Yuan dynasty: Difference between revisions
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{{Infobox Former Country |
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|native_name = 大元 |
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|conventional_long_name = Great Yuan |
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|common_name = Yuan Dynasty |
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|continent = Asia |
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|region = Asia |
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|country = Mongolia, China |
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|era = |
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|status = Empire |
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|status_text = |
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|empire = Mongol Empire |
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|government_type = Monarchy |
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|year_start = 1271 |
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|year_end = 1368 |
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|year_exile_start = 1368 |
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|year_exile_end = 1387 |
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|event_start = establishing the Yuan Dynasty |
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|date_start = [[1271]] |
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|event_end = Fall of [[Khanbaliq|Dadu]] |
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|date_end = [[September 14]], [[1368]] |
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|event_pre = |
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|date_pre = |
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|event_post = |
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|date_post = |
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|p1 = Song Dynasty |
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|flag_p1 = |
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|image_p1 = |
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|p2 = |
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|flag_p2 = |
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|p3 = |
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|p4 = |
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|flag_p4 = |
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|p5 = |
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|flag_p5 = |
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|s1 = Ming Dynasty |
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|flag_s1 = |
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|image_s1 = |
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|s2 = |
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|image_flag = |
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|flag = |
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|flag_type = |
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|image_coat = |
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|symbol = |
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|image_map = Yuen Dynasty 1294.png |
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|image_map_caption = Yuan Dynasty China, circa 1294 |
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| |
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|capital = [[Khanbaliq|Dadu]] |
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|capital_exile = |
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|latd=39|latm=54|latNS=N|longd=116|longm=23|longEW=E |
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|national_motto = |
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|national_anthem = |
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|common_languages = [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]<br>[[Chinese language|Chinese]] ([[Hanyu]]) |
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|religion = |
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|currency = Paper Currency |
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| |
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|leader1 = Kublai Khan |
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|leader2 = Ukhaatu Khan |
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|year_leader1 = [[1260]]-[[1294]] |
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|year_leader2 = [[1333]]-[[1370]] (Cont.) |
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|title_leader = [[List of Emperors of the Yuan Dynasty|Emperor]] |
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|stat_year1 = |
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|stat_area1 = |
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|stat_pop1 = |
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|footnotes = Yuan Dynasty continued to rule [[Mongolia]] after [[1368]], when it was known as the "Northern Yuan"{{Fact|date=October 2007}}. |
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}} |
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The '''Yuan Dynasty''' ({{zh-c|c=元朝}}; [[pinyin]]: Yuáncháo; {{lang-mn|'''Yuan Güren'''}}{{Fact|date=January 2008}}) was a [[khanate]] of the [[Mongol Empire]], considered the center of the four major divisions of the empire, i went ot the mall last nighjt[[1271]]<ref>Yuan was officially established on this year. It however didn't take control of all China until 1279.</ref> to [[1368]]. In the [[historiography of China]], the Yuan dynasty followed the [[Song Dynasty (960-1279)|Song Dynasty]] and preceded the [[Ming Dynasty]]. The dynasty was established by ethnic [[Mongol]]s under [[Kublai Khan]] (the last Great Khan) (although Kublai Khan placed his grandfather [[Genghis Khan]] on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu), and he had nominal control over the [[Mongol Empire]] (stretching from [[Eastern Asia]] to the [[fertile crescent]] to [[Russia]] and [[eastern Europe]]) because of his title of Khagan, which was however unrecognized by all but one of the other khanates. Later successors never attempted to stake claim over the [[Khagan]] title and saw themselves as ''[[Emperor of China]]'', as the Yuan Dynasty became another one of the long list of dynasties in the history of imperial China. |
