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{{Cannon}}

A '''cannon''' is a type of artillery, usually large and tubular, that uses [[gunpowder]] or other explosive-based propellants to launch a projectile over a distance. Cannon vary in [[caliber]], range, mobility, rate of fire, angle of fire, and firepower; different forms of cannon combine and balance these attributes in varying degrees, depending on their intended use on the battlefield. The word ''cannon'' is derived from several languages, in which the original definition can usually be translated as ''tube'', ''cane'', or ''reed''.

[[Technology of the Song Dynasty#Gunpowder warfare|First used in China]], cannon were among the earliest forms of gunpowder artillery, and over time replaced [[siege engine]]s on the battlefield. The [[Cannon in the Middle Ages#Spread to Europe|first cannon in Europe]] were probably used in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], during the Islamic wars against Spain, in the 13th century; their use was first documented in the Middle East around this time, as well. [[English cannon]] were first used during the [[Hundred Years' War]], at the [[Battle of Crécy]], in 1346. It was during this period, the Middle Ages, that cannon became standardized, and more effective in both the anti-infantry and siege roles. After the Middle Ages, most large cannon were abandoned, in favor of greater numbers of lighter, more maneuverable pieces. In addition, new technologies and tactics were developed, making most defenses obsolete; this led to the construction of [[star fort]]s, specifically designed to withstand bombardment from artillery.

Cannon also transformed naval warfare: the [[Royal Navy]], in particular, took advantage of their firepower. As rifling became more commonplace, the accuracy of cannon was significantly improved, making cannon deadlier than before, especially to infantry. In [[World War I]], a considerable majority of all deaths were caused by cannon; they were also used widely in [[World War II]]. Most modern cannon are similar to those used in the Second World War,&mdash;including [[autocannon]],&mdash;with the exception of naval guns, which are now significantly smaller in caliber.

==Etymology and terminology==
''Cannon'' is derived from the Old Italian word ''cannone'', meaning ''large tube'', which came from [[Latin]] ''canna'', in turn originating from the ''kanna'',&mdash;[[Greek language|Greek]] for ''cane'', or ''reed''&mdash;and ultimately deriving from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] term ''qanu'', meaning ''tube'' or ''reed''.<ref name="Definition and etymology of cannon">{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Cannon|title=Definition and etymology of "cannon"|publisher=[[Webster's Dictionary]]|accessdate=2008-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cane|title=Etymology of "Cane"|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|accessdate=2008-01-24}}</ref><ref name="Definition and etymology of cane">{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cane|title=Definition and etymology of "cane"|publisher=[[Webster's Dictionary]]|accessdate=2008-02-23}}</ref> The word has been used to refer to a gun since 1326 in Italy, and 1418 in England. ''Cannon'' serves both as the singular and plural of the noun, although the plural ''cannons'' is also correct.<ref name="Definition and etymology of cannon" />

Any large, [[smoothbore]], [[muzzle-loading]] [[gun]]&mdash;used before the advent of [[breech-loading]], [[rifled]] guns&mdash;may be referred to as a cannon, though the term specifically refers to a gun designed to fire a {{convert|42|lb|sing=on}} shot, as opposed to a [[demi-cannon]],&mdash;{{convert|32|lb}}&mdash;[[culverin]],&mdash;{{convert|18|lb}}&mdash;or [[demi-culverin]]&mdash;{{convert|9|lb}}. ''[[Gun]]'' specifically refers to a type of cannon that fires projectiles at high velocities, and usually in relatively flat angles;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gun|title=Definition of "Gun"|accessdate=2008-03-17|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster's Dictionary]]}}</ref> they have been used in warships extensively,<ref>{{cite book|title=Naval Gun|accessdate=2008-03-21|year=1978|publisher=Blandford Press|first=Ian V.|last=Hogg|coauthors=John H. Batchelor|isbn=0713709057}}</ref> and as [[field artillery]], as well.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopaedia Britannica A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information, volume 2|last=Baynes|first=Thomas S.|year=1888|page=p. 667|accessdate=2008-03-21|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hakMAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PRA1-PA667,M1}}</ref> The term ''cannon'' also applies to the [[autocannon]], a modern gun with a [[caliber]] of [[20 mm caliber|20&nbsp;mm]], or more, with a high rate of fire. Autocannon have been used extensively in fighter aircraft since [[World War II]],<ref name="Aircraft Cannon">{{cite web|url=http://www.defencenews.com.au/article-archive.cfm?ID=513&currentpage=2&detail=yes&thiscatid=0|title=Aircraft cannon|publisher=Strike Publications|author=Dr. Carlo Kopp|accessdate=2008-02-27}}</ref> and are sometimes used on land vehicles.<ref name="Bushmaster">{{cite web|url=http://www.army-technology.com/projects/bradley/|title=Army Technology - Bradley M2/M3 - Tracked Armoured Fighting Vehicles|accessdate=2008-02-16|publisher=Army Technology.com}}</ref>

==History==
{{main|History of cannon}}
{{details|History of gunpowder|the historical use of [[gunpowder]] in general}}
===Early history===
{{details|Technology of the Song Dynasty|development of gunpowder warfare in China}}
[[Image:FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg|thumb|175px|Earliest known representation of a firearm (a [[fire lance]]) and a [[grenade]] (upper right), [[Dunhuang]], 10th century<ref>{{cite book|last=Temple|first=Robert|coauthors=Needham, Joseph|title=The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery and Invention|publisher=Prion Books|isbn=1-85375-292-4|page=p. 242}}</ref>]]
The earliest known cannon was invented by [[Ctesibius of Alexandria]], in the 3rd century BC. Little is known about this primitive invention&mdash;as most of Ctesibius' works were lost&mdash;but it was noted by [[Philo of Byzantium]] that it operated using compressed air.<ref>{{citebook|last=Reymond|first=Arnold|title=History of the Sciences in Greco-Roman Antiquity|publisher=Biblo & Tannen Publishers|year=1963|isbn=0819601284|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yt7qsvmmXdQC&printsec=frontcover#PPA79,M1|accessdate=2008-03-21|page=p. 79}}</ref> One of the first cannon used in battle was the [[fire lance]], a gunpowder-filled tube attached to the end of a spear and used as a [[flamethrower]].<ref name="Science and Civilisation in China">{{cite book|first=Joseph|last=Needham|year=1987|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|title=Science & Civilisation in China, volume 7: The Gunpowder Epic|isbn=0521303583|page=pp. 263–275}}</ref> [[Shrapnel]] was sometimes placed in the barrel, so that it would fly out along with the flames.<ref name=crosby>{{cite book|last=Crosby|first=Alfred W.|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vyFxldb2GJQC&printsec=frontcover|year=2002|page=p. 99|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|title=Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History|isbn=0521791588}}</ref> Eventually, the paper and bamboo of which fire lance barrels were originally constructed came to be replaced by metal.<ref name=chase>{{cite book|last=Chase|year=2003|page=p. 31–32|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|title=Firearms: A Global History to 1700|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=esnWJkYRCJ4C&printsec=frontcover|isbn=0521822742}}</ref> The earliest known depiction of a firearm is a sculpture from a cave in [[Sichuan]], dating to the 12th century, that portrays a figure carrying a vase-shaped [[bombard (weapon)|bombard]], firing flames and a cannonball.<ref name=chase/><ref>{{cite journal|first=Lu|last=Gwei-Djen|coauthors=Joseph Needham, Phan Chi-Hsing|year=1988|month=July|journal=[[Technology and Culture]]|volume=29|issue=3|pages=594–605|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|title=The Oldest Representation of a Bombard|doi=10.2307/3105275}}</ref> The oldest surviving gun, dated to 1288, has a muzzle bore diameter of {{convert|2.5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}; the second oldest, dated to 1332, has a muzzle bore diameter of {{convert|10.5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Science and Civilisation in China" />

