Ebola: Difference between revisions
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{{Taxobox | color = violet |
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| name = Ebola virus |
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| image = Ebola_virus.jpg |
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| image_width = 200px |
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| caption = An [[electron microscope|electron micrograph]] of an Ebola virion |
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| virus_group = V |
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| ordo = ''[[Mononegavirales]]'' |
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| familia = ''[[Filoviridae]]'' |
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| genus = ''[[Ebolavirus]]'' |
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| species = ''[[Ebola Reston|Reston Ebolavirus]]''<br>''Sudan Ebolavirus''<br>''Ivory Coast Ebolavirus''<br>''Zaïre Ebolavirus'' |
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}} |
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{{Infobox_Disease | |
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Name = Ebola | |
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Image = | |
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Caption = | |
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DiseasesDB = 18043 | |
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ICD10 = {{ICD10|A|98|4|a|90}} | |
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ICD9 = {{ICD9|065.8}} | |
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ICDO = | |
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OMIM = | |
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MedlinePlus = 001339 | |
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MedlinePlus_mult = {{MedlinePlus2|000000}} | |
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eMedicineSubj = med | |
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eMedicineTopic = 626 | |
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MeshName = Ebola | |
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MeshNumber = C02.782.417.415 | |
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}} |
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'''Ebola''' is the common term for a group of [[virus]]es belonging to genus ''[[Ebolavirus]]'', family ''[[Filoviridae]]'', which cause Ebola [[viral haemorrhagic fever|hemorrhagic fever]].<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=12941881 Sullivan et al. “Ebola Virus Pathogenesis: Implications for Vaccines and Therapies.”, ''J Virol.'' 2003 Sept, 77(18):9733–9737]</ref> The disease can be deadly and encompasses a range of symptoms including vomiting, diarrhea, changes in skin color, general body pain, [[internal bleeding|internal]] and [[hemorrhage|external bleeding]], and fever.<ref>[http://www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola/en/ WHO Fact Sheet Ebola haemorrhagic fever]</ref> Mortality rates are generally high, ranging from 50% - 100%,<ref>[http://www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola/en/ WHO Fact Sheet Ebola haemorrhagic fever]</ref> with the cause of death usually due to [[hypovolemic shock]] or [[Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome]].<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15896665 Bray et al. “Ebola virus: the role of macrophages and dendritic cells in the pathogenesis of Ebola haemorrhagic fever.”, ''Int J Biochem Cell Biol.'' 2005 Aug, 37(8):1560-1566]</ref> |
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The virus is named after the [[Ebola River]] in the [[Africa]]n [[nation-state]] of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (formerly [[Zaire|Zaïre]]), near the site of the first outbreaks.<ref>[http://www.scripps.edu/newsandviews/e_20020114/ebola1.html Death Called a River] Jason Socrates Bardi. Scribbs Research Institute. Retrieved [[8 December]] 2006. </ref> The Democratic Republic of Congo has been the site of four recent outbreaks, including one in May 2005. |
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Ebola is believed to be a [[zoonosis|zoonotic]] virus, although despite considerable effort by the [[World Health Organization]], no animal [[Reservoir (disambiguation)|reservoir]] capable of sustaining the virus between outbreaks has been identified. One possible candidate [[Reservoir (disambiguation)|reservoir]] is the [[fruit bat]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4484494.stm Fruit bats may carry Ebola virus, BBC News, December 1, 2005]</ref> Another is the dog. <ref> http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/06/050608065550.htm </ref> |
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Because Ebola is lethal and since no approved [[vaccine]] or treatment is available, Ebola is classified as a [[Biosafety Level 4]] agent, as well as a Category A Bioterrorism agent<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16616875&itool=iconabstr&query_hl=12 Hoenen et al. “Ebola virus: unravelling pathogenesis to combat a deadly disease.”, ''Trends Mol. Med.'' 2006 May, 12(5):206-215]</ref> and a [[select agent]] by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]]. |
