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'''Sengunthar''' or [[Kaikolan]] or [[Kaikolar]] are a large [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and [[Telugu people|Telugu]] socially backward caste <ref> http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm</ref><ref>http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/ap.html</ref> of weavers in the states of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]] in southern India. They have close ties of kinship with the '''[[Devadasi]]''' or '''Devaradiyars'''<ref>Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985)</ref><ref>Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982)</ref>
'''Sengunthar''' or [[Kaikolan]] or [[Kaikolar]] re a large group of Tamil in southern India. Sengunthar is a distinguished caste from Tamilnadu. Sengunthar are also known as Kaikolar. This dual name of Senguntar or Kaikolar was used for over 1200 years based on literary evidence. Sengunthars live throughout India and around the world. Sengunthars form a significant proportion of population in various districts of Tamilnadu esp. in Arcot, Kanchipuram, Chingleput, Salem, Erode, Coimbatore, Dharmapuri. Sengunthars use the title of Mudaliar after their name. In this page we will discuss about the history of sengunthars, their culture and customs.


==Origin==
==Origin==


The Kaikolars also called as Sengunthar, they were in the army of Chola dynasty. They are also known as ''Sengunthar'', which means a red dagger, which is traced to the legend of the earth being harassed by demons, which led to the people asking the god Shiva to help them. He was furious with the demonic giants and sent six sparks from his eyes. Parvati, his wife became frightened and retired to her chamber but dropped nine beads from her anklets. Shiva converted those beads into nine women, each giving birth to a hero, complete with moustache and daggers. These nine led by Subramanya, with a large army destroyed the demons. Kaikolans or Sengundar claim descent from one of the nine heroes. There are seventy-two subdivisions (nadu or desams).These legends were created at a time when the weaver community had lost its social status and the formuale were efforts at self-glorification<ref>Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982)</ref>
The Kaikolars also called as Sengunthar, are a large [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and Telugu socially backward caste<ref>http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm</ref><ref>http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/ap.html</ref> of weavers in the states of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]] in southern India. Their name comes from a mythical hero and from the words "kai" (hand) and "kol" (shuttle used in looming or spear). They consider the different parts of the loom to represent various gods and sages.
They were in the army of Chola dynasty. They are also known as ''Sengunthar'', which means a red dagger, which is traced to the legend of the earth being harassed by demons, which led to the people asking the god Shiva to help them. He was furious with the demonic giants and sent six sparks from his eyes. Parvati, his wife became frightened and retired to her chamber but dropped nine beads from her anklets. Shiva converted those beads into nine women, each giving birth to a hero, complete with moustache and daggers. These nine led by Subramanya, with a large army destroyed the demons. Kaikolans or Sengundar claim descent from one of the nine heroes. There are seventy-two subdivisions (nadu or desams).These legends were created at a time when the weaver community had lost its social status and the formuale were efforts at self-glorification<ref>Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982)</ref>


==History of Kaikolars in Medieval South India and 21st Century==
==History of Kaikolars in Medieval South India and 21st Century==
===Ties of Kinship between Kaikolar and Devadasis===

Traditionally, one girl in every family from the [[Sengundar]]/ [[Kaikolar]] caste was set apart to be dedicated to temple service and becomes a [[Devadasi]] (meaning female servant of god). In the temple, the girl is considered married to the temple deity and she learns traditional music and dancing<ref>Contending identities: Sacred prostitution and reform in colonial South India Priyadarshini Vijaisri A1, A1 Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), New Delhi, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies Publisher: Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group Issue: Volume 28, Number 3 / December 2005 Pages: 387 - 411. http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/link.asp?id=jv31l27518262711</ref><ref>http://globalindiamissions.org/newsletter/nwsltr0802.htm</ref><ref>http://www.go2southasia.org/lUS95peoples.html</ref>.