[[Image:Yuan chinese gun.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[Hand cannon]] from the Chinese [[Yuan Dynasty]] (1271–1368)]]
The first documented battlefield use of gunpowder artillery took place on [[January 28]], [[1132]], when [[Song Dynasty|Song]] General [[Han Shizhong]] used [[huochong]] to capture a city in [[Fujian]]. The first known illustration of a cannon is dated to 1326.<ref>{{cite book|title=Weapons: An International Encyclopedia from 5000 B.C. to 2000 A.D.|last=Harding|first=David|publisher=Diane Publishing Company|year=1990|page=p. 111|isbn=0756784360|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LeYSxhK62wUC&printsec=frontcover#PPA111,M1}}</ref> In his 1341 poem, ''The Iron Cannon Affair'', one of the first accounts of the use of gunpowder artillery in China, Xian Zhang wrote that a cannonball fired from an eruptor could "pierce the heart or belly when it strikes a man or horse, and can even transfix several persons at once."<ref>{{cite book|last=Norris|first=John|year=2003|title=Early Gunpowder Artillery: 1300–1600|publisher=Marlborough: The Crowood Press|isbn=1861266154|page=p. 11}}</ref>

[[Joseph Needham]] suggests that the proto-[[Shell (projectile)|shells]] described in the ''[[Huolongjing]]'' may be among the first of their kind.<ref name="Science and Civilisation in China" /> The Chinese also mounted over 3,000 bronze and iron casted cannon on the [[Great Wall of China]], to defend themselves from the [[Mongols]]. The weapon was later taken up by both the Mongol conquerors and the [[Korean cannon|Koreans]]. Chinese soldiers fighting under the Mongols appear to have used hand cannon in [[Manchuria]]n battles during 1288, a date deduced from archaeological findings at battle sites.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pacey|first=Arnold|title=Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History|page=p. 47|year=1990|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|isbn=0262660725|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&printsec=frontcover#PPA47,M1}}</ref>

In the 1593 [[Siege of Pyongyang (1593)|Siege of Pyongyang]], 40,000 [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] troops deployed a variety of cannon to bombard an equally large [[Japan]]ese army. Despite both forces having similar numbers, the Japanese were defeated in one day, due to the Ming advantage in firepower. Throughout the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Seven Year War]] in Korea, the Chinese-Korean coalition used artillery widely, in both land and naval battles.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nLM1Kolw_vMC&printsec=frontcover#PPA211,M1|title=World History of Warfare|publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]]|accessdate=2008-03-21|last=Archer|first=Christon I.|year=2002|isbn=0803244231|page=p. 211}}</ref>

===Middle East===
{{seealso|Inventions in the Islamic world}}
[[Image:Great Turkish Bombard at Fort Nelson.JPG|thumb|175px|right|A [[Great Turkish Bombard]], a heavy bronze [[muzzle-loading]] cannon, similar to those used by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[Fall of Constantinople|Siege of Constantinople]], AD 1453]]

Portable [[hand cannon]] ("midfa," in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]) were first used by the [[Egypt]]ians to repel the [[Mongols]] at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260, and again in 1304.<ref name="Gunpowder Composition"/><ref name=Hassan/> The composition of the gunpowder used in these battles was later described in several manuscripts, written in the early 14th century. Four different mixtures were used, the most explosive having a composition (74% [[Potassium nitrate|saltpeter]], 11% [[sulfur]], 15% [[carbon]]) almost identical to modern gunpowder (75% saltpeter, 10% sulfur, 15% carbon). These mixtures were more explosive than those used in either China or Europe during this period.<ref name="Gunpowder Composition">{{cite web|publisher=[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]|last=Hassan|first=Ahmad Y|authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%203.htm|title=Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries|accessdate=2007-02-17}}</ref><ref name=Hassan>{{cite web|last=Hassan|first=Ahmad Y|authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2072.htm|title=Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries|accessdate=2007-02-17|publisher=[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]}}</ref> The Battle of Ain Jalut also saw the use of the earliest known [[Cartridge (firearms)|gunpowder cartridges]], employed by the Egyptians in their [[fire lance]]s and [[hand cannon]].<ref name="Gunpowder Composition"/>

The use of cannon as [[siege machine]]s dates back to [[Marinid dynasty|Abu Yaqub Yusuf]], who employed them at the siege of [[Sijilmasa]], in 1274, according to [[Ibn Khaldun]].<ref name="Gunpowder Composition"/> Also intended for [[siege warfare]], the first [[supergun]], the [[Great Turkish Bombard]], was used by the troops of [[Mehmed II]] to [[Fall of Constantinople|capture]] [[Constantinople]], in 1453. Urban, a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] cannon engineer, is credited with the invention of this cannon.<ref name="The Medieval Siege">{{cite book|title=The Medieval Siege|last=Bradbury|first=Jim|year=1992|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer]]|location=[[Rochester, New York]]|accessdate=2008-03-21| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xVCRpsfwkiUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Medieval+Siege&ei=uFHlR8GfL4a4zATBtaz6BA&sig=i4zssKy0j3v4ywdXXh-hFuQWkEo#PPA293,M1| isbn=0-85115-312-7|page=p. 293}}</ref> It had a {{convert|762|mm|in|0|sing=on|abbr=on}} bore, and could fire {{convert|544|kg|abbr=on|sing=on}} stones a mile, and the sound of their blast could reportedly be heard from a distance of {{convert|10|mi|km|0}}.<ref name="The Medieval Siege"/> The Great Turkish Bombards were cast in bronze and made in two parts: the chase and the [[breech-loading weapon|breech]], which, together, weighed 16&nbsp;[[tonne]]s.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y4aXo_125REC&pg=PA461&lpg=PA461&dq=dardanelles+gun&source=web&ots=clIsmn271c&sig=RqX4Rhc1k57oZZVSWDi-H0ft9CA&hl=en#PPA461,M1|title=War in Human Civilization|year=2006|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=[[New York City]]|last=Gat|first=Azar|isbn=0-19-926213-6|page=p. 461}}</ref> The two parts were screwed together using levers to facilitate the work. Another weapon invented in the Middle East, fashioned for killing infantry, was the first known [[autocannon]]. It was invented in the 16th century, by Fathullah Shirazi, a [[Persian people|Persian]]-[[History of India|Indian]] [[polymath]] and mechanical engineer, who worked for [[Akbar the Great]] in the [[Mughal Empire]]. As opposed to the [[polybolos]] and [[repeating crossbow]]s used earlier in [[Ancient Greece]] and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing machine had multiple [[gun barrel]]s that fired hand cannon.<ref>{{cite journal|first=A. K.|last=Bag|year=2005|title=Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu|publisher=Indian Journal of History of Science|page=p. 431–436}}</ref>

===Medieval Europe===
{{main|Cannon in the Middle Ages}}
[[Image:EarlyCannonDeNobilitatibusSapientiiEtPrudentiisRegumManuscriptWalterdeMilemete1326.jpg|thumb|175px|Earliest picture of a European cannon, "De Nobilitatibus Sapientii Et Prudentiis Regum," Walter de Milemete, 1326]]
In Europe, the first mention of gunpowder's composition in express terms appeared, in [[Roger Bacon]]'s "''De nullitate magiæ''" at Oxford, published in 1216.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Britannica|year=1771|location=London|chapter=Gunpowder|quote = <!-- original uses Long s --> frier Bacon, our countryman, mentions the compoſition in expreſs terms, in his treatiſe ''De nullitate magiæ'', publiſhed at Oxford, in the year 1216.}}; Note the [[Long s]].</ref> Later, in 1248, his "''Opus Maior''" describes a recipe for gunpowder and recognized its military use:

{{long quotation|"We can, with saltpeter and other substances, compose artificially a fire that can be launched over long distances&nbsp;... By only using a very small quantity of this material much light can be created accompanied by a horrible fracas. It is possible with it to destroy a town or an army&nbsp;... In order to produce this artificial lightning and thunder it is necessary to take saltpeter, sulfur, and Luru Vopo Vir Can Utriet."<ref>{{cite book|last=Braun|first=Wernher Von|coauthors=Frederick Ira Ordway|title=History of Rocketry & Space Travel|publisher=[[Thomas Y. Crowell Co.]]|year=1967|page=p. 28|isbn=9780690005882|isbn=0690005881}}</ref>}}

