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Coordinates: 20°50′39″N 106°37′54″E / 20.8442°N 106.6317°E / 20.8442; 106.6317
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| image_size = 250px
| image_size = 250px
| caption = [[Đông Hồ painting|Đông Hồ woodblock]] depiction of Ngô Quyền leading his troops against Southern Han forces on the [[Bạch Đằng River]], 938 AD
| caption = [[Đông Hồ painting|Đông Hồ woodblock]] depiction of Ngô Quyền leading his troops against Southern Han forces on the [[Bạch Đằng River]], 938 AD
| date = 938
| date = Autumn 938
| place = Bạch Đằng River, [[Vietnam]]
| place = Bạch Đằng River, [[Vietnam]] {{coord|20.8442|N|106.6317|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}
| result = Decisive [[Ngô Quyền]] victory<br>Tĩnh Hải quân period ended
| result = Decisive Vietnamese victory<br>Ended 300-year-long of Chinese rules.
| combatant1 = [[Tĩnh Hải quân]]
| combatant1 = [[Tĩnh Hải quân|Principality of Jinghai]]
| combatant2 = [[Southern Han]]
| combatant2 = [[Southern Han]]
| commander1 = [[Ngô Quyền]]
| commander1 = [[Ngô Quyền]]
Line 18: Line 18:
}}
}}


At the '''Battle of Bạch Đằng River''' in 938 near [[Hạ Long Bay]] in northern Vietnam the rebel [[Name of Vietnam|Annamese]] forces, led by [[Ngô Quyền]] defeated the invading forces of the [[Southern Han]] state of China and put an end to [[Third Chinese domination of Vietnam|centuries of Chinese imperial domination in Vietnam]] during the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms]] period.<ref>''China and Vietnam: The Politics of Asymmetry'' - Page 113 Brantly Womack - 2006 "However, the facts that Dinh had consolidated local control, that Nan Han had been defeated by Dinh's predecessor in the battle of Bạch Đằng River in 938, and that Vietnam was difficult terrain for Chinese armies constrained the Song to ..."</ref>
At the '''Battle of Bạch Đằng River''' in 938 near [[Hạ Long Bay]] in northern Vietnam the military force of the Vietnamese Principality of [[Tĩnh Hải quân|Jinghai]], led by [[Ngô Quyền]] defeated the invading forces of the Chinese state of [[Southern Han]] and put an end to [[Third Chinese domination of Vietnam|centuries of Chinese imperial domination in Vietnam]] during the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms]] period.{{sfn|Womack|2006|p=113}} It was considered the turning point in Vietnamese history.{{sfn|Paine|2013|p=314}}


== Background ==
== Background ==
In October 930, [[Southern Han]], a Chinese state in southern China during the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms]] period, launched an attack on the Jinghai circuit, which at the time was a Vietnamese Principality controlled by the aboriginal Viet tribe/clan of [[Khuc clan|Khuc]]. The leader of the Khuc, [[Khuc Thua My]] was taken as prisoner by Southern Han Emperor [[Liu Yan (emperor)|Liu Yan]].{{sfn|Taylor|1983|p=263}} In 931, the local strong Dương Đình Nghệ with an army of 3,000 had driven the Southern Han back to the borders.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=127}}
In 931 AD, [[Dương Đình Nghệ]] defeated the [[Southern Han]] army – one of the [[Ten Kingdoms]] near Tĩnh Hải Quân (Army of the Peaceful Sea, the name used for Vietnam's army at that time) and achieved the independent status of the Vietnamese at Tĩnh Hải quân; he named himself [[Jiedushi]] and was recognized by the [[Later Tang]] court.<ref name="informatic4">{{cite web|url=http://www.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/~duc/sach/dvsktt/dvsktt05.html|title=Kỷ Nam Bắc Phân Tranh - Đại Việt Sử ký toàn thư|website=uni-leipzig.de|access-date=2012-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130113034436/http://www.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/~duc/sach/dvsktt/dvsktt05.html|archive-date=2013-01-13|url-status=dead}}</ref>


