subgroups==
The Okinoerabu language consists of the following subgroups.
*Eastern Okinoerabu
*Western Okinoerabu
The linguistic boundary between Eastern and Western Okinoerabu roughly corresponds to the administrative boundary between [[Wadomari, Kagoshima|Wadomari]] (east) and [[China, Kagoshima|China]] (west). In addition, the eastern community of Kunigami (part of Eastern Okinoerabu and not to be confused with Northern Okinawa) is known for sporadically retaining a centralized vowel, which is a characteristic of Northern Amami. For example, [nɪː] ("root", Standard Japanese /ne/) is contrasted with [niː] ("loads", Standard Japanese /ni/). The northwestern community of Tamina (part of Western Okinoerabu) has a distinct accentual system.

==Folk terminology==
Takahashi Takayo (b. 1967), a cultural anthropologist from the island, stated that the language of each community or the island as a whole was called ''shimamuni''. Each language variety within the island had distinctive characteristics. The language of the community of Kunigami on the island, for example, was referred to as ''Kunigami-bushi''. It retained mutually intelligiblity with the languages of the island's other communities. It is said that Okinoerabu was mutually unintelligible with neighboring Yoron and Tokunoshima.<ref name="takahashi2006">{{cite book |author=Takahashi Takayo 高橋孝代 | chapter=''Okinoerabu-jima no gaikan'' 沖永良部島の概観 | title=''Kyōkaisei no jinruigaku'' 境界性の人類学 |pages=65–111 |year=2006 |language=Japanese }}</ref>

==Status==
Okinoerabu has no official status. Ethnologue identifies its status as 7 (Shifting).<ref name="sil_ao">{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/amami-okinawan |title=Amami-Okinawan |publisher=SIL International |accessdate=1 February 2014}}</ref>

==Phonology==
===Eastern Okinoerabu===
The following is the phonology of the Wadomari dialect (part of Eastern Okinoerabu), which is based on Hirayama et al. (1986).<ref name="hirayama1986">{{cite book |editor=Hirayama Teruo 平山輝男 | title=''Amami hōgen kiso goi no kenkyū'' 奄美方言基礎語彙の研究 |year=1986 |language=Japanese }}</ref>

====Consonants====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Consonant phonemes
|-
!
! colspan=3 | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! colspan=3 | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan=3 | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br/>alveolar]]
! colspan=2 | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan=3 | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan=2 | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
! Moraic
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0; border-right: 0;"|mˀ ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|m}}
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0; border-right: 0;"|nˀ ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|n}}&nbsp;
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=2 |
| rowspan=6 | [<small>Q</small>]<br />[{{IPA link|ɴ}}]<br />[{{IPA link|ː}}]
|-
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|p}}||style="border-left: 0; border-right: 0"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|b}}
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|t}}||style="border-left: 0; border-right: 0"|tˀ ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|d}}
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=2 |
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|k}}||width=20px style="border-left: 0; border-right: 0;"|kˀ ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|ʔ}}||style="border-left: 0;"|
|-
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=3 |
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|t͡ʃ}}||style="border-left: 0;border-right: 0;"|t͡ʃˀ ||style="border-left: 0;"|z
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=2 |
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| colspan=3 |
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|s}}||style="border-left: 0;border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=3 |
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|h}}||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|
|-
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=3 |
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|j}}
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|w}}
| colspan=2 |
|-
! [[Flap consonant|Flap]]
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=3 |
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA|r}}
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=2 |
|}
<!-- Note: Hirayama et al. (1986) use c for t͡ʃ, ᴇ for ː, cˀ for t͡ʃˀ. -->

'''Notes'''
*The null phoneme /'/ may be added. It is contrasted with glottal {{IPA|/h/}} and {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. A [[minimal pair]] is {{IPA|/ʔiː/}} {{IPA|/[ʔiː]/}} ("stomach"), {{IPA|/hiː/}} {{IPA|/[çiː]/}} ("day") and {{IPA|/'iː/}} {{IPA|/[iː]/}} ("soft rush").
*/kˀ/, /tˀ/ /t͡ʃˀ/ are in process of being merged into /k/, /t/ and /t͡ʃ/, respectively.
*{{IPA|/h/}} is {{IPA link|ç|[}} before {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, and {{IPA link|ɸ|[}} before {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}.
*{{IPA|/p/}} is new and infrequent.
*{{IPA|/si/}} and {{IPA|/t͡ʃu/}} are realized as {{IPA|[ʃi]}} and {{IPA|[t͡su]}}, respectively.
*{{IPA|/z/}} is {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} before {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, and {{IPA|[d͡z]}} elsewhere.
*{{IPA|[ʃa]}}, {{IPA|[ʃu]}} and {{IPA|/ʃo/}} are phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/sja/}}, {{IPA|/sju/}} and {{IPA|/sjo/}}, respectively.
*{{IPA|[t͡ʃa]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ʃu]}} and {{IPA|/t͡ʃo/}} are phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/t͡ʃja/}}, {{IPA|/t͡ʃju/}} and {{IPA|/t͡ʃjo/}}, respectively.
*{{IPA|[t͡ʃˀa]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ʃˀu]}} and {{IPA|/t͡ʃˀo/}} are phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/t͡ʃˀja/}}, {{IPA|/t͡ʃˀju/}} and {{IPA|/t͡ʃˀjo/}}, respectively.

====Vowels====
Eastern Okinoerabu has {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}.