The first confirmed use of gunpowder in Europe was the [[Moors|Moorish]] cannon, first used by the [[Al-Andalus|Andalusians]] in [[Spain]], at the siege of [[Seville]] in 1248, and the siege of [[Niebla, Spain|Niebla]] in 1262.<ref name="Gunpowder Composition"/><ref name="Artillery Through the Ages">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yYupSOK0BgIC&printsec=frontcover#PPA3,M1|title=Artillery Through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America|last=Manucy|first=Albert|isbn=0788107453|publisher=Diane publishing|year=1994|accessdate=2008-01-24|page=p. 3}}</ref> By this time, hand guns were probably in use, as ''scopettieri''&mdash;"gun bearers"&mdash;were mentioned in conjunction with [[crossbow]]men, in 1281. In Spain, the "first artillery-masters on the Peninsula" were enlisted, at around the same time.<ref>{{cite book|title=Arms and Armour in Spain|last=Hoffmeyer|first=Ada Bruhn de|isbn=0435–029x|page=p. 217|publisher=Instituto do Estudios sobre Armas Antiguas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Patronato Menendez y Pelayo|year=1972|location=[[Madrid]]}}</ref>
[[Image:HandBombardWesternEurope1380.jpg|thumb|left|Western European [[handgun]], 1380|175px]]
The first metal cannon was the ''[[pot-de-fer]]''. Loaded with an arrow-like [[Quarrel|bolt]] that was probably wrapped in leather to allow greater thrusting power, it was set off through a touch hole with a heated wire. This weapon, and others similar, were used by both the [[Kingdom of France|French]] and English, during the [[Hundred Years' War]], when cannon saw their first real use on the European battlefield.<ref name="Artillery Through the Ages"/> Even then, cannon were still a relatively rare weapon. "Ribaldis," which shot large arrows and simplistic [[grapeshot]], were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts during preparations for the [[Battle of Crécy]], between 1345 and 1346.<ref name="Nicolle">{{cite book|last=Nicolle|first=David|year=2000|title=Crécy 1346: Triumph of the Longbow|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=9781855329669|page=p. 21}}</ref> The Florentine [[Giovanni Villani]] recounts their destructiveness, indicating that by the end of the battle, "the whole plain was covered by men struck down by arrows and cannon balls."<ref name="Nicolle" /> Similar cannon were also used at the [[Siege of Calais]], in the same year, although it was not until the 1380s that the "ribaudekin" clearly became mounted on wheels.<ref name="Nicolle"/>

The first cannon appeared in [[Kievan Rus'|Russia]] around 1380, though they were used only in sieges, often by the defenders.<ref name="Nossov">{{cite book|last=Nossov|first=Konstantin|year=2007|title=Medieval Russian Fortresses AD 862–1480|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=9781846030932|page=p. 52}}</ref> Around the same period, the [[Byzantine Empire]] began to accumulate its own cannon to face the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] threat, starting with medium-sized cannon {{convert|3|ft|m}} long and of 10&nbsp;in caliber.<ref name="Turnbull">{{cite book|last=Turnbull|first=Stephan|title=The Walls of Constantinople AD 413–1453|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=2004|isbn=1-84176-759-X|page=pp. 39–41}}</ref> The first definite use of artillery in the region was against the Ottoman siege of [[Constantinople]], in 1396, forcing the Ottomans to withdraw.<ref name="Turnbull"/> They acquired their own cannon, and laid siege to the Byzantine capital again, in 1422, using "[[Falconet (cannon)|falcons]]," which were short but wide cannon. By 1453, the Ottomans used 68 Hungarian-made cannon for the 55-day bombardment of the [[walls of Constantinople]], "hurling the pieces everywhere and killing those who happened to be nearby."<ref name="Turnbull"/> The largest of their cannon was the [[Great Turkish Bombard]], which required an operating crew of 200 men<ref name="Trivia Library">{{cite book|title=The People's Almanac|accessdate=2008-03-21|publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]]|year=1975|last=Wallechinsky|first=David|coauthors=Irving Wallace|isbn=0385041861}}</ref> and 70 oxen, and 10,000 men to transport it.<ref name="Turnbull"/> Gunpowder made the formerly devastating [[Greek fire]] obsolete, and with the final fall of Constantinople,&mdash;which was protected by what were once the strongest walls in Europe&mdash;on [[May 29]], [[1453]], "it was the [[Late Middle Ages|end of an era]] in more ways than one."<ref>Turnbull, p. 43.</ref>

===Early modern period===
[[Image:TheTsarCannonJuly2004.jpg|thumb|right|175px|The [[Tsar Cannon]], the largest [[howitzer]] ever made, cast by [[Andrey Chokhov]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Guinness Rekordbok|year=1996|isbn=91-37-10723-2|page=p. 204|language=[[Swedish language|Swedish]]}}</ref>]]
By the 1500s, cannon were made in a great variety of lengths and bore diameters, but the general rule was that the longer the barrel, the longer the range. Some cannon made during this time had barrels exceeding {{convert|10|ft|m|abbr=on}} in length, and could weigh up to {{convert|20000|lb|kg}}. Consequently, large amounts of gunpowder were needed, to allow them to fire stone balls several hundred yards.<ref>{{cite book|last=Krebs|first=Robert E.|Publisher=Greenwood Publishing
Group|year=2004|title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance|isbn=0313324336|page=p. 270|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&printsec=frontcover#PPA270,M1}}</ref> By mid-century, European monarchs began to classify cannon to reduce the confusion. [[Henry II of France]] opted for six sizes of cannon,<ref>The six sizes are, in order from largest to smallest: the cannon, great culverin, bastard culverin, "legitimate" culverin, falcon, and falconet.</ref> but others settled for more; the Spanish used twelve sizes, and the English sixteen.<ref>They are, from largest to smallest: the cannon royal, cannon, cannon serpentine, bastard cannon, demicannon, pedrero, culverin, basilisk, demiculverin, bastard culverin, saker, minion, falcon, falconet, serpentine, and rabinet.</ref><ref name="Tunis">{{cite book|last=Tunis|first=Edwin|title=Weapons: A Pictorial History|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|location=[[Baltimore, Maryland]]|year=1999|isbn=0-8018-6229-9|page=p. 89|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sCnyIzibmywC&printsec=frontcover#PPA89,M1}}</ref> Better powder had been developed by this time as well. Instead of the finely ground powder used by the first bombards, powder was replaced by a "corned" variety of coarse grains. This coarse powder had pockets of air between grains, allowing fire to travel through and ignite the entire charge quickly and uniformly.<ref>Tunis, p. 88.</ref>

The end of the Middle Ages saw the construction of larger, more powerful cannon, as well their spread throughout the world. As they were not effective at breaching the newer fortifications resulting from the development of cannon, [[siege engine]]s&mdash;such as [[siege tower]]s and [[trebuchet]]s&mdash;became less widely used. However, wooden "battery-towers" took on a similar role as siege towers in the [[gunpowder]] age&mdash;such as that used at [[Siege of Kazan (1552)|siege of Kazan]] in 1552, which could hold ten large-caliber cannon, in addition to 50 lighter pieces.<ref name="Kazan">{{cite book|last=Nossov|first=Konstantin|page=pp. 53–55|title=Russian Fortresses, 1480–1682|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=2006|isbn=1-84176-916-9}}</ref> Another notable effect of cannon on warfare during this period was the change in conventional fortifications. [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] wrote, "There is no wall, whatever its thickness that artillery will not destroy in only a few days."<ref name="The Art of War (Machiavelli)"/> Although [[castle]]s were not immediately made obsolete by cannon, their use and importance on the battlefield rapidly declined.<ref name="Castles">{{cite book|last=Wilkinson|first=Philip|title=Castles|publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]]|date=[[1997-09-09]]|isbn=0789420473|isbn=978-0789420473|page=p. 81}}</ref> Instead of majestic [[tower]]s and [[merlon]]s, the walls of new fortresses were thicker, angulated, and sloped, while towers became lower and stouter; increasing use was also made of earthen, brick, and stone [[Breastwork (fortification)|breastworks]] and [[redoubt]]s. These new defenses became known as "[[star fort]]s," after their characteristic shape.<ref name="Castles"/> A few of these featured [[Artillery battery|cannon batteries]], such as the [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]]s' [[Device Forts]], in England.<ref name="Castles"/> Star forts soon replaced castles in Europe, and, eventually, those in the Americas, as well.<ref name="SpanishMain">{{cite book|last=Chartrand|first=René|title=Spanish Main: 1492–1800|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=1846030056|year=2006|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cvcBWivXlekC&printsec=frontcover}}</ref>