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The symptoms of Ebola are rather similar to that of the [[Marburg virus]], which is also in the family ''Filoviridae''. |
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== Structure == |
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[[Image:ebola virus em.png|thumb|135px|[[electron microscope|Electron micrograph]] of the filamentous structure of Ebola]] |
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===Size and shape=== |
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[[Electron microscope|Electron micrographs]] of members of ''Ebolavirus'' show them to have the characteristic thread-like structure of a [[Filoviridae|filovirus]]. The virions are variable in shape and may appear as a "U", "6", coiled, circular, or branched shape, however, laboratory purification techniques, such as [[centrifugation]], may contribute to the various shapes seen. Virions are generally 80[[nanometer|nm]] in diameter. They are variable in length, and can be up to 1400 nm long. On average however, the length of a typical [[virion|Ebola virus]] is closer to 1000 nm. In the center of the virion is a structure called nucleocapsid, which is formed by the helically wound viral genomic RNA complexed with the proteins NP, VP35, VP30 and L. It has a diameter of 40 – 50 nm and contains a central channel of 20 – 30 nm in diameter. Virally encoded [[glycoprotein]] (GP) spikes 10 nm long and 10 nm apart are present on the outer [[viral envelope]] of the virion, which is derived from the host cell membrane. Between envelope and nucleocapsid, in the so called matrix space, the viral proteins VP40 and VP24 are located. |
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===Genome=== |
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Each virion contains one molecule of linear, single-stranded, [[Sense (molecular biology)|negative-sense]] [[RNA]], totalling 18900 [[nucleotide]]s in length. The 3′ terminus is not [[polyadenylation|polyadenylated]] and the 5′ end is not [[5' cap|capped]]. It codes for seven structural proteins and one non-structural protein. The gene order is 3′ - leader - NP - VP35 - VP40 - GP/sGP - VP30 - VP24 - L - trailer - 5′; with the leader and trailer being non-transcribed regions which carry important signals to control [[Transcription (genetics)|transcription]], [[replication]] and packaging of the viral genome into new virions. The genomic material by itself is not infectious, because viral proteins, among them the RNA-dependent [[RNA polymerase]], are necessary to [[Transcription (genetics)|transcribe]] the viral genome into [[Messenger RNA|mRNAs]], as well as for [[replication]] of the viral genome. |
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==Species== |
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=== ''Zaïre Ebolavirus'' === |
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The ''Zaïre Ebolavirus'' has the highest mortality rate, up to 90% in some epidemics, with an average of approximately 83% mortality over 27 years. The case-fatality rates were 88% in 1976, 100% in 1977, 59% in 1994, 81% in 1995, 73% in 1996, 80% in 2001-2002 and 90% in 2003. There have been more outbreaks of ''Zaïre Ebolavirus'' than any other strain. |
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The first outbreak took place on August 26, 1976 in [[Yambuku]], a town in the north of [[Zaire|Zaïre]]. The first recorded case was Mabalo Lokela, a 44-year-old schoolteacher returning from a trip around the north of the state. His high fever was diagnosed as possible [[malaria]] and he was subsequently given a [[quinine]] shot. Lokela returned to the hospital every day. A week later, his symptoms included uncontrolled [[vomiting]], bloody diarrhea, [[headache]], [[dizziness]], and trouble breathing. Later, he began bleeding from his nose, mouth, and rectum. Mabalo Lokela died on September 8, 1976, roughly 14 days after the onset of symptoms. |
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[[Image:Ebola-zaire_chart.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Known human cases and deaths during outbreaks of ''Zaïre Ebolavirus'' between 1976 and 2003]] |
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Soon after, more patients arrived with varying but similar symptoms including fever, headache, muscle and joint aches, fatigue, nausea and dizziness. These often progressed to bloody diarrhea, severe vomiting, and bleeding from the nose, mouth, and rectum. The initial transmission was believed to be due to reuse of the needle for Lokela’s injection without sterilization. Subsequent transmission was also due to care of the sick patients without [[Universal precautions|barrier nursing]] and the traditional burial preparation method, which involved washing and [[gastrointestinal tract]] cleansing. |
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=== ''Sudan Ebolavirus'' === |
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Sudan Ebolavirus was the second strand of Ebola reported in 1976. It apparently originated amongst cotton factory workers in Nzara, Sudan. The first case reported was a worker exposed to a potential natural reservoir at the cotton factory. Scientists tested all animals and insects in response to this, however none tested positive for the virus. The carrier is still unknown. |