In 937 AD, Đình Nghệ was killed by [[Kiều Công Tiễn]], revoking the title of Jiedushi. Đình Nghệ's son in law and also his general, Ngô Quyền mobilized his army to exact revenge on Công Tiễn.<ref name="informatic4" />
In 937, Đình Nghệ was assassinated by [[Kiều Công Tiễn]], a formal military officer who his allegiance to the Chinese and seized power.{{sfn|Taylor|1983|p=266}}{{sfn|Hall|1981|p=215}} Đình Nghệ's son in law and also his general, Ngô Quyền mobilized his army to overthrow Kiều Công Tiễn. Kiều Công Tiễn called Liu Yan for support. Liu Yan then put his son [[Liu Hongcao|Hung-ts’ao]] in the commander position of the expedition, granting him the titles ''Jinghai jiedushi'' and ''King of Jiao'', dispatching a fleet and sailing to the [[Gulf of Tonkin]], headed inland up [[Bạch Đằng River]], the water gate of Annam. Liu Yan himself led a additional force following his son's fleet.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=127}}{{sfn|Taylor|1983|p=268}}


⚫
== Battle ==
Fearing Ngô Quyền, Công Tiễn requested help from the [[Southern Han]]. Thenceforth, the emperor of the Southern Han, [[Liu Yan (emperor)|Liu Yan]], took his chance and prepared to invade Tĩnh Hải (the Peaceful Sea) again.<ref name="informatic4" />
In late 938, the Southern Han fleet led by Liu Hongcao met Ngo Quyen's fleet on the gate of the Bach Dang River. The Southern Han fleet consisted fast warships that carrying fifty men on each–twenty oarmen, twenty five warriors, and two crossbowmen.{{sfn|Paine|2013|p=314}} To counter, Ngo Quyen and his force had set up massive stakes tipped with iron foiled points on the river bed.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=127}} When river tide rose, the sharpened stakes were covered by water. As the Southern Han sailed into the estuary, Vietnamese in smaller crafts and canoes went down and harassed the Chinese warships, lured them to follow upstream. When the tide fell, Ngo Quyen's force counterattacked and pushed the Chinese fleet back to the sea. The Southern Han ships were now stuck in the stakes and became immobilized.{{sfn|Paine|2013|p=314}} Half of the Han army were killed and drowned, including Liu Hongcao.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=127}}{{sfn|Ouyang|1995|p=813}}{{sfn|Miksic|Yian|2016|p=346}} When the news of the defeat reached [[Liu Yan (emperor)|Liu Yan]] on the sea by his survived soldiers, he learned that his troops were not lucky, and then retreated back to [[Guangzhou]].{{sfn|Taylor|1983|p=269}}

Liu Yan claimed that if Dương Đình Nghệ was dead, then Tỉnh Hãi Quân would be deprived of good generals. He ordered his ninth son, [[Liu Hongcao]] ({{lang-vi|Lưu Hoằng Tháo}}) to become "Bình Hải tướng quân" (Sea-Pacifying Military General) and "Giao Chỉ vương" (King of [[Jiaozhi|Giao Chỉ]]), he commanded the naval forces of the Southern Han into Giao Chỉ.<ref name="informatic4" />

== Overview ==
In 937, [[Liu Yan (emperor)|Liu Yan]] ({{zh|c=劉龑}}; {{lang-vi|Lưu Nham}}), the [[Southern Han]] ruler took the chance to intervene in Vietnam after the death of the Annam Lord Protector [[Dương Đình Nghệ]]. Liu Yan had been previously defeated by Dương Đình Nghệ in 931. Liu Yan placed his son, Liu Hongcao ({{zh|c=劉弘操}}; {{lang-vi|Lưu Hoằng Tháo}}), in command of the expedition, naming him "Peaceful Sea Military Governor" and "King of [[Jiaozhi|Giao]]." He assembled an army and took charge of the reserve force. He ordered Liu Hongcao to embark the army and sail to Giao.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}}

By the time Liu Hongcao and the Southern Han expedition arrived in Vietnamese waters, Liu Hongcao's plan was to ascend the Bạch Đằng River and to place his army in the heart of Giacannoto Chau before disembarking. The Bạch Đằng was the major [[Maritime geography|riverine]] route into the [[Red River Delta|Red River plain]] from the north.

Ngô Quyền anticipated this plan and brought his army to the mouth of the river. He had his men plant a barrier of large poles in the bed of the river. The tops of the poles reached just below the water level at high tide and were sharpened and tipped with iron. When Liu Hongcao appeared off the mouth of the river, Quyen sent out small, shallow-draft boats at high tide to provoke a fight and then retreat upriver, drawing the Chinese fleet in pursuit. As the tide fell, the heavy Chinese warships were caught on the poles and lay trapped in the middle of the river, whereupon they were attacked by Ngô Quyền's forces.