[[Image:Fortbourtange.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Fort Bourtange, a [[star fort]], was built with angles and sloped walls specifically to defend against cannon.]]
By end of the 15th century, several technological advancements were made, making cannon more mobile. Wheeled gun carriages and [[trunnion]]s became common, and the invention of the [[limber]] further facilitated the transportation of artillery.<ref name="Manucy, p. 5">Manucy, p. 5.</ref> As a result, [[field artillery]] became viable, and began to emerge, often used alongside the larger cannon intended for sieges.<ref name="Sadler">{{cite book|title=Flodden 1513: Scotland's Greatest Defeat|last=Sadler|first=John|isbn=9781841769592|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=2006|page=pp. 22–23|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZXX1SrxKTg0C&printsec=frontcover#PPA23,M1}}</ref><ref name="Manucy, p. 5"/> The better gunpowder, improved, cast-iron projectiles, and the standardization of calibers meant that even relatively light cannon could be deadly.<ref name="Manucy, p. 5"/> In ''[[The Art of War (Machiavelli)|The Art of War]]'', [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] observed that "It is true that the [[arquebus]]es and the small artillery do much more harm than the heavy artillery."<ref name="The Art of War (Machiavelli)">{{cite book|first=Niccolò|last=Machiavelli|title=The Art of War|isbn=0226500462|page=p. 74|authorlinks=Niccolò Machiavelli}}</ref> This was the case at [[Battle of Flodden Field|Flodden]], in 1513: the English [[field gun]]s outpaced the Scottish siege artillery, firing twice, or even thrice, as many rounds.<ref>Sadler, p. 60.</ref> Despite the increased maneuverability, however, cannon were still much slower than the rest of the army: a heavy English cannon required 23 horses to transport, while a [[culverin]], nine, yet, even with this many animals transporting them, they still moved at a walking pace. Due to their relatively slow speed, and lack of organization, discipline, and tactics, the combination of [[pike and shot]] still dominated the battlefields of Europe.<ref>Manucy, p. 6.</ref>

Innovations continued, notably the German invention of the [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]], a thick-walled, short-barreled gun that blasted shot upward at a steep angle. Mortars were useful for sieges, as they could fire over walls and other defenses.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053839/mortar|title=Encyclopedia Britannica Online - Mortar|accessdate=13 March|accessyear=2008}}</ref> This cannon found more use with the Dutch, who learned to shoot bombs filled with powder from them. However, setting the bomb fuse in the mortar was a problem. "Single firing" was the first technique used to set the fuse, where the bomb was placed with the fuse down against the propelling charge. This practice often resulted in the fuse being blown into the bomb, causing it to blow up in front of the mortar. Because of this danger, "double firing" was developed, where the fuse was turned up and the gunner lighted the fuse and the touch hole simultaneously. This, however, required much skill and timing, and was especially dangerous when the gun failed to fire, leaving a lighted bomb in the barrel. Not until 1650 was it accidentally discovered that double-lighting was a superfluous process: the heat of firing was enough to light the fuse.<ref>Tunis, p. 90.</ref>

[[Image:Gabions.png|thumb|The use of [[gabions]] with cannon was an important part in the attack and defense of fortifications.]]
[[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] emphasized the use of light cannon and mobility in his army, and created new formations and tactics that revolutionized artillery. He discontinued using all 12&nbsp;pounder&mdash;or heavier&mdash;cannon as field artillery, preferring, instead, to use cannon that could be manned by only a few men. One gun, called the "leatheren," could be serviced by only two persons, but was abandoned, replaced by 4&nbsp;pounder and 9&nbsp;pounder [[demi-culverin]]s. These could be operated by three men, and pulled by only two horses. Also, Adolphus's army was the first to use a special cartridge that contained both powder and shot, which sped up loading, and therefore increased the rate of fire.<ref>Manucy, pp. 7–8.</ref> Additionally, he pioneered the use of [[canister shot]] against infantry, which was essentially a can, filled with musket balls.<ref>Tunis, p. 96.</ref> At the time, for each thousand infantrymen, there was one cannon on the battlefield; Gustavus Adolphus increased the number of cannon in his army so dramatically, that there were six cannon for each one thousand infantry. Each regiment was assigned two pieces, though he often decided to arrange his artillery into [[Artillery battery|batteries]], instead. These were to decimate the enemy's infantry, while his cavalry [[flanking|outflanked]] their heavy guns.<ref>Manucy, p. 8.</ref> At the [[Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)|Battle of Breitenfeld]], in 1631, Adolphus proved the effectiveness of the changes made to his army, in particular his artillery, by defeating [[Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly]]. Although severely outnumbered, the Swedes were able to fire between three and five times as many volleys of artillery without losing ground, due to their infantry's [[line (formation)|linear]] formations. Battered by cannon fire, and low on morale, Tilly's men broke rank, and fled.<ref>{{cite book|first=Archer|last=Jones|title=The Art of War in the Western World|location=[[New York City]]||publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]|year=2001|isbn=0252069668|page=p. 235|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=z2FRzcz2W0oC&printsec=frontcover#PPA235,M1}}</ref>

Around this time also came the idea of aiming the cannon to hit a target. Gunners controlled the range of their cannon by measuring the angle of elevation, using a "gunner's [[Quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]]." Cannon did not have [[Sight (device)|sights]], therefore, even with measuring tools, aiming was still largely guesswork.<ref>Tunis, p. 97.</ref>

In the latter half of the 17th century, the French engineer [[Vauban]] introduced a more systematic and scientific approach to attacking gunpowder fortresses, in a time when many field commanders "were notorious dunces in siegecraft."<ref name="Griffith">{{cite book|last=Griffith|first=Paddy|title=The Vauban Fortifications of France|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eH1NtNGWQZ8C&printsec=frontcover|year=2006|page=5|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=9781841768755}}</ref> Careful [[sapping]] forward, supported by [[enfilading]] [[ricochet fire]], was a key feature of this system, and it even allowed Vauban to calculate the length of time a siege would take.<ref name="Griffith"/> He was also a prolific builder of star forts, and did much to popularize the idea of "depth defense" in the face of cannon.<ref>Griffith, p 29</ref> These principles were followed into the mid-19th century, when changes in armaments necessitated greater depth defense than Vauban had provided for. It was only in the years prior to [[World War I]] that new works began to break radically away from his designs.<ref>Griffith, pp. 56-57.</ref>

===18th and 19th centuries===
{{seealso|Naval artillery in the Age of Sail|Field artillery in the American Civil War}}
[[Image:Antoine Morel-Fatio pl10.jpg|thumb|30&nbsp;pounder long gun at the ready|175px]]
The lower tier of 17th-century English [[Ship of the line|ships of the line]] were usually equipped with demi-cannon, [[gun]]s that fired a {{convert|32|lb|kg}} solid shot, and could weigh up to {{convert|3400|lb|kg}}.<ref>{{citebook|last=Stone|first=George Cameron|title=A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration, and Use of Arms and Armor in All Countries and in All Times|year=1999|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=0486407268|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=J5PgapzD6FoC&printsec=frontcover#PPA162,M1|page=p. 162}}</ref> Demi-cannon were capable of firing these heavy metal balls with such force, that they could penetrate more than a meter of solid oak, from a distance of {{convert|90|m|ft|abbr=on}}, and could dismast even the largest ships at close range.<ref>{{cite book|first=Byron|last=Heath|title=Discovering the Great South Land|year=2005|publisher=Rosenberg Publishing|location=[[Kenthurst, New South Wales|Kenthurst]]|
url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yOWLaNm6c7sC&pg=PA127&dq=demi-cannon+solid+oak&as_brr=0&ei=rPnjR5bsBZGgygTu7uTLBA&sig=Tl7TY3AGuZdd1X4cKAGxXCLUVhA |page=p. 127|isbn=1-877058-31-9}}</ref> Full cannon fired a {{convert|42|lb|abbr=on}} shot, but were discontinued by the 18th century, as they were too unwieldy. By the end of the century, principles long adopted in Europe specified the characteristics of the [[Royal Navy]]'s cannon, as well as the acceptable defects, and their severity. The [[United States Navy]] tested guns by measuring them, firing them two or three times,&mdash;termed "proof by powder"&mdash;and using pressurized water to detect leaks.<ref name="NavyBarbaryI">{{cite book|last=Knox|first=Dudley W.|title=Naval Documents related to the United Stats Wars with the Barbary Powers, Volume I|year=1939|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|publisher=[[United States Government Printing Office]]}}</ref>