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A second case involved a nightclub owner in Nzara, [[Sudan]]. The local hospital, Maridi, tested and attempted to treat the patient; however, nothing was successful, and he died. The nurses did not apply safe and practical procedures in sterilizing and disinfecting the medical tools used on the nightclub owner, facilitating the spread of the virus in the hospital. |
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The most recent outbreak of ''Sudan Ebolavirus'' occurred in May 2004. As of May 2004, 20 cases of ''Sudan Ebolavirus'' were reported in [[Yambio|Yambio County]], [[Sudan]], with 5 deaths resulting. The [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] confirmed the virus a few days later. The neighbouring countries of [[Uganda]] and the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] have increased surveillance in bordering areas, and other similar measures have been taken to control the outbreak. The average fatality rates for ''Sudan Ebolavirus'' were 53% in 1976, 68% in 1979, and 53% in 2000/2001. The average case-fatality rate is 53.76%. |
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[[Image:Ebola-sudan_chart.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Known human cases and deaths during outbreaks of Sudan Ebolavirus between 1976 and 2003]] |
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=== ''Reston Ebolavirus'' === |
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{{main|Ebola Reston}} |
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First discovered in November of 1989 in a group of 100 [[Crab-eating Macaque|Crab-eating monkeys]] (''Macaca fascicularis'') imported from the [[Philippines]] to [[Reston, Virginia|Reston]], [[Virginia]]. A parallel infected shipment was also sent to [[Philadelphia]]. This strain was highly lethal in monkeys, but did not cause any fatalities in humans. Six of the Reston primate handlers tested positive for the virus, two due to previous exposure. |
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Further ''Reston Ebolavirus'' infected monkeys were shipped again to Reston, and [[Alice, Texas|Alice]], [[Texas]] in February of 1990. More ''Reston Ebolavirus'' infected monkeys were discovered in 1992 in [[Siena]], [[Italy]] and in Texas again in March 1996. A high rate of co-infection with [[Simian Hemorrhagic Fever]] (SHF) was present in all infected monkeys. No human illness has resulted from these two outbreaks. |
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=== ''Ivory Coast Ebolavirus''=== |
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This species of Ebola was first discovered amongst [[chimpanzee]]s of the Tai Forest in [[Côte d'Ivoire|Côte d’Ivoire]], [[Africa]]. On November 1, 1994, the corpses of two chimpanzees were found in the forest. [[Necropsy|Necropsies]] showed blood within the heart to be liquid and brown, no obvious marks seen on the organs, and one presented lungs filled with liquid blood. Studies of tissues taken from the chimps showed results similar to human cases during the 1976 Ebola outbreaks in Zaïre and Sudan. Later in 1994, more dead chimpanzees were discovered, with many testing positive to Ebola using molecular techniques. The source of contamination was believed to be the meat of infected [[Western Red Colobus]] monkeys, which the chimpanzees preyed upon.<ref> http://virus.stanford.edu/filo/eboci.html</ref> |
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One of the scientists performing the necropsies on the infected chimpanzees contracted Ebola. She developed syndromes similar to [[dengue fever]] approximately a week after the necropsy and was transported to Switzerland for treatment. After two weeks she was discharged from hospital, and was fully recovered six weeks after the infection. |
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==Replication== |
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The viral attachment protein recognizes specific receptors, which may be protein, carbohydrate or lipid, on the outside of the cell. The mechanism of virus entry into host cells is unknown, but it is reasonable to assume that the [[glycoprotein]] spikes on the surface of the virion would "MY NAME IS EARL" mediate the process, as they are the only [[transmembrane protein]] present on the surface. The two types of GP, the other being sGP, are specific for different cell types. |
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The virus next activates and releases its own genetic material, causing the host to begin manufacturing the proteins necessary for virus reproduction using its own resources. This replication continues until the cell ruptures and bursts. The virus is then spread to neighboring cells, and continues this chain of reproduction until masses of host cells are damaged. The host then may die soon after. The spread of the virus through the population can be halted if the proper sterilization and quarantine measures are taken, as the only method by which the virus may continue to propagate is via direct contact with [[body fluids]]. In order for a successful infection the virus must first evade the immune system. One of the ways it does this is by inhibiting interferon activity. VP24 blocks IFN-α/β and IFN-γ signaling by interacting with karyopherin α1, the nuclear localization signal receptor for tyrosine-phosphorylated STAT1, preventing the formation of an interferon induced antiviral state. Another protein, VP35, blocks the transcription factor interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3), which is important for the expression of IFN-α/β. |