More than half the Chinese drowned, including Liu Hongcao.<ref name="ZZTJ281">''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', [[cmn:s:資治通鑑/卷281|vol. 281]].</ref> When news of the battle reached Sea Gate, Liu Yan wept openly. He collected what remained of his army and returned to [[Guangzhou|Canton]]. This victory ended China's long occupation of Vietnam and began a period of Vietnam's independence until the conquest by the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming China]]. Ngô Quyền's tactic would later be reused by [[Trần Hưng Đạo]] in a battle at [[Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)|Bạch Đằng River]] against the [[Mongols]] in 1288.

⚫
== Tactics ==
The military tactics employed by Ngô Quyền were original, as [[Lê Văn Hưu]] described: ''"Great tactic, good combat"'' (Original:"善謀而善戰者也''/thiện mưu nhi thiện chiến giả dã''" Modern Vietnamese: ''"Mưu giỏi mà đánh cũng giỏi"'') in the [[Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư|Complete Annals of Đại Việt]].<ref name="informatic6">[http://www.nomfoundation.org/nom-project/history-of-greater-vietnam/Fulltext/14-Ky-nha-Ngo?uiLang=en Tiền Ngô Vương - Đại Việt Sử ký Toàn thư - Nom Foundation]</ref><ref name="informatic2">{{cite web|url=http://www.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/~duc/sach/dvsktt/dvsktt05.html|title=Tiền Ngô Vương - Đại Việt Sử ký Toàn thư|website=uni-leipzig.de|access-date=2012-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130113034436/http://www.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/~duc/sach/dvsktt/dvsktt05.html|archive-date=2013-01-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, according to military historians, applying a pole-and-tide stratagem to inflict damage upon an enemy navy required the successful combination of two factors:
* Lure the enemy past the poles when at high tide as the poles are hidden.
* Know the tide and calculate the time when the tide ebbs, and ensure the enemy ships are above the poles at this moment.

These two circumstances were integrally linked, for if the enemy came in at low tide, they would have seen the poles. If low tide did not set in at time, Liu's boats would have easily sailed over the poles. Therefore, for this tactic to take effect, beside preparing the poles secretly and quickly, luring the enemy onto the right route at the right time was the most decisive factor.

Ngô Quyền knew of Hongcao arrival, and told his generals:<ref name="informatic4" />
{{Cquote|
''Hoằng Tháo (Hongcao) is such a foolish child, leading his army from a far land. His soldiers were still tired, and eventually they became completely perplexed when they heard that Công Tiễn was killed and there was no information about the situation happening right here. Our army is strong, the enemy is weak; we can surely win victory in this war. However! They have an advantage with their mighty war ships, and if we don't plan our defence first, we don't know who will control the battle. If we order our men to place iron-headed poles under the water of the sea gate, their ships will follow the tide of sea and be caught upon the poles, and then we can easily dominate them without letting any ships of theirs escape.''|||Ngô Quyền}}

Ngô Quyền ordered his soldiers to place the iron-headed poles in the waters of the Bạch Đằng river. At high tide, the poles would be covered with water, and thus, remain unseen by the Chinese. Ngô Quyền intended to lure the enemy into this area when the tide was up. When the tide was down, the enemy's boats would be stranded, and be easy targets for attack.<ref name="informatic4" />
[[File:Model of Battle in Bach Dang River in 938 AD - DSC05544.JPG|thumb|Model of Battle in Bach Dang River in 938 AD]]
On a late winter day in 938 AD, on [[Bạch Đằng River]], the entire Han's naval fleet led by Hongcao entered Tĩnh Hải.<ref name="informatic4" />

The Southern Han's soldiers, seeing the small ships of Ngô Quyền, aggressively marched in, thinking that they could easily defeat the small force of Ngô Quyền. Ngô Quyền ordered his army to retreat upstream. He waited until the tide lowered and ordered his army to fight back. The ships of the Southern Han were stuck and penetrated by the poles. At that time, Ngô Quyền used all of his forces to attack. The Southern Han's Army lost the battle and retreated, Liu Hongcao and more than half of the force was killed by the Vietnamese.<ref name="informatic4" />