The [[carronade]] was adopted by the Royal Navy in 1779; the lower muzzle velocity of the [[round shot]] when fired from this cannon was intended to create more wooden [[wikt:splinter|splinters]] when hitting the structure of an enemy vessel, as they were believed to be deadly.<ref name="Carronade">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dS4yZLvS0soC&printsec=frontcover#PPA83,M1|title=Siege Train: The Journal of a Confederate Artilleryman in the Defense of Charleston|year=1996|publisher=[[University of South Carolina Press]]|location=[[Charleston, South Carolina]]|last=Manigault|first=Edward|coauthors=Warren Ripley|page=p. 83|isbn=1570031274}}</ref> The carronade was much shorter, and weighed between a third to a quarter less than an equivalent [[long gun]]; for example, a 32&nbsp;pounder carronade weighed less than a [[ton]], compared with a 32&nbsp;pounder long gun, which weighed over 3&nbsp;tons. The guns were, therefore, easier to handle, and also required less than half as much gunpowder, allowing fewer men to crew them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hms.org.uk/nelsonsnavycarronade.htm|title=The Historical Maritime Society|accessdate=2008-02-16|publisher=The Historical Maritime Society|year=2001}}</ref> Carronades were manufactured in the usual naval gun [[caliber]]s,<ref>12, 18, 24, 32, and 42&nbsp;[[pound (weight)#Imperial_pound|pounders]], but 6&nbsp;pounder and 68&nbsp;pounder versions are known.</ref> but were not counted in a [[ship of the line]]'s rated number of guns. As a result, the classification of Royal Navy vessels in this period can be misleading, as they often carried more cannon than were listed.

In the 1810s and 1820s, greater emphasis was placed on the accuracy of long-range gunfire, and less on the weight of a broadside. The carronade, although initially very successful and widely adopted, disappeared from the Royal Navy in the 1850s, after the development of [[steel]], jacketed cannon, by [[William George Armstrong]] and [[Joseph Whitworth]]. Nevertheless, carronades were used in the American Civil War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hms.org.uk/nelsonsnavycarronade.htm|title=Carronade|accessdate=2008-03-06|publisher=The Historical Maritime Society}}</ref><ref name="Carronade"/>

[[Image:ChancellorsvilleBattlefieldModern.jpg|left|thumb|A cannon from the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]]|175px]]
The [[Great Turkish Bombard]]s of the [[Fall of Constantinople|Siege of Constantinople]], after being on display for four centuries, were used to battle a British fleet in 1807, in the [[Dardanelles Operation]]. The artillery hit a British ship with two {{convert|700|lb|kg|abbr=on}} cannonballs, killing 60 sailors; in total, the cannon claimed over 100 lives, prompting the British to retreat. In 1867, Sultan Abdul Aziz gifted [[Queen Victoria]] the 17-ton "Dardanelles Gun," one of the cannon used at the siege of Constantinople.<ref name="Trivia Library"/>

In contrast to these antiquated weapons, Western cannon during the 19th century became larger, more destructive, more accurate, and could fire at longer range. One example is the American {{convert|3|in|mm|abbr=on|sing=on}} wrought-iron, muzzle-loading [[howitzer]], used during the [[American Civil War]], which had an effective range of over {{convert|1.1|mi|km|abbr=on}}. Another is the [[smoothbore]] [[Field Artillery in the American Civil War#12-pounder Napoleon|12&nbsp;pounder Napoleon]], which was renowned for its sturdiness, reliability, firepower, flexibility, relatively light weight, and range of {{convert|1700|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hazlett|first=James C.|coauthors=Edwin Olmstead, M. Hume Parks|title=Field Artillery Weapons of the American Civil War|edition=5th edition|publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]|location=[[Champaign, Illinois]]|year=2004|isbn=0-252-07210-3|page=pp. 88–108|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=twcQGSi1F7QC&printsec=frontcover#PPA88,M1}}</ref>

Cannon were crucial in [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s rise to power, and continued to play an important role in his army in later years.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WPkgXITA09EC&printsec=frontcover#PPA12,M1|page=p. 12|title=The Age of Napoleon|last=Conner|first=Susan P.|year=2004|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|isbn=0313320144|accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref> During the [[French Revolution]], the unpopularity of the [[French Directory|Directory]] led to riots and rebellions. When over 25,000 of these royalists&mdash;led by General Danican&mdash;assaulted [[Paris]], [[Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras]] was appointed to defend the capital; outnumbered five to one and disorganized, the Republicans were desperate.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UqkSyhUcZ0kC&printsec=frontcover#PPA111,M1|title=The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte|last=Asprey|first=Robert B.|year=2000|publisher=[[Basic Books]]|isbn=0465048811|page=p. 111|accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref> When Napoleon arrived, he reorganized the defenses, while realizing that without cannon, the city could not be held. He ordered [[Joachim Murat]] to bring the guns from the Sablons artillery park; the Major and his cavalry fought their way to the recently captured cannon, and brought them back to Napoleon. When Danican's poorly trained men attacked, on [[13 Vendémiaire]], [[1795]]&mdash;[[October 5]], [[1795]], in the [[Vendémiaire|calendar used in France]], at the time&mdash;Napoleon ordered his cannon to fire [[grapeshot]] into the mob,<ref name="Asprey, pp. 112–113.">Asprey, pp. 112–113.</ref> an act that became known as the "[[Napoleon I of France#"A whiff of grapeshot"|"whiff of grapeshot]]."<ref>Conner, p. 13.</ref> The slaughter effectively ended the threat to the new government, while, at the same time, made Bonaparte a famous&mdash;and popular&mdash;public figure.<ref name="Asprey, pp. 112–113."/><ref>Conner, pp. 12–13.</ref> Among the first generals to recognize that artillery was not being used to its full potential, Napoleon often massed his cannon into batteries, and introduced several changes into the French artillery, improving it significantly, and making it among the finest in Europe.<ref name="Baynes, p. 669.">Baynes, p. 669.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Waterloo Campaign: June 1815|http://books.google.com/books?id=ZPFtsn-nRTwC&printsec=frontcover#PPA123,M1|page=p. 123|accessdate=2008-03-28|last=Nofi|first=Albert A.|publisher=[[Da Capo Press]]|isbn=0938289985}}</ref> Such tactics were successfully used by the French, for example, at the [[Battle of Friedland]], when sixty-six guns fired a total of 3,000 [[roundshot]], and 500 grapeshot,<ref name="Baynes, p. 669."/><ref>{{cite book|title=The Pictorial History of England during the reign of George the Third: Being a History of the People, as well as a History of the Kingdom, volume 2|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=A-0GAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA295,M1|last=Craik|first=George L.|year=1884|location=London|publisher=[[Charles Knight (publisher)|Charles Knight]]|coauthors=Charles MacFarlane|page=p. 295|accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref> inflicting severe casualties to the Russian forces, whose losses numbered over 20,000 killed and wounded, in total.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chandler|first=David G.|title=The Campaigns of Napoleon|location=[[New York City]]|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|year=1995|isbn=0-02-523660-1|page=p. 582}}</ref> At the [[Battle of Waterloo]],&mdash;Napoleon's final battle&mdash;the French army had many more artillery pieces than either the [[British Empire|British]] or [[Prussia|Prussians]]. As the battlefield was muddy, [[recoil]] caused cannon to bury themselves into the ground after firing, resulting in slow rates of fire, as more effort was required to move them back into an adequate firing position;<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4tTYCLqjwj8C&printsec=frontcover#PPT283,M1|title=The Waterloo Companion|last=Adkin|first=Mark|publisher=Stackpole Books|year=2002|0811718549|accessdate=2008-03-28|page=p. 283}}</ref> also, roundshot did not [[ricochet]] with as much force from the wet earth.<ref>{{cite book|title=Napoleon's Artillery|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W7ngGaRS6nkC&printsec=frontcover#PPA32,M1|page=p. 32|last=Wilkinson-Latham|first=Robert|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=1975|location=[[France]]|isbn=0850452473|accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref> Despite the drawbacks, sustained artillery fire proved deadly during the engagement, especially during the [[Battle of Waterloo#The French cavalry attack|French cavalry attack]].<ref>Wilkinson-Latham, p. 36.</ref> The British infantry, having formed [[infantry square]]s, took heavy losses from the French guns, while their own cannon fired at the [[cuirassier]]s and [[lancer]]s, when they fell back to regroup. Eventually, the French ceased their assault, after taking heavy losses from the British cannon and musket fire.<ref>Nofi, pp. 115–116.</ref>