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== Yuan Dynasty == |
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=== Kublai Khan and Ariq Boke === |
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[[Image:Kublai Khan.jpg|220px|thumb|left|[[Kublai Khan]], Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of the Yuan Dynasty]] |
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{{History of China}} |
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In 1259 the Great Khan [[Möngke]] died while [[Kublai Khan]], his brother, was campaigning against [[Song Dynasty|Song empire]] and [[Ariq Boke]], his other brother commanded the Mongol homelands. After Möngke's demise, Ariq Boke decided to attempt to make himself Khan. Hearing of this, Kublai aborted his Chinese expedition and had himself elected as Khan in April of 1260. Still, Ariq Boke had his supporters and was elected as a rival khan to Kublai at [[Karakorum]]. The brothers then engaged in a series of battles, ending with Ariq Boke's capture in 1264. Kublai held him prisoner until he died two years later. The khans of the [[Golden Horde]] and of the [[Chagatai Khanate]] did not recognize Kublai khan as the great khan. Hulego, another brother of Kublai khan, ruled his il-Khanate and paid homage to the Great khan but actually established a separate khanate. The four major successor khanates never came again under one rule. |
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Nevertheless, [[Tokhta]], the khan of Golden Horde, [[Duwa]], the ruler of Chagatai khanate, Chapar, the son of [[Kaidu]] and Ilkhan [[Muhammad Khodabandeh (Oljeitu)]] of Persia accepted nominally suzerainty of [[Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan|Temür Khan]] in 1304.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} |
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===Rule of Kublai Khan=== |
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[[Image:Yuan chinese gun.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hand Cannon]] from the Yuan dynasty.]] |
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After winning the war against Ariq Boke, Kublai Khan began his reign over his [[khanate]] with great aspirations and self-confidence — in [[1266]] he ordered the construction of a capital near the modern city of Beijing. The city was originally called Zhongdu ("Central Capital") by the Chinese during the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]], and in 1272 it came to be known as [[Khanbaliq|Dadu]] or Tatu ("Great Capital") in Chinese, Daidu to the Mongols, and Khanbalikh ("City of the Khans") to the Turks.<ref>Rossabi, M., ''Khubilai Khan'', p131.</ref> He began his drive against the [[Song Dynasty|Southern Song]], establishing, in [[1271]] — eight years prior to Southern conquest — the first non-Han dynasty to rule all of China: the Yuan Dynasty. Its official title, Da Yuan (Great Yuan 大元), originates from ''[[I Ching]]'', "大哉乾元" (da zai qian yuan). Yuan is the first [[dynasty in China]] to use Da (Great) in its official title.<ref>[[Zhu Guozhen (Ming Dynasty)|Zhu Guozhen]] (1557-1632), ''Yong Zhuang Xiaopin'' (涌幢小品) Vol.2.</ref> |
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In [[1272]], Dadu officially became the capital of the Yuan Dynasty. In [[1279]], [[Guangzhou]] was conquered by the Yuan army, which marks the end of the Southern Song and the onset of China under the Yuan. During Kublai Khan's reign he was put under pressure by many of his advisers to further expand the territory of the Yuan through the traditional [[Sinocentrism|Sinocentric]] tributary system. However, they were rebuffed and expeditions to [[Japan]] (twice), [[Myanmar]], [[Vietnam]] (twice during Kublai's rule<ref>An earlier expedition had failed in 1257/1258.</ref>), and [[Java]], would all later fail (see [[Mongol invasions of Japan]], [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam]]). |
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Kublai Khan's early rule involved widespread plunder. As if expecting to lose the country, the Mongols attempted to remove as much money and resources as was possible. The Mongol conquest never affected China's trade with other countries. In fact the Yuan Dynasty strongly supported the Silk Road trade network, allowing the transfer of Chinese technologies to the west. Though many reforms were made during Kublai Khan's life, and despite his notable warming to the populace, the Yuan was a relatively short lived dynasty. |
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[[Image:Belt plaque with dragon design.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A Yuan Dynasty [[jade]] belt plaque featuring carved designs of a [[Chinese dragon|dragon]].]] |