The Emperor of the Southern Han was leading his army at the border, so he could not respond to the situation. Hearing the news that Hongcao was dead, Liu Yang was horrified, and ordered his remaining forces to retreat.<ref name="informatic">[[Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư|Đại Việt Sử ký Toàn thư]]</ref> After that, the Southern Han abandoned the invasion of Tĩnh Hải quân.<ref name="informatic" />

By the year 939, Ngô Quyền became King, took the title Ngô Vương (Ngô King) and founded Vietnam's [[Ngô Dynasty]] with his capital at [[Cổ Loa]] (Today's [[Đông Anh]], [[Hà Nội]]).<ref name="informatic2" />

General [[Trần Hưng Đạo]] reused this tactic in the [[Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)]]. He fully understood the requisites behind this tactic and applied them successfully by pushing a Mongol army out of the Bạch Đằng River.<ref name="informatic5">{{cite web|url=http://www.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/~duc/sach/dvsktt/dvsktt10b.html|title=Nhà trần - Đại Việt Sử ký toàn thư|website=uni-leipzig.de}}</ref>


== Aftermath ==
== Aftermath ==
In spring 939, [[Ngo Quyen]] proclaimed himself king and chose the antiquity city of [[Co Loa]] as the capital.{{sfn|Coedes|2015|p=80}}{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=139}} The Jinghai Principality ''[[de facto]]'' became independent, and Vietnamese history comes into its own.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=131}} Southern Han never attacked the Vietnamese again.{{sfn|Taylor|1983|p=269}} The tactics of Ngo Quyen would be reused by Prince [[Tran Quoc Tuan]] 300 years later against the Mongol-led [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] invasion in 1288.{{sfn|Elleman|2019|p=9-10}}
{{details|Kiều Công Tiễn}}

In 938 AD, after calling a large number of soldiers to his side, Ngô Quyền led his army from Ái Châu to the North to attack Kiều Công Tiễn. Công Tiễn was surrounded by Ngô Quyền's army and failed to break out. He waited for the reinforcements of [[Southern Han]].<ref name="informatic4" />

Liu Hongcao led over twenty thousand troops into Giao Chỉ to reinforce Công Tiễn's army.<ref name="informatic4" /> Liu Yan sought advice from Chongwen's courtier (known by the Vietnamese as Tiêu Ích). Ích said:
{{Cquote|
''Nowadays, rain has fallen for weeks, and the sea's route is dangerous and long. Ngô Quyền was also a talented tactician; we cannot despise him. Our army must be so-cautioned, we should use as many scouts as possible while moving forward (cautiously) to the South.''|||Chongwen's courtier Tiêu Ích}}

However, the Han Emperor wanted to move fast and quickly reconquer Tĩnh Hải, so he ignored the warning from Tiêu Ích. He ordered Hongcao to lead his army to the river of Bạch Đằng immediately. Emperor Liu Yan, a general himself, stayed at Haimen as an alternative reinforcement.

While Liu Yan was mobilizing his army, Ngô Quyền marched to [[Đại La]] to attack Kiều Công Tiễn. Công Tiễn was completely enveloped by Ngô Quyền's forces and was killed before the Southern Han's reinforcements had a chance to march into Vietnam.<ref name=informatic4/>

In 939, the newly Ngô Dynasty was recognized by the [[Later Jin (Five Dynasties)|Later Jin]] court as an independent country.

== Significance ==
{{Cquote|''Tiền Ngô Vương could take the newly raised soldiers of Viet to defeat thousand troops of Lưu Hoằng Tháo, created the country and claimed himself King, made the Northerns feared as they didn't want to come again. We could say this is a wrath to ease the people, great tactics, good combat too. Although he just claimed himself a king, not fully heir to it, changed his title, but the formal of our Đại Việt, His Ancestor reconnected it.''|||[[Ngô Sĩ Liên]]<ref name="informatic2"/>}}

By the first century CE the population of the Han empire exceeded 57 million, while in Vietnam lived just over 1 million people. After the conquest of Chinese-founded state of [[Nanyue]], the Han rulers undertook the process of direct and indirect assimilation of the people into the Han Empire. The assimilation policies is a common feature of Chinese dynastic expansion and was implemented in various forms from the Han Dynasty to the Tang.<ref name="informatic3">Đại việt sử ký tiền biên, Ngô Thì Sĩ</ref>

[[Ngô Quyền]] – the commander at the Battle of Bạch Đằng in 938 is known among modern Vietnamese people as ''The King who rebuilt Vietnam'' [[Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư]].<ref name="informatic"/> The people and nation of Vietnam consider this victory to be of fundamental significance for their national identity. The author [[Phan Bội Châu]] remarked of Ngô Quyền: "He truly deserves the title "Middle-Ancestor" of the Vietnamese people."

