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{| class="infobox" style="font-size:85%"
|<span font-size=100%>'''The Bible''' is</span>
* '''Part of [[:Category:Judaism]] '''
:(see [[#The Hebrew Bible|The Hebrew Bible]] below)
* '''Part of a series on [[Christianity]] '''
:(see [[#The New Testament|The New Testament]] below)
|}

[[Image:Gutenberg Bible.jpg|260px|thumb|This [[Gutenberg Bible]] is displayed by the United States [[Library of Congress]].]]

The word "'''Bible'''" refers to the canonical collections of [[Religious text|sacred writings]] of [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]].<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=Bible Dictionary.com]</ref>

Judaism's Bible is often referred to as the '''[[Tanakh]]''', or '''[[Hebrew Bible]]''', which includes the sacred texts common to both the Christian and Jewish [[Biblical canon|canons]].<ref>See Patrick H. Alexander The SBL Handbook of Style. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers. ISBN 1-56563-487-X.</ref>

The Christian Bible is called the '''Holy Bible''', '''Scriptures''', or '''Word of God'''. It is divided into two parts, the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]]; some versions also have an [[Biblical apocrypha|Apocrypha]] section. The [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] Old Testament canons contain books not found in the Tanakh, but which were found in the [[Greek Language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]].

More than 14,000 [[manuscripts]] and fragments of the [[Hebrew Language|Hebrew]] Tanakh exist, as do numerous copies of the Septuagint, and 5,300 manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, more than any other work of [[ancient history|antiquity]].<ref>{{cite web
|title=Reliability of Ancient Manuscripts
|publisher=All About Truth
|url=http://www.allabouttruth.org/Origin-Of-The-Bible.htm
}}</ref>

==Derivation of term Bible==
[[Image:Family-bible.jpg|thumb|left|155px|An American family Bible dating to [[1859]].]]According to the [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php Online Etymology Dictionary] the word bible<ref>[http://etymonline.com/?term=bible Online Etymology Dictionary entry for word "Bible"]</ref> is from Anglo-Latin ''biblia'', traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin, as used in the phrase ''biblia sacra'' ("holy books"). This then stemmed from the term (''[[Greek language|Greek]]:'' {{polytonic|τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια}} ''Ta biblia ta hagia'', "the holy books"), which derived from ''biblion'' ("paper" or "scroll,” the ordinary word for "[[book]]"), which was originally a diminutive of ''byblos'' ("Egyptian papyrus"), possibly so called from the name of the [[Phoenicia]]n port from which Egyptian [[papyrus]] was exported to Greece.

Biblical scholar Mark Hamilton states that the Greek phrase ''Ta biblia'' ("the books") was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books several centuries before the time of Jesus,"<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/scriptures.html "From Hebrew Bible to Christian Bible" by Mark Hamilton] on PBS's site [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/ From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians]</ref> and would have referred to the [[Septuagint]].<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=Bible Dictionary.com etymology of the word "Bible"]</ref> The Online Etymology Dictionary states, "The Christian scripture was referred to in [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''Ta Biblia' as early as c.223."

== The Hebrew Bible ==
{{Judaism}}
{{main| Hebrew Bible | Tanakh | Old Testament}}
The [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{hebrew|תנ"ך}}) consists of 39 books. "Hebrew" in "[[Hebrew Bible]]" may refer to either the [[Hebrew language]] or to the [[Hebrew people]] who historically used Hebrew as a spoken language, and have continuously used the language in prayer and study, or both.
Tanakh is an acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible: the [[Torah]] ("Teaching/Law" also known as the [[Pentateuch]]), [[Nevi'im]] ("Prophets"), and [[Ketuvim]] ("Writings,” or [[Hagiographa]]), and is used commonly by Jews but unfamiliar to many English speakers and others {{ref_harvard|Alexander|Alexander 1999, p. 17|none}}.
(See [[Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture]]).

===Torah===
{{main|Torah}}
[[Image:241530 7953 torah.jpg|thumbnail|left|The [[Torah]], or Jewish scripture. In the background are the [[Magen David|Star of David]] and a [[Menorah]], two important symbols of Judaism.]]
The [[Torah]], or "Teaching," is also known as the five books of [[Moses]], thus [[Humash|Chumash]] or [[Pentateuch]] (Hebrew and Greek for "five," respectively).

The [[Pentateuch]] is composed of the following five books:
*I [[Genesis]] (''Bereisheet'' בראשית),
*II [[Exodus]] (''Shemot'' שמות),
*III [[Leviticus]] (''Vayikra'' ויקרא),
*IV [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] (''Bemidbar'' במדבר), and
*V [[Deuteronomy]] (''Devarim'' דברים)

The Hebrew book titles come from the first words in the respective texts. The Hebrew title for Numbers, however, comes from the fifth word of that text.

The Torah focuses on three moments in the changing relationship between God and people.
*The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the [[Creation (theology)|creation]] (or ordering) of the world, and the history of God's early relationship with humanity.
*The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Hebrew patriarchs, [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]] (also called [[Israel]]), and Jacob's children (the "[[Children of Israel]]"), especially [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]]. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of [[Ur]], eventually to settle in the land of [[Canaan]], and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt.
*The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of [[Moses]], who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. His story coincides with the story of the liberation of the Children of Israel from slavery in [[Ancient Egypt]], to the renewal of their covenant with God at [[Mount Sinai]], and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation would be ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.

Traditionally, the Torah contains the [[613 mitzvot]], or commandments, of God, revealed during the passage from slavery in the land of Egypt to freedom in the land of Canaan. These commandments provide the basis for [[Halakha]] (Jewish religious law).

The Torah is divided into fifty-four portions which are read in turn in Jewish liturgy, from the beginning of Genesis to the end of Deuteronomy, each [[Shabbat|Sabbath]]. The cycle ends and recommences at the end of [[Sukkot]], which is called [[Simchat Torah]].

===Nevi'im===
{{main|Nevi'im}}
The [[Nevi'im]], or "Prophets," tells the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, its division into two kingdoms, and the prophets who, in God's name, judged the kings and the Children of Israel. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Portions of the prophetic books are read by Jews on the Sabbath ([[Shabbat]]). The [[Book of Jonah]] is read on [[Yom Kippur]].

According to Jewish tradition, Nevi'im is divided into eight books. Contemporary translations subdivide these into seventeen books.