[[Image:Utah Battery San Juan Bridge.jpeg|thumb|right|175px|U.S. troops fire during the 1899 [[Battle of Manila (1899)|Battle of Manila]], [[Philippine-American War]]]]
The practice of [[rifling]]&mdash;casting spiraling lines inside the cannon's barrel&mdash;was applied to artillery more frequently by 1855, as it gave cannon [[Gyroscope|gyroscopic]] stability, which improved their accuracy. One of the earliest rifled cannon was the [[Armstrong gun]],&mdash;also invented by [[William George Armstrong]]&mdash;which boasted significantly improved range, accuracy, and power than earlier weapons. The projectile fired from the Armstrong gun could reportedly pierce through a ship's side, and explode inside the enemy vessel, causing increased damage, and casualties.<ref>{{cite journal|title=All the Year Round: A Weekly Journal|accessdate=2008-03-21|date=[[April 22]], [[1859]]|last=Dickens|first=Charles|authorlinks=[[Charles Dickens]]|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=o-4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA373,M1|page=p. 373}}</ref> The British military adopted the Armstrong gun, and was impressed; the [[Duke of Cambridge]] even declared that it "could do everything but speak."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6ybDCEqsWrUC&printsec=frontcover#PPA59,M1|page=p. 59|title=Arms and the State: Sir William Armstrong and the Remaking of British Naval Power, 1854-1914|last=Bastable|first=Marshall J.|year=2004|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=0754634043|accessdate=2008-03-22}}</ref> Despite being significantly more advanced than its predecessors, the Armstrong gun was rejected soon after its integration, in favor of the muzzle-loading pieces that had been in use before.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ruffell|first=W. L.|title=The Gun - Rifled Ordnance: Whitworth|work=The Gun|url=http://riv.co.nz/rnza/hist/gun/rifled2.htm|accessdate=2008-02-06}}</ref> While both types of gun were effective against wooden ships, neither had the capability to pierce the armor of [[ironclad warship|ironclad]]s; due to reports of slight problems with the breeches of the Armstrong gun, and their higher cost, the older muzzle-loaders were selected to remain in service, instead.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6ybDCEqsWrUC&printsec=frontcover#PPA94,M1|page=p. 94|title=Arms and the State: Sir William Armstrong and the Remaking of British Naval Power, 1854-1914|last=Bastable|first=Marshall J.|year=2004|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=0754634043|accessdate=2008-03-22}}</ref> Realizing that iron was more difficult to pierce with breech-loaded cannon, Armstrong designed rifled muzzle-loading guns,<ref>Bastable, p. 72.</ref> which proved successful; [[The Times]] reported: "even the fondest believers in the invulnerability of our present ironclads were obliged to confess that against such artillery, at such ranges, their plates and sides were almost as penetrable as wooden ships."<ref>Bastable, p. 73.</ref>

The superior cannon of the [[Western world]] brought them tremendous advantages in warfare. For example, in the [[Opium War]] in China, during the 19th century, British battleships bombarded the coastal areas and fortifications from afar, safe from the reach of the Chinese cannon. Similarly, the shortest war in recorded history, the [[Anglo-Zanzibar War]] of 1896, was brought to a swift conclusion by shelling from British battleships.<ref>{{cite book|last=Young|first=Mark C.|title=Guinness Book of World Records, 2002 edition|page=p. 112|publisher=[[Bantam Books]]|isbn=0553583786|year=2002}}</ref> The cynical attitude towards recruited infantry in the face of ever more powerful field artillery is the source of the term ''[[cannon fodder]]'', first used by [[François-René de Chateaubriand]], in 1814;<ref>{{fr icon}} [[:wikisource:fr:De Buonaparte et des Bourbons|"De Buonaparte et des Bourbons"]] – full text in the French [[Wikisource]].</ref> however, the concept of regarding soldiers as nothing more than "food for powder" was mentioned by [[William Shakespeare]] as early as 1598, in [[Henry IV, Part 1]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Shakespeare|first=William|title=Henry IV, Part 1|year=1598}} Part 1, act 4, sc. 2, l. 65-7.</ref>

===20th and 21st centuries===
Cannon in the 20th and 21st centuries are usually divided into sub-categories, and given separate names. Some of the most widely used types of modern cannon are [[howitzer]]s, [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s, [[gun]]s, and [[autocannon]], although a few [[supergun]]s&mdash;extremely large, custom-designed cannon&mdash;have also been constructed. Modern artillery is used in a variety of roles, depending on its type. According to [[NATO]], the general role of artillery is to provide fire support, which is defined as "the application of fire, coordinated with the maneuver of forces to destroy, neutralize, or suppress the enemy."<ref>{{cite book|title=AAP-6 NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions|year=2007|publisher=[[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]]|accessdate=2008-03-21|url=http://www.nato.int/docu/stanag/aap006/aap-6-2007.pdf|format=PDF|page=p. 113}}</ref>

When referring to cannon, the term ''gun'' is often used incorrectly. In military usage, a gun is a cannon with a high muzzle velocity and [[direct fire|comparatively flat trajectory]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gun|title=Definition of "Gun"|accessdate=2008-03-17|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster's Dictionary]]}}</ref> as opposed to other types of artillery, such as howitzers or mortars, which have lower muzzle velocities, and usually fire [[indirect fire|indirectly]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Howitzer|title=Definition of "Howitzer"|accessdate=2008-03-17|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster's Dictionary]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Mortar|title=Definition of "Mortar"|accessdate=2008-03-17|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster's Dictionary]]}}</ref>

====Artillery====
[[Image:4-14 Marines in Fallujah.jpg|thumb|Nine-man crew firing a US [[M198 howitzer]]|175px]]
By the early 20th century, [[infantry weapon]]s became more powerful and accurate, forcing most artillery away from the front lines. Despite the change to [[indirect fire]], cannon still proved highly effective during [[World War I]], causing over 75% of casualties.<ref>Manucy, p. 20.</ref> The onset of [[trench warfare]] after the first few months of [[World War I]] greatly increased the demand for howitzers, as they fired at a steep angle, and were thus better suited than guns at hitting targets in trenches. Furthermore, their shells carried larger amounts of explosives than those of guns, and caused considerably less barrel wear. The German army took advantage of this, beginning the war with many more howitzers than the French.<ref>{{cite book|first=Bruce I.|last=Gudmundsson|title=On Artillery|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|isbn=0275940470|year=1993|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O_-0w2WUDd0C&printsec=frontcover#PPP1,M1|page=p. 43}}</ref> World War I also marked the use of the [[Paris Gun]], the longest-ranged gun ever fired. This {{convert|200|mm|in|0|sing=on|abbr=on}} caliber gun was used by the Germans to bombard Paris, and was capable of hitting targets more than {{convert|122|km|mi|abbr=on}} away.<ref>Young, p. 113.</ref>