====Correspondences to Standard Japanese====
Only major sound correspondences are listed.<ref name="hirayama1969c3">{{cite book |author=Hirayama Teruo 平山輝男, Ōshima Ichirō 大島一郎 and Nakamoto Masachie 中本正智 | chapter=''Gengo'' 言語 |editor=Hirayama Teruo 平山輝男 | title=''Satsunan shotō no sōgōteki kenkyū'' 薩南諸島の総合的研究 |pages=235–478 |year=1969 |language=Japanese }}</ref>
*Standard Japanese {{IPA|/e/}} is merged into {{IPA|/i/}}.
*Standard Japanese {{IPA|/o/}} is merged into {{IPA|/u/}}.
*Eastern Okinoerabu {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} are of secondary origin and mostly correspond to Standard Japanese diphthongs.
*Standard Japanese {{IPA|/t͡ʃu/}}, {{IPA|/su/}} and {{IPA|/zu/}} correspond to {{IPA|/t͡ʃi/}} {{IPA|[t͡ʃi]}}, {{IPA|/si/}} {{IPA|[ʃi]}} and {{IPA|/zi/}} {{IPA|[dʒi]}}.
*Standard Japanese {{IPA|/k/}} corresponds to {{IPA|/h/}} by default. {{IPA|/ki/}} and {{IPA|/ku/}} are usually identical, but some words have {{IPA|/t͡ʃi/}} for Standard Japanese {{IPA|/ki/}}. /kˀ/ is occasionally used too.
*Eastern Okinoerabu {{IPA|/r/}} is dropped when it is surrounded by a vowel and {{IPA|/i/}}.
*{{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/g/}} have been palatalized before {{IPA|/i/}}. Standard Japanese {{IPA|/ki/}} and {{IPA|/gi/}} corresponds to Eastern Okinoerabu {{IPA|/t͡ʃi/}} and {{IPA|/zi/}}.
*Standard Japanese {{IPA|/ke/}} corresponds to {{IPA|/hi/}} in the word-initial positions and {{IPA|/ki/}} elsewhere.
*The fusion of two consecutive morae resulted in glottalized consonants in Eastern Okinoerabu.

===Western Okinoerabu===
The following is the phonology of the China dialect (part of Western Okinoerabu), which is based on Hirayama et al. (1986).<ref name="hirayama1986" />

====Consonants====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Consonant phonemes
|-
!
! colspan=3 | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! colspan=3 | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan=2 | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br/>alveolar]]
! colspan=2 | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan=2 | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan=2 | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
! Moraic
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0; border-right: 0;"|mˀ ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|m}}
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0; border-right: 0;"|nˀ ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|n}}&nbsp;
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2 |
| rowspan=6 | [<small>Q</small>]<br />[{{IPA link|ɴ}}]<br />[{{IPA link|ː}}]
|-
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|p}}||style="border-left: 0; border-right: 0"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|b}}
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|t}}||style="border-left: 0; border-right: 0"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|d}}
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2 |
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|k}}||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|ʔ}}||style="border-left: 0;"|
|-
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=3 |
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|t͡ʃ}}||style="border-left: 0;"|z
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2 |
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| colspan=3 |
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|s}}||style="border-left: 0;border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2 |
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|h}}||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|
|-
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=2 |
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|j}}
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|w}}
| colspan=2 |
|-
! [[Flap consonant|Flap]]
| colspan=3 |
| colspan=3 |
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA|r}}
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2 |
|}
<!-- Note: Hirayama et al. (1986) use c for t͡ʃ, and ᴇ for ː. -->

'''Notes'''
*The null phoneme /'/ may be added. It is contrasted with glottal {{IPA|/h/}} and {{IPA|/ʔ/}}.
*{{IPA|/h/}} is {{IPA link|ç|[}} before {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, and {{IPA link|ɸ|[}} before {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}.
*{{IPA|/p/}} is new and infrequent.
*{{IPA|/si/}} and {{IPA|/t͡ʃu/}} are realized as {{IPA|[ʃi]}} and {{IPA|[t͡su]}}, respectively.
*{{IPA|/z/}} is {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} before {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, and {{IPA|[d͡z]}} elsewhere.
*{{IPA|[ʃa]}}, {{IPA|[ʃe]}}, {{IPA|[ʃu]}} and {{IPA|/ʃo/}} are phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/sja/}}, {{IPA|/sje/}}, {{IPA|/sju/}} and {{IPA|/sjo/}}, respectively.
*{{IPA|[t͡ʃa]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ʃu]}} and {{IPA|/t͡ʃo/}} are phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/t͡ʃja/}}, {{IPA|/t͡ʃju/}} and {{IPA|/t͡ʃjo/}}, respectively.

====Vowels====
Western Okinoerabu has {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}.

====Differences between Eastern and Western Okinoerabu====
*Standard Japanese {{IPA|/gi/}} and {{IPA|/ge/}} are merged into {{IPA|/gi/}} in Western Okinoerabu while they correspond to {{IPA|/zi/}} and {{IPA|/gi/}} in Eastern Okinoerabu.
*Similarly, Western Okinoerabu {{IPA|/k/}} has not undergone palatalization.
*Western Okinoerabu does not have {{IPA|/kˀ/}}, {{IPA|/tˀ/}} or {{IPA|/t͡ʃˀ/}}.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Sakimura Hirofumi, 1987. ''[http://ir.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/handle/10232/15680 A New View on the Accentual Systems of the Japanese Dialects in Okino-erabujima]'' (in Japanese).

{{Japanese language |collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Okinoerabu Language}}
[[Category:Kagoshima Prefecture]]
[[Category:Ryukyuan languages]]

Revision as of 19:57, 4 October 2014

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