The eight books are:
* I. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] or Yehoshua [יהושע]
* II. [[Book of Judges|Judges]] or Shoftim [שופטים]
* III. [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] or Shmu'el [שמואל] (often divided into two books; Samuel may be considered the last of the judges or the first of the prophets, as his sons were named judges but were rejected by the Hebrew nation)
* IV. [[Books of Kings|Kings]] or Melakhim [מלכים] (often divided into two books)
* V. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] or Yeshayahu [ישעיהו]
* VI. [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] or Yirmiyahu [ירמיהו]
* VII. [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] or Yehezq'el [יחזקאל]
* VIII. Trei Asar (The Twelve [[Minor Prophets]]) תרי עשר
*# [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] or Hoshea [הושע]
*# [[Book of Joel|Joel]] or Yo'el [יואל]
*# [[Book of Amos|Amos]] [עמוס]
*# [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]] or Ovadyah [עבדיה]
*# [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] or Yonah [יונה]
*# [[Book of Micah|Micah]] or Mikhah [מיכה]
*# [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]] or Nachum [נחום]
*# [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] or Habaquq [חבקוק]
*# [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] or Tsefania [צפניה]
*# [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]] [חגי]
*# [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] or Zekharia [זכריה]
*# [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] or Malakhi [מלאכי]

===Ketuvim===
[[Image:DC003683GE.jpg|150px|thumb|left|A page from a rare [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] Bible, dating from [[1030]] AD, depicting the Raising of Lazarus]]
{{main|Ketuvim}}
The [[Ketuvim]], or "Writings," may have been written during or after the [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian Exile]] but no one can be sure. According to Rabbinic tradition, many of the psalms in the book of [[Psalms]] are attributed to [[David]]; [[King Solomon]] is believed to have written [[Song of Songs]] in his youth, [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] at the prime of his life, and [[Ecclesiastes]] at old age; and the prophet [[Jeremiah]] is thought to have written [[Lamentations]]. The [[Book of Ruth]] is the only biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew. The book of Ruth tells the story of a non-Jew (specifically, a [[Moab]]ite) who married a Jew and, upon his death, followed in the ways of the Jews; according to the Bible, she was the great-grandmother of [[King David]]. Five of the books, called "The Five Scrolls" (Megilot), are read on Jewish holidays: Song of Songs on [[Passover]]; the [[Book of Ruth]] on [[Shavuot]]; [[Lamentations]] on the [[Ninth of Av]]; Ecclesiastes on [[Sukkot]]; and the [[Book of Esther]] on [[Purim]]. Collectively, the Ketuvim contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the stories of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the Babylonian exile. It ends with the Persian decree allowing Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple.

Ketuvim contains eleven books:
* I. Tehillim ([[Psalms]]) תהלים
* II. Mishlei ([[Book of Proverbs]]) משלי
* III. 'Iyyov ([[Book of Job]]) איוב
* IV. Shir ha-Shirim ([[Song of Songs]]) שיר השירים
* V. Ruth ([[Book of Ruth]]) רות
* VI. Eikhah ([[Lamentations]]) איכה [Also called ''Kinnot'' (קינות) in Hebrew.]
* VII. Kohelet ([[Ecclesiastes]]) קהלת
* VIII. Esther ([[Book of Esther]]) אסתר
* IX. Daniel ([[Book of Daniel]]) דניאל
* X. Ezra (often divided into two books, [[Book of Ezra]] and [[Book of Nehemiah]] (עזרא (נחמיה
* XI. Divrei ha-Yamim ([[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]], often divided into two books) דברי

===Translations and editions===
{{main|Bible translations}}
{{Unreferenced|date=November 2006}}

The Tanakh was mainly written in [[Biblical Hebrew]], with some portions (notably in [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]) in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]].

Some time in the 2nd or [[3rd century BC]], the [[Torah]] was translated into [[Koine Greek]], and over the next century, other books were translated (or composed) as well. This translation became known as the [[Septuagint]] and was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews, and later by Christians. It differs somewhat from the later standardized Hebrew ([[Masoretic Text]]). This translation was promoted by way of a legend that seventy separate translators all produced identical texts.

From the [[800s]] to the [[1400s]], Jewish scholars today known as [[Masoretes]] compared the text of all known Biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified, standardized text. A series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added [[vowel]] points (called [[niqqud]]) to the text, since the original text only contained consonant letters. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since some words differ only in their vowels— their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]], the [[Dead Sea scrolls]], and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages.

Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books beyond what was included in the Masoretic texts of the [[Tanakh]]. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition ("vorlage") from the one that became the basis for the Masoretic texts.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Jews also produced non-literal translations or paraphrases known as [[targum]]s, primarily in Aramaic. They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Rabbinic oral tradition.

==The two Torahs of Rabbinic Judaism==
By the [[Hellenistic period]] of Jewish history, Jews were divided over the nature of the Torah. Some (for example, the [[Sadducees]]) believed that the Chumash contained the entire Torah, that is, the entire contents of what God revealed to Moses at Sinai and in the desert. Others, principally the [[Pharisees]], believed that the Chumash represented only that portion of the revelation that had been written down (i.e., the Written Torah or the Written Law), but that the rest of God's revelation had been passed down orally (thus composing the Oral Law or [[Oral Torah]]). [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] and [[Masorti]] and [[Conservative Judaism]] state that the [[Talmud]] contains some of the Oral Torah. [[Reform Judaism]] also gives credence to the Talmud containing the Oral Torah, but, as with the written Torah, asserts that both were inspired by, but not dictated by, God.

== The Old Testament ==
The Christian [[Old Testament]], while having most or all books in common with the Jewish [[Tanakh]], varies from Judaism in the emphasis it places and the interpretations it gives them. The books come in a slightly different order. In addition, some Christian groups recognize additional books as canonical members of the Old Testament, and they may use a different text as the canonical basis for translations.


===Differing Christian usages of the Old Testament===
The [[Septuagint]] (Greek translation, from Alexandria in Egypt under the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]]) was generally abandoned in favour of the [[Masoretic]] text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into [[Western world|Western]] languages from [[Martin Luther]]'s [[Protestant Bible]] to the present day; already Jerome's [[Vulgate]] was based on the Hebrew. In [[Eastern Christianity]], translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. Some modern Western translations make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in texts discovered among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]].