This research article talks about the relation between the ''Kaikolan musicians and the Devadasis'' <ref>The Erotic Sculptures of India Y. Krishan, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 34, No. 4 (1972), pp. 331-343</ref> This research article explains the blood relation between the Devadasis and the Kaikolar. (Quoted from article: ''"Devaradiyar (dancing girls who have very close kinship ties with the Kaikkolar"'') <ref>Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/22/4/417">Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/22/4/417</ref>

This research article explains in vivid detail, the way the Kaikkolas used their women to enjoy special privileges in the Vijayanagar empire. (Text Quoted from article: ''At least one woman in every Kaikkola household was, according to age-old tradition dedicated to the temple as a devaradiyar or devadasi. The devaradiyar enjoyed special privileges in the days of the Vijayanagar empire and were the only women permitted a direct audience with the king''<ref>Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/19/1/47?ck=nck</ref>

This research article (along with references to an inscription) ''describes how a devaradiyar or devadasi won special privileges for the Kaikkolas from the King Deva Raya II (A.D 1433)'' <ref>Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/19/1/47?ck=nck</ref><ref>Some Enquiries into the Condition of Weavers in Medieval South India, Indian Historical Review, Vol. VI, Nos. 1 and 2</ref>

The research articles clearly define Kaikolars as the Sengunthar-Kaikolars of the terinja-Kaikolar Padai of the Chola empire. There is absolutely no question of ambiguity regarding their identity.

Another reference book ''Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God. Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu by Leslie C. Orr.'' gives ample references to inscriptions regarding the Kaikkolars being Devadasis in Tanjore temples during the Chola empire. This research article explains how ''Kaikola women still go into sacred prostitution''<ref>Contending identities: Sacred prostitution and reform in colonial South India Priyadarshini Vijaisri A1, A1 Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), New Delhi, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies Publisher: Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group Issue: Volume 28, Number 3 / December 2005 Pages: 387 - 411. http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/link.asp?id=jv31l27518262711</ref>

===Current Status in the Society===

According to author Leslie C. Orr, the Kaikolar girls who were dedicated regularly came back and married other Kaikolars and occasionally the children of temple also married regular Kaikolars and thus some of them have been assimilated into the Kaikolar caste <ref>Donors, Devotees, and the Daughters of God: Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu -Page 158 by Leslie C. Orr - 2000 - 305 pages</ref>

This is also confirmed by authors Bannerji, Himani, Mojab, Shahrzad, Whitehead, Judith who describe that most of the present day Kaikolars are offsprings of Kaikolar Devadasis and men from Brahmin communities <ref>Book Of Property and Propriety: The Role of Gender and Class in Imperialism and Nationalism - Page 178 by Bannerji, Himani, Mojab, Shahrzad, Whitehead, Judith</ref>

Isai Vellalar are none other than that section of Sengunthar Mudaliars or Kaikolars who were associated with the system of Devadasis<ref>Union Territory of Pondicherry By Francis Cyril Antony, Pondicherry (India : Union Territory)</ref>

In present day, the regular Kaikolars have renamed themselves as Sengunthars and the Kaikolar Devadasis have renamed themselves as Isai Vellalar in order to evade detection and for the purpose of social upliftment in the society<ref>Union Territory of Pondicherry By Francis Cyril Antony, Pondicherry (India : Union Territory)</ref>. This is similar to Pallars renaming themselves as Devendra Kula Vaelalars and claiming to be the Vellalars and descendants of the Pallavas.

==Devadasi Culture and Marriage Customs==

According to the book, ''Some Marriage Customs in Southern India:Deformity and Mutilation, Uralis, Sholagas and Irulas by historian Thurston'', A custom prevails among the Kaikolars by which one woman in each family becomes a prostitute, while retaining her caste<ref>Some Marriage Customs in Southern India:Deformity and Mutilation, Uralis, Sholagas and Irulas by Thurston.E</ref>. The girl chosen is taken to the temple where a sword is placed beside her with a tali (marriage badge) under it. The tali is then tied round her neck by any woman present and she returns to her own house where she is permitted to carry on any amours she chooses. <ref>Some Marriage Customs in Southern India:Deformity and Mutilation, Uralis, Sholagas and Irulas by Thurston.E</ref>. She gets her share of the family property just as if no such ceremony had taken place.

==Community Legends and festivals==
==Community Legends and festivals==


Line 24: Line 54:
A list of Kootam has been removed from this section awaiting authentication by accurate reference material.
A list of Kootam has been removed from this section awaiting authentication by accurate reference material.