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==Ebola hemorrhagic fever == |
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===Symptoms=== |
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[[Image:7042_lores-Ebola-Zaire-CDC_Photo.jpg|thumb|right|200px|1976 photograph of two nurses standing in front of Kinshasa case #3 ([[Nurse Mayinga]]) who was treated and later died in Ngaliema Hospital, in [[Kinshasa]], [[Zaire|Zaïre]]]] |
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Symptoms are varied and often appear suddenly. Initial symptoms include: high [[fever]] (at least 38.8°C/101°F), [[headache|severe headache]], [[myalgia|muscle]], [[Arthralgia|joint]], or [[abdominal pain]], [[Muscle weakness|severe weakness]] and [[exhaustion]], [[Pharyngitis|sore throat]], [[nausea]], and [[dizziness]]. Before an [[outbreak]] is suspected, these early symptoms are easily mistaken for [[malaria]], [[typhoid fever]], [[dysentery]], [[influenza]], or various [[bacteria|bacterial infections]], which are all far more common. |
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Ebola goes on to cause [[diarrhea]], dark or bloody [[feces|stool]], [[Coffee ground vomiting|vomiting blood]], red eyes from swollen blood vessels, red spots on the skin from [[Petechia|subcutaneous bleeding]], [[maculopapular rash]], [[purpura]], and [[internal bleeding|bleeding internally]] and externally from any orifice, including from the nose, mouth, rectum, genitals or needle puncture sites. |
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Other secondary symptoms include [[hypotension]] (less than 90mm Hg), [[hypovolemia]], [[tachycardia]], severe organ damage (especially the [[kidneys]], [[spleen]], and [[liver]]) as a result of disseminated systemic [[necrosis]], and [[proteinuria]]. The span of time from onset of symptoms to death (usually due to [[hypovolemic shock]] and/or multiple organ failure) is usually between 7 and 14 days. By the second week of infection, patients will either defervesce (the fever will lessen) or undergo systemic multiorgan failure. |
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===Transmission=== |
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Among humans, the virus is transmitted by direct contact with infected [[body fluid]]s, or to a lesser extent, skin or [[mucus membrane]] contact. The [[incubation period]] can be anywhere from 2 to 21 days, but is generally between 5 and 10 days. |
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Although airborne transmission between monkeys has been demonstrated in a laboratory, there is very limited evidence for human-to-human airborne transmission in any reported epidemics. [[Mayinga N'Seka|Nurse Mayinga]] ''might'' represent the only possible case. The means by which she contracted the virus remain uncertain. |
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So far all epidemics of Ebola have occurred in sub-optimal hospital conditions, where practices of basic hygiene and sanitation are often either luxuries or unknown to caretakers and where disposable needles and [[autoclave]]s are unavailable or too expensive. In modern hospitals with disposable needles and knowledge of basic hygiene and [[Universal precautions|barrier nursing]] techniques, Ebola rarely spreads on such a large scale. |
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In the early stages, Ebola may not be highly contagious. Contact with someone in early stages may not even transmit the disease. As the illness progresses, bodily fluids from diarrhea, vomiting, and bleeding represent an extreme [[biohazard]]. Due to lack of proper equipment and hygienic practices, large scale epidemics occur mostly in poor, isolated areas without modern hospitals and/or well-educated medical staff. Many areas where the infectious reservoir exists have just these characteristics. In such environments all that can be done is to immediately cease all needle sharing or use without adequate [[sterilization]] procedures, to isolate patients, and to observe strict [[Universal precautions|barrier nursing]] procedures with the use of a medical rated disposable face mask, gloves, goggles, and a gown at all times. This should be strictly enforced for all medical personnel and visitors. |
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===Treatments=== |
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Treatment is primarily supportive and includes minimizing invasive procedures, balancing electrolytes, replacing lost [[coagulation factor]]s to help stop bleeding, maintaining oxygen and blood levels, and treating any complicating infections. Despite some initial anecdotal evidence, blood serum from Ebola survivors has been shown to be ineffective in treating the virus. [[Interferon]] is also thought to be ineffective. In monkeys, administration of an inhibitor of coagulation (rNAPc2) has shown some benefit, protecting 33% of infected animals from a usually 100% (for monkeys) lethal infection. In early 2006, scientists at [[USAMRIID]] announced a 75% recovery rate after infecting four [[rhesus monkey]]s with Ebola virus and administering [[Antisense therapy|antisense drugs]].<ref> http://www.usamriid.army.mil/press%20releases/warfield_press_release.pdf</ref> |