A number of books which are part of the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rabbinic) Bible are often referred to as [[deuterocanonical books]] by Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e. deutero) canon. Most Protestants term these books as [[apocrypha]]. [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]] and those of the Modern [[Protestantism|Protestant]] traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them until around the 1820s. However, the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament. The Catholic Church recognizes seven such books ([[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], [[Book of Judith|Judith]], [[1 Maccabees]], [[2 Maccabees]], [[Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Sirach|Ecclesiasticus]], and [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]), as well as some passages in [[Book of Esther|Esther]] and [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]. Various Orthodox Churches include a few others, typically [[3 Maccabees]], [[Psalm 151]], [[1 Esdras]], [[Odes]], [[Psalms of Solomon]], and the [[Prayer of Manasseh]]. The [[Anglican Church]] uses the Apocryphal books liturgically, but not to establish doctrine. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Roman Catholic Apocrypha, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh.

==The New Testament==
{{Portalpar | Christianity | Heart2.jpg | 35}}

The Bible as used by the majority of [[Christians]] includes the Rabbinic Hebrew Scripture and the [[New Testament]], which relates the life and teachings of [[Jesus]], the [[Epistles|letters]] of the [[Paul of Tarsus|Apostle Paul]] and other disciples to the early church and the [[Book of Revelation]].

{{Christianity}}

The [[New Testament]] is a collection of 27 books, produced by Christians, with [[Jesus]] as its central figure, written primarily in [[Koine Greek]] in the early Christian period. Nearly all Christians recognize the New Testament (as stated below) as canonical [[Sacred text|scripture]]. These books can be grouped into:
{|
|
*[[Gospel|The Gospels]]
**[[Synoptic Gospels]]
***[[Gospel of Matthew|Gospel According to Matthew]]
***[[Gospel of Mark|Gospel According to Mark]]
***[[Gospel of Luke|Gospel According to Luke]]
**[[Gospel of John|Gospel According to John]]

*[[Acts of the Apostles]]
*[[Pauline Epistles]]
**[[Epistle to the Romans]]
**[[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]
**[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]]
**[[Epistle to the Galatians]]
**[[Epistle to the Ephesians]]
**[[Epistle to the Philippians]]
**[[Epistle to the Colossians]]
**[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
**[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
**[[Pastoral Epistles]]
***[[First Epistle to Timothy]]
***[[Second Epistle to Timothy]]
***[[Epistle to Titus]]
**[[Epistle to Philemon]]
| valign="top" |
*[[Epistle to the Hebrews]]
*[[General Epistles]]
**[[Epistle of James]]
**[[First Epistle of Peter]]
**[[Second Epistle of Peter]]
**[[First Epistle of John]]
**[[Second Epistle of John]]
**[[Third Epistle of John]]
**[[Epistle of Jude]]
*[[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]
|}
==== Original language ====
The [[New Testament]] was probably completely composed in [[Koine Greek]], the language of the earliest manuscripts. Some scholars believe that parts of the Greek New Testament (in particular, the Gospel of Matthew) are actually a translation of an Aramaic or Hebrew original. Of these, a small number accept the Syriac Peshitta as representative of the original. See further [[Aramaic primacy]].

==== Historic editions ====
[[Image:Codex_Gigas.jpg|thumb|left|The '''[[Codex Gigas]]''' from the 13th century, held at the [[Swedish Royal Library|Royal Library]] in [[Sweden]].]]
Concerning ancient manuscripts, the three main textual traditions are sometimes called the [[Western text-type]], the [[Alexandrian text-type]], and [[Byzantine text-type]]. Together they compose the majority of New Testament [[manuscript]]s. There are also several ancient versions in other languages, most important of which are the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] (including the [[Peshitta]] and the [[Diatessaron]] gospel harmony), [[Ge'ez]] and the [[Latin]] (both the [[Vetus Latina]] and the Vulgate).

The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Bible is the [[Codex Amiatinus]], a Latin Vulgate edition produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow.

The earliest printed edition of the New Testament in Greek appeared in [[1516]] from the [[Johann Froben|Froben]] press. It was compiled by [[Erasmus|Desiderius Erasmus]] on the basis of the few recent Greek manuscripts, all of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] tradition, at his disposal, which he completed by translating from the Vulgate parts for which he did not have a Greek text. He produced four later editions of the text.

Erasmus was a Roman Catholic, but his preference for the textual tradition represented in [[Medieval Greek|Byzantine Greek]] text of the time rather than that in the Latin Vulgate led to him being viewed with suspicion by some authorities of his church.

The first edition with critical apparatus (variant readings in manuscripts) was produced by the printer [[Robert Estienne]] of Paris in [[1550]]. The type of text printed in this edition and in those of Erasmus became known as the ''[[Textus Receptus]]'' (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the [[Elsevier|Elzevier]] edition of [[1633]], which termed it the text ''nunc ab omnibus receptum'' ("now received by all"). Upon it, the churches of the [[Protestant Reformation]] based their translations into [[vernacular]] languages, such as the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]].

The discovery of older manuscripts, such as the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and the [[Codex Vaticanus]], led scholars to revise their opinion of this text. [[Karl Lachmann]]’s critical edition of [[1831]], based on manuscripts dating from the fourth century and earlier, was intended primarily to demonstrate that the Textus Receptus must finally be corrected by the earlier texts. Later critical texts are based on further scholarly research and the finding of papyrus fragments, which date in some cases from within a few decades of the composition of the New Testament writings.<ref>Metzger, Bruce R. ''Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Palaeography'' (Oxford University Press, 1981) cf. [[Papyrus_52|Papyrus 52]]</ref> It is on the basis of these that nearly all modern translations or revisions of older translations have been made, though some still prefer the Textus Receptus or the similar "Byzantine [[Majority Text]].”

==Christian theology==
While individual books within the Christian Bible present narratives set in certain historical periods, most [[Christian denomination]]s teach that the Bible itself has an overarching message.

There are among Christians wide differences of opinion as to how particular incidents as described in the Bible are to be interpreted and as to what meaning should be attached to various prophecies. However, Christians in general are in agreement as to the Bible's basic message. A general outline, as described by [[C.S. Lewis]], is as follows:<ref name= "cslewis">[http://www.believersweb.org/view.cfm?ID=815 A Summary of the Bible] by Lewis, CS: Believer's Web.</ref><br clear = "left"/>

#At some point in the past, humanity learned to depart from God's will and began to [[sin]].
#Because no one is free from sin, people cannot deal with God directly, so God revealed Himself in ways people could understand.
#God called [[Abraham]] and his progeny to be the means for saving all of humanity.
#To this end, He gave the [[Halakha|Law]] to [[Moses]].
#The resulting nation of Israel went through cycles of sin and [[repentance]], yet the prophets show an increasing understanding of the Law as a moral, not just a ceremonial, force.
#Jesus brought a perfect understanding of the Mosaic Law, that of love and salvation.
#By His death and resurrection, all who believe are saved and reconciled to God.