===Warrior Clans===
===Kaikolar regiments===


During Chola rule Kaikolars served as soldiers and were called "Terinja kaikolar padai". (Terinja means "known" in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and Padai means "regiment"), so "terinja-kaikolar padai" were the personal bodygurads. Kaikkolars who were initially weavers were militarised during the Chola empire and formed a major part of the Chola army from 8th century to 13th century. There were no Kaikolar army before or after the Chola empire.
During Chola rule Kaikolars served as soldiers and were called "Terinja kaikolar padai". (Terinja means "known" in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and Padai means "regiment"), so "terinja-kaikolar padai" were the personal bodygurads. Kaikkolars who were initially weavers were militarised during the Chola empire and formed a major part of the Chola army from 8th century to 13th century. There were no Kaikolar army before or after the Chola empire.
Line 60: Line 90:
Pirantaka-terinja-Kaikkolar
Pirantaka-terinja-Kaikkolar


⚫
==Weaving Clans==
The link below indicates that Kaikolars were prominent members of Tamil society even during the 10th century AD during Chola rule.


⚫
Kaikolars took up weaving on a mass scale or continued their weaving business exclusively for pretty much the next six to seven centuries. Even though there may have been a few rich [[Kaikolan]]s doing various businesses including agriculture, the vast majority of [[Kaikolan]]s were involved in weaving which was not a profitable business due to the industrial revolution.
http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_19/inscription_of_parakesarivarman_no_85.html

⚫
===Weaving Clans===
⚫
The end of Chola rule brought the end to [[Kaikolan]]s role in the army. Reasons are unknown, but Kaikolars took up weaving on a mass scale or continued their weaving business exclusively for pretty much the next six to seven centuries. Even though there may have been a few rich [[Kaikolan]]s doing various businesses including agriculture, the vast majority of [[Kaikolan]]s were involved in weaving which was not a profitable business due to the industrial revolution.


== Historical Personalities ==
== Historical Personalities ==
Line 83: Line 110:
Sengunthar Mahajana Sangam.
Sengunthar Mahajana Sangam.


[[Tiruppur Kumaran]]
[[Arul Thiru Kirubanandha Varriar]]


[[CN Annadurai]]
[[Sekizhar]] (Ancient Tamil Poet)


[[EVKS Sampath]]? He belongs to EVR's family
[[Ottakoothar]] (Ancient Tamil Poet)


⚫
[[P. S. Veerappa villan actor]]
[[Tiruppur (Kodi Katha) Kumaran]] (Freedom Fighter)


[[ANANDRAJ villan actor]]
[[CN Annadurai]] (Former CM of Tamilnadu)


⚫
[[Thillairajan]]
⚫
[[Paavendar Bharathidasan]] (Poet)


[[Vellaivaarananaar]]
⚫
[[Pulavar Govindhan]] (Former Speaker, TN Assembly)


⚫
[[Bharathidasan]]
[[Pammal Sambanda Mudaliar]] (Actor, Stage Drama)


⚫
[[Pulavar Govindhan]]: Former Speaker of Tamil Nadu Assembly.
[[EVKS Sampath]] (Politician)


⚫
[[Kennedy alias vikram actor]]
⚫
[[P.S. Veerappa]] (Actor)


⚫
[[Thiagarajan actor]]
[[Perumal Mudaliar]] (Owner, National Pictures)


[[P.S.veerappa actor]]
⚫
[[Ethiraj Mudaliar]] (Chairman, Binny Group & Partner, Ramachandra Medical College)


[[Pammal sambanda mudaliar]]
[[Vallal Sabapathy Mudaliar]] (Founder, Vallal Sabapathy Mudaliar Educational Trust)


[[kirubanandha varriar]]
⚫
[[M. Nandagopal]] (Executive Chairman, Mohan Breweries and Distilleries Limited, Chennai)


[[perumal mudaliar national pictures]]
[[K.S. Ravikumar]] (Movie Director)


[[Vallal sabapathi mudaliar]]: vallal sapabathy mudaliar educational trust.
[[P. Vasu]] (Movie Director)