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===Vaccines === |
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Vaccines have been produced for both Ebola and Marburg that were 100% effective in protecting a group of monkeys from the disease.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15937495&query_hl=9 Jones et al. “Live attenuated recombinant vaccine protects nonhuman primates against Ebola and Marburg viruses”, ''Nat Med.'' 2005 Jul, 11(7):786-790]</ref> These vaccines are based on either a [[recombinant]] [[Vesicular stomatitis virus]] or a recombinant [[Adenoviridae|Adenovirus]]<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12904795&query_hl=7 Sullivan et al. “Accelerated vaccination for Ebola virus haemorrhagic fever in non-human primates”, ''Nature'' 2003 Aug, 424(6949):602]</ref> carrying the Ebola spikeprotein on its surface. Early human vaccine efforts, like the one at [[NIAID]] in 2003, have so far not reported any successes.<ref>[http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2003/ebolahumantrial.htm NIAID Ebola Vaccine Enters Human Trial, November 18, 2003]</ref> |
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==Viral Reservoir== |
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Despite numerous studies, the wildlife reservoir of ''Ebolavirus'' has not been identified. Between 1976 and 1998, from 30,000 mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and arthropods sampled from outbreak regions, no ''Ebolavirus'' was detected <ref name=Pourrut>Pourrut, X, Kumulungui, B, Wittmann, T ''et al''. (2005). The natural history of Ebola virus in Africa. ''Microbes and Infection''. '''7''':1005–1014.</ref> apart from some genetic material found in six rodents (''Mus setulosus'' and ''Praomys'' species) and a [[shrew]] (''Sylvisorex ollula'') collected from the [[Central African Republic]] in 1998.<ref>Morvan, JM, Deubel, V, Gounon, P ''et al''. (1999). Identification of Ebola virus sequences present as RNA or DNA in organs of terrestrial small mammals of the Central African Republic. ''Microbes and Infection''. '''1''':1193–1201.</ref> ''Ebolavirus'' was detected in the carcasses of [[gorilla]]s, chimpanzees and [[duiker]]s during outbreaks in 2001 and 2003 (the carcasses were the source of the initial human infections) but the high mortality from infection in these species precludes them from acting as reservoirs.<ref name=Pourrut>Pourrut, X, Kumulungui, B, Wittmann, T ''et al''. (2005). The natural history of Ebola virus in Africa. ''Microbes and Infection''. '''7''':1005–1014.</ref> |
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Plants, arthropods and birds have also been considered as reservoirs, however bats are considered the most likely candidate. Bats were known to reside in the cotton factory in which the index cases for the 1976 and 1979 outbreaks were employed and have also been implicated in Marburg infections in 1975 and 1980.<ref name=Pourrut>Pourrut, X, Kumulungui, B, Wittmann, T ''et al''. (2005). The natural history of Ebola virus in Africa. ''Microbes and Infection''. '''7''':1005–1014.</ref> Of 24 plant species and 19 vertebrate species experimentally inoculated with ''Ebolavirus'', only bats became infected.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol2no4/swanepo2.htm Swanepoel, R, Leman, PA, Burt, FJ. (1996). Experimental inoculation of plants and animals with Ebola virus. ''Emerging Infectious Diseases''. '''2''':321–3215.]</ref> The absence of clinical signs in these bats is characteristic of a reservoir species. In 2002-03, a survey of 1,030 animals from [[Gabon]] and the Republic of the Congo including 679 bats found ''Ebolavirus'' RNA in 13 fruit bats (''Hyspignathus monstrosus, Epomops franquetti and Myonycteris torquata'').<ref>Leroy, EM, Kimulugui, B, Pourrut, X ''et al''. (2005). Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus. ''Nature''. '''438''':575–576.</ref> Bats are also known to be the reservoirs for a number of related viruses including [[Nipah virus]], [[Hendra virus]] and [[lyssavirus]]es. |
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==Ebola as a Weapon== |
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Ebola is classified as a Category A [[Biological terrorism]] agent by the CDC as well as being considered a [[select agent]] that has the "potential to pose a severe threat to public health and safety". Ebola was considered in [[biological warfare]] research at both [[Fort Detrick]]<ref>http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=6042,</ref> in the [[United States]] and [[Biopreparat]]<ref>http://www.technologyreview.com/read_article.aspx?ch=biotech&sc=&id=16485&pg=4</ref> in the [[Soviet Union]] during the [[Cold War]]. |
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Ebola shows potential as a biological weapon because of its lethality but due to its relatively short incubation period it may be more difficult to spread since it may kill its victim before it has a chance to be transmitted. As a result, some developers have considered breeding it with other agents such as [[smallpox]]<ref>http://www.zkea.com/archives/archive02006.html</ref> to create so-called [[Chimera (virus)|chimera]] viruses. |