Many people who identify themselves as [[Christians]], [[Muslims]], or [[Jews]] regard the Bible as inspired by [[God]] yet written by a variety of imperfect men over thousands of years. Belief in sacred texts is attested to in Jewish antiquity,<ref>Philo of Alexandria, ''De vita Moysis'' 3.23.</ref><ref name = "Josephus">Josephus, ''Contra Apion'' 1.8.</ref> and this belief can also be seen in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention Divine agency in relation to prophetic writings,<ref name="Original Source">{{
cite book
|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Sam%2023:2,2%20Tim%203:16,Luke%201:70,Heb%203:7,10:15-16,1%20Peter%201:11,Mark%2012:36,2%20Peter%201:20-21,Acts%201:16,Acts%203:18,Acts%2028:25;&version=50;
|publisher=Biblegateway
|title="Basis for belief of Inspiration"
}}</ref> the most explicit being {{bibleverse|2|Tm|3:16|KVJ}}: "All scripture, inspired of God, is profitable to teach, to reprove, to correct, to instruct in justice." In their book ''A General Introduction to the Bible'', [[Norman Geisler]] and William Nix wrote: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record."<ref>
{{cite book
| author = Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
| title = A General Introduction to the Bible
| page = 86
| year = 1986
| publisher = Moody Publishers
| id = ISBN 0-8024-2916-5
}}
</ref>
Some Biblical scholars,<ref> for example, see{{cite book
| author = Leroy Zuck, Roy B. Zuck
| title = Basic Bible Interpretation
| page = 68
| year = 1991
| publisher = Chariot Victor Pub
| id = ISBN 0-89693-819-0
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| author = Roy B. Zuck, Donald Campbell
| title = Basic Bible Interpretation
| year = 2002
| publisher = Victor
| id = ISBN 0-7814-3877-2
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| author = Norman L. Geisler
| title = Inerrancy
| page = 294
| year = 1979, 1980
| publisher = The Zondervan Corporation
| id = ISBN 0-310-39281-0
}}</ref> particularly Evangelicals, associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 [[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]] which asserted that inspiration applied only to the [[autograph|autographic]] text of Scripture.<ref>
{{cite paper
| author = International Council on Biblical Inerrancy
| title = The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy
| publisher = International Council on Biblical Inerrancy
| date = 1978
| url = http://www.churchcouncil.org/ccpdfdocs/01_Biblical_Inerrancy_A&D.pdf
| format = pdf}}</REF>

==The canonization of the Bible==
{{main|Biblical Canon}}

=== Canonization of the Hebrew Bible ===
It has been theorized that canonical status of some books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] was still being discussed between [[200 BC]] and [[100|100 AD]], and that it had yet to reach definitive form. It is unclear at what point during this period the Jewish canon was fixed, though the Jewish canon which did eventually form did not include all the books found in the various editions of the [[Septuagint]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

===Canonization of the Old Testament and New Testament===
The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the fourth century a series of [[synod|synods]] produced a list of texts equal to the 27-book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the [[Synod of Hippo]] in 393 A.D. Also ''c''. 400, [[Jerome]] produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see [[Vulgate]]), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time. A definitive list did not come from an Ecumenical Council until the [[Council of Trent]] (1545–63).

During the [[Protestant Reformation]], certain reformers proposed different canonical lists than what was currently in use. Though not without debate, the list of New Testament books would come to remain the same; however, the Old Testament texts present in the Septuagint, but not included in the Jewish canon, fell out of favour. In time they would come to be removed from most Protestant canons. Hence, in a Catholic context these texts are referred to as deuterocanonical books, whereas in a Protestant context they are referred to as Apocrypha, the label applied to all texts excluded from the Biblical canon. (Confusingly, Catholics and Protestants both describe certain other books, such as the ‘’Acts of Peter’’, as apocryphal).

Thus, the Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39-book canon—the number varies from that of the books in the Tanakh (though not in content) because of a different method of division—while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as part of the canonical Old Testament. The term “Hebrew Scriptures” is only synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, not the Catholic, which contains the Hebrew Scriptures and additional texts. Both Catholics and Protestants have the same 27-book New Testament Canon.

Canonicity, which involves the discernment of which texts are divinely inspired, is distinct from questions of human authorship and the formation of the books of the Bible.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

===Ethiopian Orthodox canon===
The Canon of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] is wider than for most other Christian groups. The Ethiopian "'''narrower'''" Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the [[Septuagint]] accepted by other Orthodox Christians, in addition to [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]], [[Jubilees]], [[1 Esdras]] and [[2 Esdras]], 3 books of [[Meqabyan]] ([[Maccabees]]), and [[Psalm 151]]. However, the three books of Meqabyan are similar to Maccabees in title only, and quite different in content from those of the other Christian churches which include them. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well. The Church also has a "broader canon" that includes more books.

==Bible versions and translations==
[[image:bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.]]
In scholarly writing, ancient translations are frequently referred to as "versions,” with the term "translation" being reserved for medieval or modern translations. Bible versions are discussed below, while [[Bible translations]] can be found on a separate page.

The original texts of the Tanakh were in Hebrew, although some portions were in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the [[Targum Onkelos]], an Aramaic version of the Bible.

The primary Biblical text for early Christians was the [[Septuagint|Septuagint or (LXX)]]. In addition they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, [[Coptic language|Coptic]], [[Ge'ez]] and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.

The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.

[[Pope Damasus I]] assembled the first list of books of the Bible at the [[Council of Rome]] in 382 A.D. He commissioned Saint [[Jerome]] to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the [[Vulgate|Latin Vulgate Bible]] and was declared by the Church to be the only authentic and official Bible.

[[Bible translations]] for many languages have been made through the various influences of Catholicism, Orthodox, Protestant, etc especially since the [[Protestant Reformation]]. The Bible has seen a notably large number of [[English translations of the Bible|English language translations]].

The work of Bible translation continues, including by Christian organisations such as [[Wycliffe Bible Translators]] ([http://wycliffe.net wycliffe.net]), [[New Tribes Mission]]s ([http://ntm.org ntm.org]) and the [[Bible society|Bible Societies]] ([http://www.biblesociety.org/ biblesociety.org]). Of the world's 6,900 [[Language family|languages]], 2,400 have some or all of the Bible, 1,600 (spoken by more than a billion people) have translation underway, and some 2,500 (spoken by 270 million people) are judged as needing translation to begin.<ref> [http://www.vision2025.org www.vision2025.org]</ref>

===Important Characteristics of early Bible texts===
:''See also: [[Chapters and verses of the Bible]]
*The use of chapters and verses were not introduced until the Middle Ages and later. The system used in English was developed by [[Robert Stephenus]] (as noted below)
*Early manuscripts of the letters of Paul and other New Testament writings show no punctuation whatsoever.[http://www.stpaulsirvine.org/images/papyruslg.gif] The [[punctuation]] was added later by other editors, according to their own understanding of the text. (Punctuation can shape and change the meaning of a passage.)