[[Image:British 39th Siege Battery RGA Somme 1916.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[Royal Artillery]] [[howitzer]]s at the [[First day on the Somme|Battle of the Somme]]]]
The [[World War II|Second World War]] sparked new developments in cannon technology. Among them were [[sabot|sabot rounds]], hollow-charge projectiles, and [[proximity fuse]]s, all of which were marginally significant.<ref>{{cite book|last=McCamley|first=Nicholas J.|title=Disasters Underground|publisher=Pen & Sword Military|year=2004|isbn=1844150224}}</ref> The proximity fuse emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq96-1.htm|title=Radio Proximty (VT) Fuzes|accessdate=2008-03-18|date=2000-03-20}}</ref> They became known as the American artillery's "Christmas present" for the German army, and were employed primarily in the [[Battle of the Bulge]]. Proximity fuses were effective against German personnel in the open, and hence were used to disperse their attacks. Also used to great effect in [[anti-aircraft]] projectiles, proximity fuses were used in both the [[European Theater of Operations|European]] and [[Pacific Theater of Operations|Pacific]] Theaters of Operations, against [[V-1 flying bomb]]s and [[kamikaze]] planes, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|title=Variable Time Fuse Contributed to the Victory of United Nations|year=2007|accessdate=2007-10-05|url=http://scienceservice.si.edu/pages/102001.htm}}</ref> [[Anti-tank gun]]s were also tremendously improved during the war: in 1939, the British used primarily [[Ordnance QF 2 pounder|2&nbsp;pounder]] and [[Ordnance QF 6 pounder|6&nbsp;pounder]] guns. By the end of the war, [[Ordnance QF 17 pounder|17&nbsp;pounders]] had proven much more effective against German tanks, and 32&nbsp;pounders had entered development.<ref name="Anti-tank guns">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4IYXxrcx1_0C&printsec=frontcover#PPA29,M1|title=World War II: A Visual Encyclopedia|last=Keegan|first=John|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|year=2000|isbn=1855858789|page=p. 29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.avalanchepress.com/BritainsAntiTankGuns.php|title=British Anti-Tank Guns|publisher=[[Avalanche Press]]|last=Rahman|first=Jason|date=2007-11|accessdate=2008-03-15}}</ref> Meanwhile, German tanks were continuously upgraded with better [[tank gun|main guns]], in addition to other improvements. For example, the [[Panzer III]] was originally designed with a 37&nbsp;mm gun, but was [[mass production|mass produced]] with a 50&nbsp;mm cannon.<ref name="German Tanks of World War II in Color">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DZwQkZr0VrQC&printsec=frontcover#PPA46,M1|title=German Tanks of World War II in Color|accessdate=2008-03-21|year=2000|publisher=Zenith Imprint|page=p. 46|last=Green|first=Michael|coauthors=Thomas Anderson, Frank Schulz|isbn=0760306710}}</ref> To counter the threat of the Russian [[T-34]]s, another, more powerful 50&nbsp;mm gun was introduced,<ref name="German Tanks of World War II in Color"/> only to give way to a larger 75&nbsp;mm cannon.<ref>Green, p. 47.</ref> Despite the improved guns, production of the Panzer III was ended in 1943, as the tank still could not match the T-34, and was, furthermore, being replaced by the [[Panzer IV]] and [[Panzer tank|Panther]] tanks.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Xa6HLAhSzBAC&printsec=frontcover#PPA63,M1|title=Kursk 1943: A Statistical Analysis|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2000|last=Zetterling|first=Niklas|coauthors=Anders Frankson|isbn=0714650528|page=p. 63}}</ref> In 1944, the [[8.8 cm KwK 43|8.8&nbsp;cm KwK 43]],&mdash;and its multiple variations&mdash;entered service, used by the [[Wehrmacht]], and adapted to be both a tank's main gun, and the [[PaK 43]] anti-tank gun.<ref>{{cite book|title=German Early War Armored Fighting Vehicles|last=Bradford|first=George|year=2007|publisher=Stackpole Books|location=[[Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania]]|page=p. 3|isbn=0811733416}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Mediterranean and Middle East|last=Playfair|first=Ian S. O.|coauthors=T. P. Gleave|publisher=[[HMSO]]|isbn=0116309466|page=p. 257}}</ref> One of the most powerful guns to see service in World War II, it was capable of destroying any [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] tank at very long ranges.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LwqhCwNAjSYC&printsec=frontcover#PRA1-PA239,M1|accessdate=2008-03-22|title=Panzerkrieg: The Rise and Fall of Hitler's Tank Divisions|last=McCarthy|first=Peter|coauthors=Mike Syron|year=2003|publisher=[[Carroll & Graf Publishers]]|page=p. 239|isbn=0786712643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-PXQYVjbp6MC&printsec=frontcover#PPA115,M1|title=Tank Tactics: From Normandy to Lorraine|accessdate=2008-03-22|page=p. 115|last=Jarymowycz|first=Roman Johann|year=2001|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|isbn=1555879500}}</ref>

[[Image:Uss iowa bb-61 pr.jpg|thumb|right|175px|The {{USS|Iowa|BB-61|6}} firing her {{convert|16|in|cm|0|sing=on|abbr=on}} guns]]
Despite being designed to fire at trajectories with a steep angle of descent, howitzers can be fired [[direct fire|directly]], as was done by the [[11th Marine Regiment#Korean War|11th Marine Regiment]] at the [[Battle of Chosin Reservoir]], during the [[Korean War]]. Two [[Artillery battery#Modern military organization|field batteries]] fired directly upon a [[battalion]] of Chinese infantry; the Marines were forced to brace themselves against their howitzers, as they had no time to dig them in. The Chinese infantry took heavy casualties, and were forced to retreat.<ref>{{cite book|last=Russ|first=Martin|year=1999|title=Breakout: The Chosin Reservoir Campaign, Korea 1950|page=pp. 383–384|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|isbn=0-14-029259-4}}</ref>

[[Image:5-54-Mark-45-firing edit.jpg|thumb|left|175px|A {{convert|5|in|mm|sing=on|abbr=on}} [[Mark 45]] gun being fired from a {{Sclass|Ticonderoga|cruiser|1}}]]
The tendency to create larger caliber cannon during the World Wars has been reversed in more recent years. The [[United States Army]], for example, sought a lighter, more versatile howitzer, to replace their aging pieces. As it could be towed, the [[M198 howitzer|M198]] was selected to be the successor to the World War II-era cannon used at the time, and entered service in 1979.<ref name="M198 Info">{{cite web|url=http://tech.military.com/equipment/view/146534/m198-155mm-towed-howitzer.html|title=M198 information|accessdate=2008-03-18|publisher=Military.com}}</ref> Still in use today, the M198 is, in turn, being slowly replaced by the [[M777 howitzer|M777]] Ultralightweight howitzer, which weighs nearly half as much, and can be transported by [[helicopter]]&mdash;as opposed to the M198, which requires a [[C-5 Galaxy|C-5]] or [[C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] to airlift.<ref name="M198 Info"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.military.com/soldiertech/0,14632,Soldiertech_M777,,00.html|title=M777 information|accessdate=2008-03-18|publisher=Military.com}}</ref> Although land-based artillery such as the [[M198 howitzer|M198]] are powerful, long-ranged, and accurate, naval guns have not been neglected, despite being much smaller than in the past, and, in some cases, having been replaced by [[cruise missile]]s.<ref name="Cruise missile">{{cite web|url=http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/issues/2001/Mar/Naval_Guns.htm|title=Affordable precision|publisher=National Defense Magazine|accessdate=2008-03-18}}</ref> However, the {{Sclass|Zumwalt|destroyer|1}}'s planned armament includes the [[Zumwalt class destroyer#Advanced Gun System (AGS)|Advanced Gun System (AGS)]], a pair of 155&nbsp;mm guns, which fire the [[Long Range Land-Attack Projectile]]. The warhead, which weighs {{convert|24|lb|kg}}, has a [[Circular error probable|circular error of probability]] of {{convert|50|m|ft|abbr=on}}, and will be mounted on a rocket, to increase the effective range to {{convert|100|nmi|km|abbr=on}}&mdash;a longer range than that of the Paris Gun. The AGS's barrels will be water cooled, and will be capable of firing 10 rounds per minute, per gun. The combined firepower from both turrets will give ''Zumwalt''-class destroyers the firepower equivalent to 18 conventional [[M-198]] howitzers.<ref name="global_dd-x">{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/dd-x.htm |title=DDG-1000 Zumwalt / DD(X) Multi-Mission Surface Combatant |accessdate=2008-03-21 |authos-John Pike |last=Pike |first=John |publisher=Global Security |date=2008-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.raytheon.com/products/ddg_1000/tech/ags/index.html |title=Raytheon Company: Products & Services: Advanced Gun System (AGS) |accessdate=2008-03-21 |publisher=Raytheon, Inc.}}</ref> The reason for the re-integration of cannon as a main armament in [[United States Navy]] ships is because satellite-guided munitions fired from a gun are far less expensive than a cruise missile, and are therefore a better alternative to many combat situations.<ref name="Cruise missile"/>