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As a terrorist weapon, Ebola has been considered by members of [[Japan]]'s [[Aum Shinrikyo]] [[cult]], whose leader, [[Shoko Asahara]] led about 40 members to Zaire in 1992 under the guise of offering medical aid to Ebola victims in what was presumably an attempt to acquire a sample of the virus.<ref>http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/reports/pdfs/aum_chrn.pdf</ref> |
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==Cultural effects== |
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===Popular description and representation=== |
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Ebola and Marburg have served as a rich source of ideas and plotlines for many forms of entertainment. The infatuation with the virus is likely due to the high mortality rate of its victims, its mysterious nature, and its tendency to cause gruesome bleeding from body orifices. |
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Much of the representation of the Ebola virus in fiction and the media is considered [[apocryphal|exaggerated or myth]]. Many of the stories about Ebola in Preston's book ''[[The Hot Zone]]'' are refuted in the book ''Level 4: Virus Hunters of the CDC'' by [[Joseph B. McCormick]], an employee of the [[CDC]] at the time of the early outbreaks. One pervasive myth follows that the virus kills so fast that it has little time to spread. Victims die very soon after contact with the virus. In reality, the incubation time is usually about a week. The average time from onset of early symptoms to death varies in the range 3-21 days, with a mean of 10.1. Although this would prevent the transmission of the virus to many people, it is still enough time for some people to catch the disease. |
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Another myth states that the symptoms of the virus are horrifying beyond belief. Victims of Ebola suffer from squirting blood, liquefying flesh, zombie-like faces and dramatic projectile bloody vomiting, at times, from even recently deceased. In actual fact, only a fraction of Ebola victims have severe bleeding that would be even somewhat dramatic to witness. Approximately 10% of patients suffer some bleeding, but this is often internal or subtle, such as bleeding from the gums. Ebola symptoms are usually limited to extreme exhaustion, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, a high fever, headaches and other body pains. |
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The following is an excerpt from an interview with Philippe Calain, M.D. Chief Epidemiologist, CDC Special Pathogens Branch, Kikwit 1996: |
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{{cquote|''At the end of the disease the patient does not look, from the outside, as horrible as you can read in some books. They are not melting. They are not full of blood. They're in shock, muscular shock. They are not unconscious, but you would say 'obtunded', dull, quiet, very tired. Very few were hemorrhaging. Hemorrhage is not the main symptom. Less than half of the patients had some kind of hemorrhage. But the ones that had bled, died.''}} |
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===Cultural impact=== |
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{{main|Ebola inspired entertainment}} |
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{{sectstub}} |
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==See also== |
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*[[Bolivian haemorrhagic fever]] |
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*[[Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever|Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF)]] |
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*[[Marburg virus|Marburg haemorrhagic fever]], the first known disease caused by a [[filovirus]] |
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*[[Matthew Lukwiya]], [[Uganda]]n doctor at the forefront of the 2000 outbreak |
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==References== |
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==Further reading== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8712894&query_hl=12 Lethal experimental infection of rhesus monkeys with Ebola-Zaire (Mayinga) virus by the oral and conjunctival route of exposure] PubMed, February 1996, Jaax et al. |
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*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8551825&query_hl=12 Transmission of Ebola virus (Zaire strain) to uninfected control monkeys in a biocontainment laboratory] PubMed, December 1993 |
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*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7547435&query_hl=12 Lethal experimental infections of rhesus monkeys by aerosolized Ebola and marburg virus] PubMed, August 1995 |
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*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15588056&query_hl=12 Marburg and Ebola viruses as aerosol threats] PubMed, 2004, [[USAMRIID]] |
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*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15207310&query_hl=12 Other viral bioweapons: Ebola and Marburg hemorrhag fever] PubMed, 2004 |