=== Differences in Bible translations ===
:''See also: [[Bible translations#Approaches|Bible translations: Approaches]]''.
As [[Hebrew]] and [[Koine Greek|Greek]], the original languages of the Bible, have idioms and concepts not easily translated, there is an on going critical tension about whether it is better to give a word for word translation or to give a translation that gives a parallel idiom in the target language. For instance, in the English language [[Catholic]] translation, the [[New American Bible]], as well as the [[Protestant]] translations of the Christian Bible, translations like the [[King James Version]], the [[New Revised Standard Version]] and the [[New American Standard Bible]] are seen as literal translations (or "word for word"), whereas translations like the [[New International Version]] and [[New Living Translation|New Living Version]] attempt to give relevant parallel idioms. [[The Living Bible]] and [[The Message (Bible)|The Message]] are two paraphrases of the Bible that try to convey the original meaning in contemporary language. The further away one gets from word to word translation, the text becomes more readable while relying more on the theological, linguistic or cultural understanding of the translator, which one would not normally expect a lay reader to require.

=== Inclusive language ===
Traditionally, the masculine pronouns have been used interchangeably to refer to the male gender and to all people. For instance, "All ''men'' are mortal" is not intended to imply that males are mortal but females are immortal. English language readers and hearers have had to interpret masculine pronouns (and such words as "man" and "mankind") based on context. Further, both [[Hebrew]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], like some of the Latin-origin languages, use the male gender of nouns and pronouns to refer to groups that contain both sexes. This creates some difficulty in determining whether a noun or pronoun should be translated using terms that refer to men only, or generically to men and women inclusively. Context sometimes, but not always, helps determine whether to decode them in a gender-insensitive or gender-specific way.

Contemporary language has changed in many cases to reflect criticism of the use of the masculine gender, which has been characterized as discriminatory. Current style guides, such as [[APA style|APA]], [[MLA Style Manual|MLA]], [[NCTE]], and others, have published statements encouraging, and in some cases requiring, the use of [[inclusive language]], which avoids language this approach regards as sexist or class-distinctive.

Until recently, virtually all English translations of the Bible have used masculine nouns and pronouns both specifically (to refer to males) and generically (when the reference is not necessarily gender-specific).

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Comparison of Traditional vs Gender-Inclusive Translations of Rom. 12:6-8'''
! Original ''New International Version'' !! ''Today's New International Version''
|-
|We have different gifts, according to the grace given us. If a man's gift is prophesying, let him use it in proportion to his faith. If it is serving, let him serve; if it is teaching, let him teach; if it is encouraging, let him encourage; if it is contributing to the needs of others, let him give generously; if it is leadership, let him govern diligently; if it is showing mercy, let him do it cheerfully. || We have different gifts, according to the grace given to each of us. If your gift is prophesying, then prophesy in accordance with your faith; if it is serving, then serve; if it is teaching, then teach; if it is to encourage, then give encouragement; if it is giving, then give generously; if it is to lead, do it diligently; if it is to show mercy, do it cheerfully.
|}

===The introduction of chapters and verses ===
:''Main article: [[Chapters and verses of the Bible]]; see [[Tanakh#Chapters and verse numbers.2C book divisions|Tanakh]] for the Jewish textual tradition.''

The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Masoretic text]] contains verse endings as an important feature. According to the [[Talmud]]ic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called ''parashiyot'', which are indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section") or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the ''parashiyot'' is usually thematic. The ''parashiyot'' are not numbered.

In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the [[Aleppo codex]]) an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed [[Hebrew Bible]]s. In this system the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must ''always'' begin at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections ''never'' start at the beginning of a new line.

Another related feature of the Masoretic text is the division of the ''sedarim''. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the ''quantity'' of text.

The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called ''Kephalaia''. It is not identical to the present chapters.

The current division of the Bible into chapters and the verse numbers within the chapters has no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by many Jews as well, as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain. Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a [[1330]] manuscript and for a printed edition in [[1516]]. However, for the past generation, most Jewish editions of the complete [[Hebrew Bible]] have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text.

The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism from traditionalists and modern scholars alike. Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.

[[Stephen Langton]] is reputed to have been the first to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible, in [[1205]]. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the [[1400s]]. [[Robert Estienne]] (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in [[1551]] (New Testament) and [[1571]] (Hebrew Bible).<ref name = "Fuller">[http://www.fuller.edu/ministry/berean/chs_vss.htm Chapters and Verses].</ref><ref name = "Examiner">[http://www.theexaminer.org/history/chap6.htm The Examiner].</ref>

==Textual criticism==
:''Main articles: [[Biblical criticism]] and [[Criticism of the Bible]].''

Textual criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention.

=== Early criticism ===
The traditional view of the Mosaic authorship of the Torah came under sporadic criticism from medieval scholars including [[Isaac ibn Yashush]], [[Abraham ibn Ezra]], Bonfils of Damascus and bishop [[Tostatus]] of Avila, who pointed to passages such as the description of the death of Moses in Deuteronomy as evidence that some portions, at least, could not have been written by Moses.
In the 17th century [[Thomas Hobbes]] collected the current evidence and became the first scholar to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher [[Baruch Spinoza]] published a unified critical analysis, demonstrating that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses…." Despite determined opposition from the Church, both Catholic and Protestant, the views of Hobbes and Spinoza gained increasing acceptance amongst scholars.

=== The Documentary Hypothesis ===
Having established the hypothesis that Moses had not written the Pentateuch, attention next turned to the question of who had. Independent but nearly simultaneous proposals by H. B. Witter, [[Jean Astruc]], and J. G. Eichhorn separated the Pentateuch into two original documentary components, both dating from after the time of Moses. Others hypothesized the presence of two additional sources. The four documents were given working titles: J (or [[Yahwist]]), E ([[Elohist]]), P ([[Priestly source|Priestly]]), and D ([[Deuteronomist]]), each was discernable by its own characteristic language, and each, when read in isolation, presented a unified, coherent narrative.