The victory of Bạch Đằng marked the beginning of a new age for the Vietnamese people, who undertook large-scale rebuilding and restoration efforts. Known as [[Đại Việt]] (Great Viet) this era is a golden age of powerful dynasties, like the [[Lý Dynasty]], the [[Trần Dynasty]] and the [[Lê Dynasty]], who resided ruled at the Imperial Citadel of Thăng Long.<ref name="informatic3"/>

Historian Ngô Thì Sĩ described:
{{Cquote|
''The Victory on Bạch Đằng River is the basis to rebuild the nation. The victories under the Đinh, Lê, Lý, Trần's Dynasty after then also followed the prestige this victory left. The Battle of Bạch Đằng has great fame, resounding through thousands of Autumns, not only glorious in its own time.''|||Việt sử tiêu án<ref name="informatic3"/> - Ngô Thì Sĩ}}


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Battle of Bạch Đằng (981)]]
* [[Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)]]
* [[Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)]]
* [[Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư]]


== References ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
<references />
{{Reflist}}


=== Bibliography ===
{{coord missing|Vietnam}}
{{refbegin|}}
* {{cite book|last=Coedes|first=George|year=2015|title=The Making of South East Asia (RLE Modern East and South East Asia)|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]}}
* {{citation|last=Elleman|first=Bruce A.|title=The Making of the Modern Chinese Navy: Special Historical Characteristics|year= 2019|publisher=Anthem Press|location=U.S. Naval War College|isbn=1-78527-101-6}}
* {{citation|last=Hall|first=Daniel George Edward|title=History of South East Asia|year= 1981|publisher=Macmillan Education, Limited}}
* {{cite book|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|year=2019|title=Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}
* {{cite book| title=Ancient Southeast Asia |first1=John Norman |last1=Miksic |first2=Go Geok |last2=Yian |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2016}}
*{{cite book|last=Ouyang|first=Xiu|author-link=Ouyang Xiu|year=1995|title=[[Historical Records of the Five Dynasties]]|location=[[Beijing]]|publisher=[[Zhonghua Book Company]]|isbn=978-7-101-00322-2}}
* {{citation|last = Paine |first= Lincoln |year = 2013 |title =The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World |publisher = Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|location = United States of America}}
* {{citation|last=Taylor|first=Keith Weller|year=1983|title=The Birth of the Vietnam|publisher=University of California Press}}
* {{citation|last=Womack|first=Brantly|title=China and Vietnam: The Politics of Asymmetry|year= 2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=|isbn=0-5216-1834-7}}
{{refend}}


==External links==
==External links==

Revision as of 00:04, 19 February 2021

For other articles of the same title, see Battle of Bạch Đằng.
Battle of Bạch Đằng (938)

Đông Hồ woodblock depiction of Ngô Quyền leading his troops against Southern Han forces on the Bạch Đằng River, 938 AD
DateAutumn 938
Location
Bạch Đằng River, Vietnam 20°50′39″N 106°37′54″E / 20.8442°N 106.6317°E / 20.8442; 106.6317
Result Decisive Vietnamese victory
Ended 300-year-long of Chinese rules.
Belligerents
Principality of Jinghai Southern Han
Commanders and leaders
Ngô Quyền Liu Yan
Liu Hongcao †
Strength
unknown 20,000[1]
Casualties and losses
unknown 10,000[2]

At the Battle of Bạch Đằng River in 938 near Hạ Long Bay in northern Vietnam the military force of the Vietnamese Principality of Jinghai, led by Ngô Quyền defeated the invading forces of the Chinese state of Southern Han and put an end to centuries of Chinese imperial domination in Vietnam during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.[3] It was considered the turning point in Vietnamese history.[4]