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*[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/spb/mnpages/dispages/ebola/qa.htm Questions and Answers about Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, Center for Disease Control (CDC), retrieved 10 July 2006] |
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*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/01.025.0.02.htm ICTVdB database entry on genus ''Ebolavirus''] |
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*[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/spb/mnpages/vhfmanual/entire.pdf Infection Control for Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers in the African Health Care Setting] - Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, December 1998 |
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* [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/spb/mnpages/dispages/ebotabl.htm History of Ebola Outbreaks] - Centers for Disease Control Special Pathogens Branch, retrieved 10 July 2006 |
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*Draper, Allison Stark. ''Ebola''. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., [[2002]] |
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*Horowitz, Leonard G. ''Emerging Viruses: "FINALLY THE STD'S....WHERE ARE THE EGGS" AIDS & Ebola — Nature, Accident, or Intentional?''. Rockport, MA: Tetrahedron, Inc., 1996 |
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*Regis, Ed. ''Virus Ground Zero''; Simon & Schuster: New York, 1996; p104 |
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* ''J. Infect. Dis.'' 1999 '''179''' S1-S7 |
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*Merck Research Laboratories. ''The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, Seventeenth Edition''; Merck Research Laboratories: Whitehouse Station, N.J.; pg 1311 |
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</div> |
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==External links== |
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*[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/spb/mnpages/dispages/ebotabl.htm Ebola cases and outbreaks] – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |
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*[http://www.itg.be/ebola/ Ebola Virus Haemorrhagic Fever] - a comprehensive overview of the disease |
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*[http://www.scripps.edu/newsandviews/e_20020114/ebola1.html Death Called a River] - Jason Socrates Bardi, Scripps Research Institute |
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*[http://www.brettrussell.com/personal/what_are_the_chances_.html What is the probability of a dangerous strain of Ebola mutating and becoming airborne?] Brett Russel, retrieved 10 July 2006 |
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*[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/index.html WHO Factsheet] - general information on the virus, retrieved 10 July 2006 |
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*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6220122.stm Ebola 'kills over 5,000 gorillas'] BBC News, [[8 December]] 2006. Retrieved [[8 December]] 2006. |
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[[Category:Ebola|Ebola]] |
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[[Category:Mononegavirales]] |
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[[Category:Infectious diseases]] |
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[[Category:Biological weapons]] |
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[[Category:Zoonoses]] |
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[[Category:Tropical disease]] |
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[[ar:إيبولا]] |
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[[cs:Ebola]] |
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[[da:Ebola]] |
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[[de:Ebola]] |
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[[es:Ébola]] |
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[[eu:Ebola birus]] |
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[[fr:Ebola (virus)]] |
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[[it:Ebola]] |
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[[lt:Ebola]] |
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[[ms:Ebola]] |
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[[nl:Ebola]] |
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[[ja:エボラ出血熱]] |
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[[no:Ebola (virus)]] |
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[[pl:Gorączka krwotoczna Ebola]] |
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[[pt:Ébola]] |
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[[ru:Геморрагическая лихорадка Эбола]] |
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[[simple:Ebola]] |
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[[fi:Ebola]] |
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[[sv:Ebolafeber]] |
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[[tr:Ebola]] |
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[[zh:埃博拉病毒]] |
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