Subsequent [[Higher criticism|scholars]], notably [[Eduard Reuss]], [[Karl Heinrich Graf]] and [[Wilhelm Vatke]], turned their attention to the order in which the documents had been composed (which they deduced from internal clues) and placed them in the context of a theory of the development of ancient Israelite religion, suggesting that much of the Laws and the narrative of the Pentateuch were unknown to the Israelites in the time of Moses. These were synthesized by [[Julius Wellhausen]] (1844-1918), who suggested an historical framework for the composition of the documents and their redaction (combination) into the final document known as the Pentateuch. This hypothesis was challenged by [[William Henry Green]] in his ''The Mosaic Origins of the Pentateuchal Codes'' ([http://www.biblicaltheology.org/mop.html avaliable online]). Nonetheless, according to contemporary Torah scholar [[Richard Elliott Friedman]], Wellhausen's model of the [[documentary hypothesis]] continues to dominate the field of biblical scholarship: "To this day, if you want to disagree, you disagree with Wellhausen. If you want to pose a new model, you compare its merits with those of Wellhausen's model."<ref>Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who Wrote the Bible?,” HarperSanFrancisco, 1997 (2nd edition).</ref>

The documentary hypothesis is important in the field of Biblical studies not only because it claims that the Torah was written by different people at different times - generally long after the events it describes. <ref>Joel Rosenberg, 1984 "The Bible: Biblical Narrative" in Barry Holtz, ed ''Back to the Sources'' New York: Summit Books p. 36; Nahum Sarna, 1986 ''Understanding Genesis'' New York:Schocken Books p. xxi-xxiii</ref> It also proposed what was at the time a radically new way of reading the Bible. Many proponents of the documentary hypothesis view the Bible more as a body of literature than a work of history, believing that the historical value of the text lies not in its account of the events that it describes, but in what critics can infer about the times in which the authors lived (as critics may read ''[[Hamlet]]'' to learn about seventeenth-century England, but will not read it to learn about seventh-century Denmark).

=== Modern developments ===
The critical analysis of authorship now encompasses every book of the bible. Every book in turn has been hypothesized to bear traces of multiple authorship, even the [[book of Obadiah]], which is only a single page. In some cases the traditional view on authorship has been overturned; in others, additional support, at least in part has been found.

The development of the hypothesis has not stopped with Wellhausen. Wellhausen's hypothesis, for example, proposed that the four documents were composed in the order J-E-D-P, with P, containing the bulk of the Jewish law, dating from the post-Exilic [[Second Temple]] period (i.e., after 515 BC);<ref>Wellhausen adopted the idea of a post-Exilic date for P from [[Eduard Reuss]].</ref> but the contemporary view is that P is earlier than D, and that all four books date from the [[First Temple]] period (i.e., prior to 587 BC).<ref>Although the ''bulk'' of all four documents date from before 587 BC, the strand of D known as Dtr2 dates from the following Exilic period.</ref>

The documentary hypothesis has come into question in recent decades, at least in the four-document version advanced by Wellhausen and refined by later scholars such as [[Martin Noth]] (who in 1943 provided evidence that Deuteronomy plus the following six books make a unified history from the hand of a single editor), [[Harold Bloom]], [[Frank Moore Cross]] and [[Richard Elliot Friedman]]. The direction of this criticism is to question the existence of separate, identifiable documents, positing instead that the biblical text is made up of almost innumerable strands so interwoven as to be hardly untangleable &mdash; the J document, in particular, has been subjected to such intense dissection that it seems in danger of disappearing.

Although Biblical archeology has confirmed the existence of many people, places, and events mentioned in the Bible[http://Christiananswers.net/archeology], many critical scholars have argued that the Bible be read not as an accurate historical document, but rather as a work of literature and theology that often draws on historical events &mdash; and often draws on non-Hebrew mythology &mdash; as primary source material. For these critics the Bible reveals much about the lives and times of its authors. Whether the ideas of these authors have any relevance to contemporary society is left to clerics and adherents of contemporary religions to decide.

=== Theological Responses ===

==== Judaism ====
The claim that the Torah - "the Five Books of Moses" - were not written by Moses but by many authors long after Moses was said to have lived, directly challenged Jewish orthodoxy. For most, this claim implies that the Torah itself - especially its account of God's revelation at Mt. Sinai - is not historically reliable. Although many [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] scholars have rejected Higher Criticism, most [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] and virtually all [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] Jewish scholars have accepted it. Consequently, there has been considerable debate among Jewish scholars as to the nature of revelation and the divine nature of the Torah. Conservative Jewish philosopher Elliot Dorff has categorized five distinct major Jewish positions in these debates that emerged in the twentieth century<ref>Elliot Dorff 1978 ''Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors to Our Descendents'' New York: United Synagogue Youth pp. 114-115</ref>:
* [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] (characterized by [[Eliezer Berkovitz]] and [[Norman Lamm]]): "''Verbal Revelation'': The Torah, including both the Written and Oral Traditions, consists of the exact words of God. He gave it all as one piece at Sinai."
*Conservative I (characterized by [[Isaac Lesser]], [[Alexander Kohut]], [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]], and [[David Novak]]): "''Continuous Revelation'':God dictated His will at Sinai and other times. It was written down by human beings, however, and hence the diverse traditions in the Bible."
*Conservative II (characterized by [[Ben Zion Bokser]], [[Robert Gordis]], [[Max Routtenberg]] and [[Emil Fackenheim]]): "''Continuous Revelation'': Human beings wrote the Torah, but they were divinely inspired."
*Conservative III (characterized by [[Louis Jacobs]], [[Seymour Seigel]], [[Jacob Agus]], [[David Lieber]] and [[Elliot Dorff]]): "''Continuous Revelation'': The Torah is the ''human'' record of the concounter between God and the People Israel at Sinai. Since it was written by human beings, it contains some laws and ideas which we find repugnant today."
*Conservative IV/Reconstructionist (characterized by [[Mordecai Kaplan]], [[Ira Eisenstein]] and [[Harold Schulweis]]): "''No Revelation'': Human beings wrote the Torah. No claim for divinity of the product."
*Reform (characterized by the Movement's 1937 Guiding Principles): "''Progressive revelation'': The Torah is God's will written by human beings. As time goes on, we get to understand his will better and better (="progressive revelation").

Rabbi [[David Weiss HaLivni]], the founder of the [[Union for Traditional Judaism]], has adapted a position he describes as ''chatu yisrael'' ("Israel sinned"), that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai but it subsequently became corrupted and lost, and [[Ezra]] restored it by redacting it from multiple manuscripts reflecting disparate traditions. Under this view, the Torah is the best available record of the Divine will, has prophetic commendation, and is binding on the Jewish people, but is not necessarily entirely free of disparaties. <ref>Rabbi David Weiss HaLivni, ''Revelation Restored: Divine Writ and Critical Responses''. Westview Press, 2001. ISBN:978-0813333472</ref>

[[Reform Judaism]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] generally adapt the textual critical approach in toto and regard the Torah as either inspired rather than revealed, or a human product rather than the product of an external God.