⚫
[[ethiraj mudaliar]]: Chairman, Binny Group, partner Ramachandra medical college.
[[R.K. Selvamani]] (Movie Director)


[[K.s.Ravikumar director]]
[[Pa. Vijay]] (Movie Lyrist)


[[R.k.Selvamani director]]
⚫
[[Kennedy alias Vikram actor]] (Actor)


[[Pa. Vijay lyrist]]
[[Anandraj]] (Actor)


[[P.Vasu director]]
⚫
[[Thiagarajan actor]] (Actor)

[[Prashant actor]] (Actor)

⚫
[[Thillairajan]]


⚫
[[M. Nandagopal]] Executive Chairman, Mohan Breweries and Distilleries Limited, Chennai
[[Vellai Vaarananaar]]


[[Prof. Dr. S. Arumuga Perumal]] (Professor of Computer Science,Fellow of IETE)
[[Prof. Dr.Arumuga perumal.S]], Professor of Computer Science,Fellow of IETE.


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 13:26, 17 March 2008

Sengunthar or Kaikolan or Kaikolar are a large Tamil and Telugu socially backward caste [1][2] of weavers in the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh in southern India. They have close ties of kinship with the Devadasi or Devaradiyars[3][4]

Origin

The Kaikolars also called as Sengunthar, are a large Tamil and Telugu socially backward caste[5][6] of weavers in the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh in southern India. Their name comes from a mythical hero and from the words "kai" (hand) and "kol" (shuttle used in looming or spear). They consider the different parts of the loom to represent various gods and sages.

They were in the army of Chola dynasty. They are also known as Sengunthar, which means a red dagger, which is traced to the legend of the earth being harassed by demons, which led to the people asking the god Shiva to help them. He was furious with the demonic giants and sent six sparks from his eyes. Parvati, his wife became frightened and retired to her chamber but dropped nine beads from her anklets. Shiva converted those beads into nine women, each giving birth to a hero, complete with moustache and daggers. These nine led by Subramanya, with a large army destroyed the demons. Kaikolans or Sengundar claim descent from one of the nine heroes. There are seventy-two subdivisions (nadu or desams).These legends were created at a time when the weaver community had lost its social status and the formuale were efforts at self-glorification[7]

History of Kaikolars in Medieval South India and 21st Century

Ties of Kinship between Kaikolar and Devadasis

Traditionally, one girl in every family from the Sengundar/ Kaikolar caste was set apart to be dedicated to temple service and becomes a Devadasi (meaning female servant of god). In the temple, the girl is considered married to the temple deity and she learns traditional music and dancing[8][9][10].

This research article talks about the relation between the Kaikolan musicians and the Devadasis [11] This research article explains the blood relation between the Devadasis and the Kaikolar. (Quoted from article: "Devaradiyar (dancing girls who have very close kinship ties with the Kaikkolar") [12]

This research article explains in vivid detail, the way the Kaikkolas used their women to enjoy special privileges in the Vijayanagar empire. (Text Quoted from article: At least one woman in every Kaikkola household was, according to age-old tradition dedicated to the temple as a devaradiyar or devadasi. The devaradiyar enjoyed special privileges in the days of the Vijayanagar empire and were the only women permitted a direct audience with the king[13]

This research article (along with references to an inscription) describes how a devaradiyar or devadasi won special privileges for the Kaikkolas from the King Deva Raya II (A.D 1433) [14][15]

The research articles clearly define Kaikolars as the Sengunthar-Kaikolars of the terinja-Kaikolar Padai of the Chola empire. There is absolutely no question of ambiguity regarding their identity.

Another reference book Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God. Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu by Leslie C. Orr. gives ample references to inscriptions regarding the Kaikkolars being Devadasis in Tanjore temples during the Chola empire. This research article explains how Kaikola women still go into sacred prostitution[16]

Current Status in the Society

According to author Leslie C. Orr, the Kaikolar girls who were dedicated regularly came back and married other Kaikolars and occasionally the children of temple also married regular Kaikolars and thus some of them have been assimilated into the Kaikolar caste [17]

This is also confirmed by authors Bannerji, Himani, Mojab, Shahrzad, Whitehead, Judith who describe that most of the present day Kaikolars are offsprings of Kaikolar Devadasis and men from Brahmin communities [18]

Isai Vellalar are none other than that section of Sengunthar Mudaliars or Kaikolars who were associated with the system of Devadasis[19]

In present day, the regular Kaikolars have renamed themselves as Sengunthars and the Kaikolar Devadasis have renamed themselves as Isai Vellalar in order to evade detection and for the purpose of social upliftment in the society[20]. This is similar to Pallars renaming themselves as Devendra Kula Vaelalars and claiming to be the Vellalars and descendants of the Pallavas.