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Kublai Khan began to serve as a true emperor, reforming much of China and its institutions, a process that would take decades to complete. For example, he consolidated Mongol rule by centralizing the government of China — making himself (unlike his predecessors) an [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarch]]. He reformed many other governmental and economic institutions, especially the tax system. Although the Mongols sought to govern China through traditional institutions, using [[Han Chinese]] bureaucrats, they were not up to the task initially. The Hans were discriminated against politically. Almost all important central posts were monopolized by Mongols, who also preferred employing non-Hans from other parts of the Mongol domain in those positions for which no Mongol could be found. Hans were more often employed in non-Chinese regions of the empire. In essence, society was divided into four classes in order of privilege: Mongols, "Color-eyed" (Central Asians, mostly Uyghurs and Tibetans), Han (Han Chinese in northern China, Manchus, and Jurchens), and Southerners (Han Chinese within Southern Song and other ethnic groups). During his lifetime, Kublai Khan developed the new capital of the Yuan, [[Khanbaliq|Dadu]], and built a second capital in present-day Beijing. He also improved the agriculture of China, extending the Grand Canal, highways and public granaries. [[Marco Polo]] described his rule as benevolent: relieving the populace of taxes in times of hardship; building hospitals and orphanages; distributing food among the abjectly poor. He also promoted science and religion. |
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Like other emperors of non-Han dynasties, Kublai Khan considered himself a legitimate Chinese emperor. While he had nominal rule over the rest of the Mongol Empire, his interest was clearly in China. By the time of Kublai Khan’s death in [[1294]], the Mongol Empire had broken up into a number of independent Khanates. |
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===Early rule=== |
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{{History of Mongolia}} |
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Succession was a problem for the Yuan Dynasty, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. His original choice was his son, [[Zhenjin]] — but he died before Kublai in [[1285]]. Thus, Zhenjin's son ruled as [[Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan|Emperor Chengzong]] for approximately 10 years following Kublai's death (between [[1294]] and [[1307]]). Chengzong decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. However, the corruption in the Yuan Dynasty began during the reign of Chengzong. |
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[[Külüg Khan, Emperor Wuzong of Yuan|Wuzong]] became [[Emperor of China]] after the death of Chengzong. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, but largely rejected it. During his short reign ([[1307]] to [[1311]]), China fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Wuzong. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan Dynasty faced popular discontent. |
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The fourth Yuan emperor, [[Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan, Emperor Renzong of Yuan|Renzong]] is seen as the last competent emperor. He stood out among the Mongol rulers of China as an adopter of mainstream [[Culture of China|Chinese culture]], to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by [[Li Meng]], a [[Confucian]] academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the Department of State Affairs (resulting in the execution of 5 of the highest ranking officials). Starting in [[1313]] examinations were introduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law. |
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===Impact=== |
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[[Image:Yuan Dynasty, porcelain dish, mid 14th century.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A Yuan Dynasty blue-and-white [[porcelain]] dish with fish and flowing water design, mid [[14th century]], [[Freer Gallery of Art]].]] |
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A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of [[drama]] and the [[novel]] and the increased use of the [[Vernacular Chinese|written vernacular]]. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. |
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Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich the Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to [[Islam]], by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. [[Nestorianism]] and [[Roman Catholicism]] also enjoyed a period of toleration. [[Tibetan Buddhism]] flourished, although native [[Taoism]] endured Mongol persecutions. [[Confucian]] governmental practices and examinations based on the [[Chinese classic texts|Classics]], which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Mongols in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, [[cartography]], [[geography]], and scientific education. |
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Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified [[saltpetre]], printing techniques, [[porcelain]], [[playing cards]] and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin [[glass]] and [[cloisonné]] became popular in China. |
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The first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the [[Venice|Venetian]] [[Marco Polo]], whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the Great Khan's capital, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, ''Il milione'' (or, ''The Million'', known in English as the ''Travels of Marco Polo''), appeared about the year 1299. The works of [[John of Plano Carpini]] and [[William of Rubruck]] also provided early descriptions of the Mongol people to the West. |
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The Mongols undertook extensive public works. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, [[granary|granaries]] were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the [[Grand Canal of China]], which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout [[Asia]] and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop, [[sorghum]], along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation. |
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== Downfall == |
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===Civil unrest=== |