==== Christianity ====
In 1943 pope [[Pius XII]]'s encyclical [[Divino Afflante Spiritu]] gave the Vatican's imprimatur to textual criticism.



==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

* [[Bernhard Anderson|Anderson, Bernhard W.]] ''Understanding the Old Testament''. ISBN 0-13-948399-3.
* Berlin, Adele, Marc Zvi Brettler and Michael Fishbane. [http://www.newjewishbooks.org/0195297512/ ''The Jewish Study Bible'']. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-529751-2.
* [[Isaac Asimov|Asimov, Isaac]]. ''Asimov's Guide to the Bible''. New York, NY: Avenel Books, 1981. ISBN 0-517-34582-X.
* [[William G. Dever|Dever, William G.]] ''Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did they Come from?'' Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0-8028-0975-8.
* [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart D.]] ''Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why'' New York, NY: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 0-06-073817-0.
* [[Israel Finkelstein|Finkelstein, Israel]] and [[Neil A. Silberman|Silberman, Neil A.]] ''The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-684-86913-6.
* Geisler, Norman (editor). ''Inerrancy''. Sponsored by the International Council on Biblical Inerrancy. Zondervan Publishing House, 1980, ISBN 0-310-39281-0.
* Head, Tom. ''The Absolute Beginner's Guide to the Bible''. Indianapolis, IN: Que Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0-7897-3419-2.
* Hoffman, Joel M. [http://www.newjewishbooks.org/ITB/ ''In the Beginning'']. New York University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8147-3690-4.
* Lindsell, Harold. ''The Battle for the Bible''. Zondervan Publishing House, 1978. ISBN 0-310-27681-0.
* Lienhard, Joseph T. ''The Bible, The Church, and Authority''. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1995.
* Miller, John W. ''The Origins of the Bible: Rethinking Canon History'' Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8091-3522-1.
* Riches, John. ''The Bible: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-285343-0
* Taylor, Hawley O. "Mathematics and Prophecy." ''Modern Science and Christian Faith''. Wheaton: Van Kampen, 1948, pp. 175–83.
*''Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia'', [[wiktionary:sv#English|s.vv.]] "Book of Ezekiel", p. 580 and "prophecy", p. 1410. Chicago: Moody Bible Press, 1986.

==See also==
{{portal}}
{{portal|Latter-day Saints|Christus statue temple square salt lake city.jpg| 40}}

===Biblical analysis===
* [[Bible chronology]]

{{commons|Bible}}
{{wiktionary|Bible}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource|Wikisource:Religious texts#Bible_and_Works_about_the_Bible|The Bible and Works about the Bible}}
{{wikisource|1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bible|1911 Britannica entry}}

* [[Bible citation]]
* [[Bible prophecy]]
* [[Bible translations]]
* [[Biblical canon]]
* [[Books of the Bible]]
* [[Lost books of the Old Testament]]
* [[Lost books of the New Testament]]
* [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]
* [[Parsha]]
* [[Ritual Decalogue]]
* [[Study Bible]]
* [[Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture]]
* [[Ten Commandments]]

===Perspectives on the Bible===
* [[Calvin's view of Scripture]]
* [[Jewish Biblical exegesis]]
* [[Islamic view of the Bible]]
* [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]

===History and the Bible===
* [[The Bible and history]]
* [[History of the English Bible]]
* [[English translations of the Bible|English Translations of the Bible]]

===Biblical scholarship and analysis===
* [[Bible translation|Bible Translations]]
* [[Biblical archaeology]]
* [[Dating the Bible]]
* [[Bible conspiracy theory]]
* [[Biblical literalism]]
* [[Biblical inerrancy]]
* [[Internal consistency and the Bible]]
* [[Bible scientific foreknowledge]]
* [[Criticism of the Bible]]
* [[Animals in the Bible]]
* [[Bibliolatry]]

==External links==
<!-- Please read the guidelines at [[Wikipedia:External Links]] BEFORE adding new links here. Keep in mind that Wikipedia is not a collection of links, that's what Google is for. New links should provide an essential supplement to the content and links already in the article; if it's not something new and significantly different than what is here already, please don't add it on. Thanks. -->

===Bible societies ===
*[http://www.americanbible.org/ American Bible Society]
*[http://www.biblesociety.org/ United Bible Society]
*[http://www.ibs.org/ The International Bible Society (New York/Colorado Springs)]
*[http://www.wbtc.com/site/PageServer World Bible Translation Center]
*[http://www.wycliffe.org/home.htm Wycliffe Bible Translators]

===Bible texts===
* [http://biblia.hit.hu Online Bible]
* [http://www.biblija.net/biblija.cgi?lang=en Online Bible 2]

====Hebrew====
* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0.htm Hebrew-English Bible] ([[Jewish Publication Society of America|JPS]] 1917 translation; includes Hebrew audio)
* [http://tanakhml2.alacartejava.net/cocoon/tanakhml/d13.php2xml?sfr=1&prq=1&pnt=tru&acc=tru&dia=tru&enc=heb XML Hebrew-English (KJV) Bible]
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/Hebrew_OT/ Old Testament in Hebrew]

====Greek====
* See "External Links" under [[Septuagint]] and [[New Testament]].

====Latin====
* [http://www.LatinVulgate.com/ Latin Vulgate] — Latin Vulgate with parallel Douay-Rheims and King James English translations
* [http://www.sacredbible.org/ SacredBible.org] — Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/Vulgate/ Jerome's Latin Vulgate (405 A.D.)]