Devadasi Culture and Marriage Customs

According to the book, Some Marriage Customs in Southern India:Deformity and Mutilation, Uralis, Sholagas and Irulas by historian Thurston, A custom prevails among the Kaikolars by which one woman in each family becomes a prostitute, while retaining her caste[21]. The girl chosen is taken to the temple where a sword is placed beside her with a tali (marriage badge) under it. The tali is then tied round her neck by any woman present and she returns to her own house where she is permitted to carry on any amours she chooses. [22]. She gets her share of the family property just as if no such ceremony had taken place.

Community Legends and festivals

The Sura Samhara festival is a ritual tradition practised by the Kaikolars to sustain the myth of the divine origin of the weavers with the intention of exalting their caste in the face of actual social inferiority[23]. According to the mythology of weaver community, the Kaikolars weavers were born out of nine gems that were scattered from Parvati's anklet. At the Sura Samhara festival, they dress up as the nine warriors of Virabahu, the lieutenant of Lord Karthikeya and enact the killing of the demon Narakasura[24] These legends were created at a time when the weaver community had lost its social status and the formuale were efforts at self-glorification[25]

Gods/Goddesses

Kaikolars are predominantly Shaivites. They possess a Clan God as most of the castes in Tamil Nadu. Mostly, it is some form of Amman i.e Parvati or Murugan[citation needed].

Kootam/kulam

Kootam defines birth from a single male ancestor. Kootam is transferred patrilineally i.e., via the father of a person. Hence people belonging to the same kootam are considered brothers and sisters. So marriage between a male and female belonging to the same kootam is prohibited however distantly they may be related.

Historically there were 72 kootams in Kaikolan. Each kootam had a leader. The head leader in Kanchipuram was the head for all these leaders. This was used to manage disputes within the community.

Nowadays, the kootams have merged into one another and there is no well defined leader for each kootam. It is used only for setting up marriage alliances.

A list of Kootam has been removed from this section awaiting authentication by accurate reference material.

Kaikolar regiments

During Chola rule Kaikolars served as soldiers and were called "Terinja kaikolar padai". (Terinja means "known" in Tamil and Padai means "regiment"), so "terinja-kaikolar padai" were the personal bodygurads. Kaikkolars who were initially weavers were militarised during the Chola empire and formed a major part of the Chola army from 8th century to 13th century. There were no Kaikolar army before or after the Chola empire.

They formed many regiments in the Chola army. Some of those regiments are:

Singalantaka-terinda-Kaikkolar (a regiment named after Singalantaka i.e. Parntaka I)

Virasola-terinja-Kaikkolar

Kodandarama-terinja-Kaikkolar

Danatonga-terinja-Kaikkolar

Parantaka-terinia-Kaikkolar

Muttavalperra-Kaikkolar - (meaning the "recipient of the pearl ornamented sword" in Tamil)

Samarakesarit-terinja-Kaikkolar

Vikramasingat-terinja-Kaikkolar

Adityapanma-terinda-Kaikkolar

Karikala-Chola-terinja-Kaikkolar

Arumolideva-terinja Kaikkolar

Parttivasekarat-terinja-Kaikkolar

Gangadaditta-terinja-Kaikkola

Madurantaka-terinja-Kaikkolar

Pirantaka-terinja-Kaikkolar

Weaving Clans

Kaikolars took up weaving on a mass scale or continued their weaving business exclusively for pretty much the next six to seven centuries. Even though there may have been a few rich Kaikolans doing various businesses including agriculture, the vast majority of Kaikolans were involved in weaving which was not a profitable business due to the industrial revolution.