Background

In October 930, Southern Han, a Chinese state in southern China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, launched an attack on the Jinghai circuit, which at the time was a Vietnamese Principality controlled by the aboriginal Viet tribe/clan of Khuc. The leader of the Khuc, Khuc Thua My was taken as prisoner by Southern Han Emperor Liu Yan.[5] In 931, the local strong Dương Đình Nghệ with an army of 3,000 had driven the Southern Han back to the borders.[6]

In 937, Đình Nghệ was assassinated by Kiều Công Tiễn, a formal military officer who his allegiance to the Chinese and seized power.[7][8] Đình Nghệ's son in law and also his general, Ngô Quyền mobilized his army to overthrow Kiều Công Tiễn. Kiều Công Tiễn called Liu Yan for support. Liu Yan then put his son Hung-ts’ao in the commander position of the expedition, granting him the titles Jinghai jiedushi and King of Jiao, dispatching a fleet and sailing to the Gulf of Tonkin, headed inland up Bạch Đằng River, the water gate of Annam. Liu Yan himself led a additional force following his son's fleet.[6][9]

Battle

In late 938, the Southern Han fleet led by Liu Hongcao met Ngo Quyen's fleet on the gate of the Bach Dang River. The Southern Han fleet consisted fast warships that carrying fifty men on each–twenty oarmen, twenty five warriors, and two crossbowmen.[4] To counter, Ngo Quyen and his force had set up massive stakes tipped with iron foiled points on the river bed.[6] When river tide rose, the sharpened stakes were covered by water. As the Southern Han sailed into the estuary, Vietnamese in smaller crafts and canoes went down and harassed the Chinese warships, lured them to follow upstream. When the tide fell, Ngo Quyen's force counterattacked and pushed the Chinese fleet back to the sea. The Southern Han ships were now stuck in the stakes and became immobilized.[4] Half of the Han army were killed and drowned, including Liu Hongcao.[6][10][11] When the news of the defeat reached Liu Yan on the sea by his survived soldiers, he learned that his troops were not lucky, and then retreated back to Guangzhou.[12]

Aftermath

In spring 939, Ngo Quyen proclaimed himself king and chose the antiquity city of Co Loa as the capital.[13][14] The Jinghai Principality de facto became independent, and Vietnamese history comes into its own.[15] Southern Han never attacked the Vietnamese again.[12] The tactics of Ngo Quyen would be reused by Prince Tran Quoc Tuan 300 years later against the Mongol-led Yuan invasion in 1288.[16]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ "Người kết thúc hơn một nghìn năm Bắc thuộc". baodanang.vn (in Vietnamese). Archived from the original on 2020-06-23. Retrieved 2020-06-23. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; 2018-03-08 suggested (help)
  2. ^ Bằng chứng cuộc sống: Suy ngẫm về phát triển bền vững Việt Nam (in Vietnamese). Nhà xuất bản Chính trị Quốc gia Sự Thật. 26 November 2015. ISBN 9786045720264., p. 8
  3. ^ Womack 2006, p. 113.
  4. ^ a b c Paine 2013, p. 314.
  5. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 263.
  6. ^ a b c d Kiernan 2019, p. 127.
  7. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 266.
  8. ^ Hall 1981, p. 215.
  9. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 268.
  10. ^ Ouyang 1995, p. 813.
  11. ^ Miksic & Yian 2016, p. 346.
  12. ^ a b Taylor 1983, p. 269.
  13. ^ Coedes 2015, p. 80.
  14. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 139.
  15. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 131.
  16. ^ Elleman 2019, p. 9-10.

Bibliography

  • Coedes, George (2015). The Making of South East Asia (RLE Modern East and South East Asia). Taylor & Francis.
  • Elleman, Bruce A. (2019), The Making of the Modern Chinese Navy: Special Historical Characteristics, U.S. Naval War College: Anthem Press, ISBN 1-78527-101-6
  • Hall, Daniel George Edward (1981), History of South East Asia, Macmillan Education, Limited
  • Kiernan, Ben (2019). Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present. Oxford University Press.
  • Miksic, John Norman; Yian, Go Geok (2016). Ancient Southeast Asia. Taylor & Francis.
  • Ouyang, Xiu (1995). Historical Records of the Five Dynasties. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 978-7-101-00322-2.
  • Paine, Lincoln (2013), The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World, United States of America: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group
  • Taylor, Keith Weller (1983), The Birth of the Vietnam, University of California Press
  • Womack, Brantly (2006), China and Vietnam: The Politics of Asymmetry, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-5216-1834-7

External links

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