====English====
* [http://www.audio-bible.com/bible/bible.html AudioBible] — Audio version of the King James Version.
* [http://www.blueletterbible.org/ Blue Letter Bible] — On-line interactive reference library continuously updated from the teachings and commentaries of selected pastors and teachers who hold to the conservative, historical Christian faith.
* [http://www.e-sword.net E-sword] — Downloadable Bible in many different versions, for [[MS Windows]].
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/ASB/ American Standard Version].
* [http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/ English Standard Version] from Good News/Crossway (the publisher).
* [http://www.verselink.org/ King James Version with dictionary].
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/KJV/ King James Version].
* [http://www.newlivingtranslation.com New Living Translation]
* [http://bible.oremus.org/ New Revised Standard Version].
* [http://www.watchtower.org/e/bible/index.htm New World Translation] of the Holy Scriptures.
* [http://www.europepourchrist.org/biblesite/WEB/ World English Bible].
* [http://scriptures.lds.org/ LDS King James Version] with audio, extensive commentary and cross-references.
* [http://www.dynamicbible.com/ King James Version built using AJAX technologies], with Strongs and Greek Morphological Codes by Robinson.
* [http://in.solit.us/archives/show/13224 King James Version PDF]

====Turkish====
* [http://www.incil.info Turkish Bible] (Turkish Old and New Testament)

====Klingon====
* [http://www.kli.org/wiki/index.php?Klingon%20Bible%20Translation%20Project Klingon Bible Translation Project].

====Others====
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/index.htm#index The Hypertext Bible] with side-by-side translations in English, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew at the [[Internet Sacred Text Archive]]
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/ Bible Gateway at GospelCom.net] text search in any one of many translations/languages, or lookup complete passages in up to five different translations/languages at once. Select from among NIV, NASB, MSG, AMP, NLT, KJV, ESV, CEV, NKJV, ASV, NLV, NIrV and many others.
* [http://www.thebricktestament.com/index.html The Brick Testament] — Bible stories accurately rendered, illustrated in Lego(tm) blocks
* [http://www.biblereadthrough.com/ Bible Read-Through] — read through the Bible aid that has a standard one year read through as well as the ability to design your own read through.
* [http://www.TheFreeBible.com/ TheFreeBible.com] provides free Bible software downloads
* [http://www.scripture4all.org/ Interlinear (word-by-word) translation of the Christian Bible] from the original Hebrew and Koine Greek
* [http://www.aramaicpeshitta.com/aramaic_nt_resources.htm Aramaic New Testament resources]
* [http://www.spcm.org/en/versions.php Over 40 versions of the Bible]
* [http://www.armenianchurchlibrary.com/Bibletranslationsandstudies.html Eastern and Western Armenian Bible]
* [http://www.bible9.com/ Online Bible (King James Version & Old Testament)]
* [http://www.spcm.org/LSG_FR/ Bible — Louis Segond de 1910]
* [http://www.wbtc.com/site/PageServer?pagename=downloads_spanish Spanish Bible] PDT version
* [http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx Complete Sayings of Christ] (long download)
* [http://bible.crosswalk.com/ParallelBible/ Crosswalk.com Parallel Bible] to see two versions side by side, any of NAS, ASV, ESV, NKJV, KJV, NLT, NRS, GNT, WEB, MSG, NIV, NIrV and many others.
* [http://www.blueletterbible.org/search.html#verse Blue Letter Bible] provides resources on a verse by verse basis, such as commentaries, definitions, concordance with Hebrew/Greek, related information and parallel bible on the one selected verse in KJV, NKJV, NLT, NIV, ESV, NASB, RSV, ASV and others.
* [http://search.americanbible.org/ American Bible Society] to search NASB, KJV, CEV, ASV and others.
* [http://etext.virginia.edu/kjv.browse.html University of Virginia Library] for word proximity searches on the KJV bible.
* [http://www.1enormousidea.com/Default.aspx?tabid=42 Many translations in English, verse by verse]
* [http://www.bible-marathi.com Nava Karar] NT Translation from Greek to Marathi 2005 and Greek-Marathi wordbook by [[R H Kelkar]]
* [http://bible.palconit.com The Bible Collection] Collection of Sacred Books for Different Religions
* [http://www.bible-researcher.com/links12.html Gender-neutral Bible translations].

===Commentaries===
* [http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryID=411&rsid=478 Biblical History], The Jewish History Resource Center — project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
* [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=63255 Judaica Press Translation] — online Jewish translation of the books of the Bible. Includes the Tanakh and [[Rashi]]'s entire commentary.
* [http://www.angdatingdaan.org/biblicaltopics/bib_bible_1.htm Reading and Understanding the Bible].
* [http://en.bibleinfo.com/ Source for Bible Answers].
* [http://www.amazingfacts.org/school/af_logon.asp Amazing Facts Bible Studies].
* [http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/index.htm The Skeptic's Annotated Bible].
* [http://www.iishj.org/images/Bible.pdf Learning Bible Today] — a historical approach the Bible.
* [http://members.aol.com/ckbloomfld/ Biblical Errancy and Contradictions].
* [http://eword.gospelcom.net/comments/gill/ John Gill's Exposition of the Bible] — verse by verse commentary.
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/henry/mhc.i.html/ Matthew Henry's Commentary on the Whole Bible] — unabridged.
* [http://www.kretzmannproject.org Kretzmann's The Popular Commentary of the Bible]

===Wikis===
* [http://www.biblestudywiki.com Bible Study Wiki]
* [http://bible.tmtm.com BibleWiki]
* [http://wikible.org Wikible]

===Analysis===
*[http://www.verselink.org/ Topical References, Bible Dictionaries and Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.sermonsfortoday.org Sermons for Today] - Biblical exposition

[[cdo:Séng-gĭng]]

[[Category:Bible| ]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Rastafarian texts]]
[[Category:Censorship in Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:4th century books]]

[[af:Bybel]]
[[ar:الكتاب المقدس]]
[[ast:Biblia]]
[[az:Müqəddəs Kitab]]
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[[bn:বাইবেল]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sèng-keng]]
[[ba:Библия]]
[[bi:Baebol]]
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[[mt:Bibbja]]
[[ms:Kitab Bible]]
[[mn:Библи Судар]]
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[[fj:Ai Vola Tabu]]
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[[ru:Библия]]
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[[st:Bebele]]
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[[ru-sib:Библия]]
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[[ta:விவிலியம்]]
[[tt:İzge yazu]]
[[te:బైబిల్]]
[[th:คัมภีร์ไบเบิล]]
[[vi:Kinh Thánh]]
[[tg:Таврот ва Инҷил]]
[[tpi:Baibel]]
[[to:Tohitapu]]
[[ve:Bivhili]]
[[tr:Kitab-ı Mukaddes]]
[[tk:Injil]]
[[tw:Twere Kronkron]]
[[uk:Біблія]]
[[ur:بائبل]]
[[uz:Muqaddas Kitob (Xristian Dinida)]]
[[wo:Biibël]]
[[yi:בייבל]]
[[yo:Bíbélì Mimọ]]
[[zh-yue:聖經]]
[[diq:İncile]]
[[zh:聖經]]

Revision as of 02:55, 23 April 2007

Huuuuuuuugest lie EVAH.

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