Historical Personalities

Ottakoothar was a court poet of three Chola kings namely Vikrama Chola. Kulotunga-II and Rajaraja II. He wrote poems in praise of these three kings namely Vikrama Cholan Ula, Kulothunga Cholan Ula and Rajarajan Ula. Ottakoothar had also written Kulothungan Pillai Tamil in praise of Chola king Kulothunga II and Saraswathy Andhadhi in praise of Saraswathi the Goddess of learning Sekizhar the minister of chola dynasty wrote periyapuranam his native is kundrathur near chennai kambar who wrote ramayana in tamil he is also from chola empire kamban veetu kattu tharium kavipadum

Associations

There are many associations for Sengunthars.

They are:

Socio Economic Service Society (SES) in Nungambakkam - Chennai.

Sengunthar Mahajana Sangam.

Tiruppur Kumaran

CN Annadurai

EVKS Sampath? He belongs to EVR's family

P. S. Veerappa villan actor

ANANDRAJ villan actor

Thillairajan

Vellaivaarananaar

Bharathidasan

Pulavar Govindhan: Former Speaker of Tamil Nadu Assembly.

Kennedy alias vikram actor

Thiagarajan actor

P.S.veerappa actor

Pammal sambanda mudaliar

kirubanandha varriar

perumal mudaliar national pictures

Vallal sabapathi mudaliar: vallal sapabathy mudaliar educational trust.

ethiraj mudaliar: Chairman, Binny Group, partner Ramachandra medical college.

K.s.Ravikumar director

R.k.Selvamani director

Pa. Vijay lyrist

P.Vasu director

M. Nandagopal Executive Chairman, Mohan Breweries and Distilleries Limited, Chennai

Prof. Dr.Arumuga perumal.S, Professor of Computer Science,Fellow of IETE.

References

  1. ^ http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm
  2. ^ http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/ap.html
  3. ^ Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985)
  4. ^ Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982)
  5. ^ http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm
  6. ^ http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/ap.html
  7. ^ Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982)
  8. ^ Contending identities: Sacred prostitution and reform in colonial South India Priyadarshini Vijaisri A1, A1 Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), New Delhi, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies Publisher: Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group Issue: Volume 28, Number 3 / December 2005 Pages: 387 - 411. http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/link.asp?id=jv31l27518262711
  9. ^ http://globalindiamissions.org/newsletter/nwsltr0802.htm
  10. ^ http://www.go2southasia.org/lUS95peoples.html
  11. ^ The Erotic Sculptures of India Y. Krishan, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 34, No. 4 (1972), pp. 331-343
  12. ^ Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/22/4/417">Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/22/4/417
  13. ^ Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/19/1/47?ck=nck
  14. ^ Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/19/1/47?ck=nck
  15. ^ Some Enquiries into the Condition of Weavers in Medieval South India, Indian Historical Review, Vol. VI, Nos. 1 and 2
  16. ^ Contending identities: Sacred prostitution and reform in colonial South India Priyadarshini Vijaisri A1, A1 Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), New Delhi, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies Publisher: Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group Issue: Volume 28, Number 3 / December 2005 Pages: 387 - 411. http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/link.asp?id=jv31l27518262711
  17. ^ Donors, Devotees, and the Daughters of God: Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu -Page 158 by Leslie C. Orr - 2000 - 305 pages
  18. ^ Book Of Property and Propriety: The Role of Gender and Class in Imperialism and Nationalism - Page 178 by Bannerji, Himani, Mojab, Shahrzad, Whitehead, Judith
  19. ^ Union Territory of Pondicherry By Francis Cyril Antony, Pondicherry (India : Union Territory)
  20. ^ Union Territory of Pondicherry By Francis Cyril Antony, Pondicherry (India : Union Territory)
  21. ^ Some Marriage Customs in Southern India:Deformity and Mutilation, Uralis, Sholagas and Irulas by Thurston.E
  22. ^ Some Marriage Customs in Southern India:Deformity and Mutilation, Uralis, Sholagas and Irulas by Thurston.E
  23. ^ Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/19/1/47?ck=nck
  24. ^ Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/19/1/47?ck=nck
  25. ^ Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/19/1/47?ck=nck
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