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[[Image:BailinTemple2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Pagoda of Bailin Temple|Bailin Temple Pagoda]] of Zhaoxian County, [[Hebei]] Province, built in 1330 during the Yuan Dynasty.]] |
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The last years of the Yuan Dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. The dynasty was, significantly, one of the shortest-lived dynasties in the [[history of China]], covering just a century, [[1271]] to [[1368]]. In time, Kublai Khan's successors became [[sinicized]], then lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and were marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace. China was torn by dissension and unrest; [[bandit]]s ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies. |
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[[Emperor Yingzong of Yuan China|Emperor Yingzong]] ruled for just two years ([[1321]] to [[1323]]); his rule ended in a [[coup]] at the hands of five princes. They placed [[Emperor Taidingdi of Yuan China|Taidingdi]] on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to [[regicide]]. The last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan was expelled from Dadu (present-day Beijing) in 1368 by [[Zhu Yuanzhang]], the founder of the [[Míng Dynasty]] (1368–1644). |
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[[Basalawarmi]] established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in [[Yunnan]] and [[Guizhou]], but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. |
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===Northern Yuan=== |
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The Mongols retreated to Mongolia, where the Yuan Dynasty was formally carried on. It is now called the '''Northern Yuan''' by modern historians. According to Chinese political orthodoxy, there could be only one legitimate empire, and so the Ming and the Yuan denied each other's legitimacy. (The Ming did consider the previous Yuan which it had succeeded a legitimate dynasty, however.) Historians generally regard the [[Míng Dynasty]] as the legitimate dynasty. |
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The Ming army invaded Mongolia in 1380 and won a decisive victory in 1388. About 70,000 Mongols were taken prisoners{{Fact|date=October 2007}}, and [[Karakorum (palace)|Karakorum]] (the Northern Yuan capital) was destroyed. Eight years later, the Northern Yuan throne was taken over by [[Yesüder]], a descendant of [[Ariq Boke|Arigh Bugha]]. He restored the throne to descendants of [[Kublai Khan]]. The following centuries saw a succession of Chinggisid rulers, many of whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful. Periods of conflict with the Ming empire intermingled with periods of peaceful relations with border trade. In 1402, [[Örüg Temür Khan]] (Guilichi) abolished the name Yuan Dynasty; he was however defeated by [[Öljei Temür Khan]] (Bunyashiri) in 1403. |
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In the 17th century, the Mongols came under the influence of the [[Manchu]]. In 1634, [[Ligdan Khan]], last Mongol khan of the [[Borjigin]] dynasty, died on his way to [[Tibet]]. His son, [[Ejei Khan]], surrendered to the Manchu and gave the great seal of the Yuan Emperor to its ruler, [[Hong Taiji]]. As a result, Hong Taiji established the [[Qing Dynasty]] as the successor of the Yuan Dynasty in 1636. (Some sources such as [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] give the year as 1637). |
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==See also== |
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*[[List of Emperors of the Yuan Dynasty]] |
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*[[Yuan Dynasty family tree]] |
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*[[Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234|Jin Dynasty (金朝)]] |
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*[[Song Dynasty]] |
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*[[Ming Dynasty]] |
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*[[Western Xia]] |
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*[[History of Mongolia]] |
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*[[List of Mongol Khans]] |
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*[[Jun ware]] |
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*[[Islam during the Yuan Dynasty]] |
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==References== |
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<references/> |
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* J. J. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests (1971) |
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* Ahmad Y. al-Hassan and Donald R. Hill, Islamic Technology (1988) |
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== External links == |
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{{ChineseText}} |
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*[http://www.kinabaloo.com/yd1.html Yuan Dynasty Earthen City Wall Park, Beijing] |
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*[http://www.chinavoc.com/history/yuan.htm The Yuan Dynasty] |
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{{Start box}} |
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{{Succession box|title=[[Dynasties in Chinese history]]|before=[[Song Dynasty]]|after=[[Ming Dynasty]]|years=1279-1368}} |
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{{end box}} |
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{{Mongol Empire}} |
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[[Category:History of China]] |
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[[Category:Military history of the Mongol Empire]] |
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[[Category:Mongol Empire]] |
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[[Category:Yuan Dynasty|*]] |
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