==== Autocannon ====
An [[autocannon]] is a cannon with a larger [[caliber]] than a [[machine gun]], but smaller than that of a [[field gun]]. 20&nbsp;mm has remained the traditional minimum bore for autocannon since World War II, and, since they are the lowest caliber pieces, for all types of cannon. Autocannon have mechanisms to automatically load their ammunition, and therefore have a faster rate of fire than artillery, often approaching&mdash;and, in the case of [[Gatling gun]]s, surpassing&mdash;that of a [[machine gun]].<ref name="Autocannon Rate of Fire"/>
[[Image:GAU-8 in A-10.jpg|thumb|right|135px|The [[GAU-8/A Avenger]] [[autocannon]], mounted in an [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]]]]
Most nations use these rapid-fire cannon on their light vehicles, replacing a more powerful, but heavier, [[tank gun]]. A typical autocannon is the [[25 mm caliber|25&nbsp;mm]] "[[M242 Bushmaster|Bushmaster]]" [[chain gun]], mounted on the [[LAV-25]] and [[M2 Bradley]] [[Infantry fighting vehicle|armored vehicles]].<ref name="Bushmaster"/>

Autocannon have largely replaced machine guns in aircraft, due to their greater firepower.<ref name="Aircraft Cannon"/> The first airborne cannon appeared in [[World War II]], but each airplane could carry only one or two, as cannon are heavier than machine guns, the standard armament. They were variously mounted, often in the wings, but also high on the forward fuselage, where they would fire through the [[propeller]], or even through the propeller hub. Due both to the low number of cannon per aircraft, and the lower rate of fire of cannon, machine guns continued to be used widely early in the war, as there was a greater probability of hitting enemy aircraft.<ref name="Aircraft Cannon"/> However, as cannon were more effective against more heavily armored bomber aircraft, they were eventually integrated into newer fighters, which usually carried between two and four autocannon. The [[Hispano-Suiza HS.404]], [[Oerlikon 20 mm cannon|Oerlikon 20&nbsp;mm cannon]], [[MG FF cannon|MG FF]], and their numerous variants became among the most widely used autocannon in the war. Nearly all modern [[fighter aircraft]] are armed with an autocannon, and most are derived from their counterparts from the Second World War.<ref name="Aircraft Cannon"/> The largest, heaviest, and most powerful airborne cannon used by the [[military of the United States]] is the [[GAU-8/A Avenger]] Gatling-type rotary cannon;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.442fw.afrc.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123055695|title=GAU-8/A|publisher=442nd Fighter Wing|accessdate=2008-02-27}}</ref> it is surpassed only by the specialized artillery pieces carried on the [[AC-130]] gunship.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.123exp-warfare.com/t/03804237449/|title=Information on the GAU-8/A|publisher=The Language of Weaponry|accessdate=2008-02-27}}</ref>

Although capable of generating a high volume of fire, autocannon are limited by the amount of ammunition that can be carried by the weapons systems mounting them. For this reason, both the 25&nbsp;mm Bushmaster and the 30&nbsp;mm [[RARDEN]] are deliberately designed with relatively slow rates of fire, to extend the amount of time they can be employed on a battlefield before requiring a resupply of ammunition. The rate of fire of modern autocannon ranges from 90 rounds per minute, to 1,800 rounds per minute. Systems with multiple barrels&mdash;Gatling guns&mdash;can have rates of fire of several thousand rounds per minute; the fastest of these is the [[Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-6-30|GSh-6-30K]], which has a rate of fire of over 6,000&nbsp;rounds per minute.<ref name="Autocannon Rate of Fire">{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Anthony G.|page=p. 241|title=Rapid Fire|publisher=Shrewsbury: Airlife Publishing Ltd.|year=2000|isbn=1-84037-435-7}}</ref>

==Operation==
{{main|Cannon operation}}
[[Image:Artillery gun crew-illustration.jpeg|right|thumb|175px|Cannon operation as shown in the 1771 edition of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'']]
In the 1770s, cannon operation worked as follows: each cannon would be manned by two gunners, six soldiers, and four officers of artillery. The right gunner was to prime the piece and load it with powder, and the left gunner would fetch the powder from the magazine and be ready to fire the cannon at the officer's command. On each side of the cannon, three soldiers stood, to ram and sponge the cannon, and hold the ladle. The second soldier on the left tasked with providing 50 bullets.<ref name="EB1771">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Britannica|year=1771|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]|location=Edinburgh|chapter=Gunnery}}</ref>

Before loading, the cannon would be cleaned with a wet sponge to extinguish any smoldering material from the last shot. Fresh powder could be set off prematurely by lingering ignition sources. The powder was added, followed by [[wadding]] of paper or hay, and the ball was placed in and rammed down. After ramming the cannon would be aimed with the elevation set using a quadrant and a plummet. At 45 degrees, the ball had the utmost range: about ten times the gun's level range. Any angle above a horizontal line was called random-shot. Wet sponges were used to cool the pieces every ten or twelve rounds.<ref name="EB1771"/>[[Image:Cannoniere 1652.jpg|thumb|left|175px|The parts of a cannon described in John Roberts' ''The Compleat Cannoniere'', London, 1652]]

During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], a British gun team consisted of five gunners to aim it, clean the bore with a damp sponge to quench any remaining embers before a fresh charge was introduced, and another to load the gun with a bag of powder and then the projectile. The fourth gunner pressed his thumb on the vent hole, to prevent a draught that might fan a flame. The charge loaded, the fourth would prick the bagged charge through the vent hole, and fill the vent with powder. On command, the fifth gunner would fire the piece with a slowmatch.<ref>{{cite book|last=Holmes|first=Richard|title=Redcoat: the British Soldier in the age of Horse and Musket|year=2002|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]]|isbn=0393052117|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p5XamBYUu0AC&printsec=frontcover}}</ref>

==In music==
For musical purposes, cannon are generally only used in grand, theatrical pieces,&mdash;often those with a military theme&mdash;due to their impracticality. One of the best known examples of such a piece is [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]'s ''[[1812 Overture]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.classical.net/music/comp.lst/works/tchaikov/1812.html |title="1812" Overture in E Flat Major Op. 49 (1880) |author=Dave Lampson |last=Lampson |first=Dave |publisher=Classical Net |accessdate=2008-03-21}}</ref> The overture is properly performed using an artillery section together with the orchestra, resulting in noise levels requiring musicians to wear [[Earplug|ear protection]].<ref name=july4 /> The cannon fire simulates Russian artillery bombardments of the [[Battle of Borodino]], a critical battle in [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia]], whose defeat the piece is celebrating overall.<ref name=july4 /> When the overture was first performed, the cannon were fired by an electric current triggered by the conductor.<ref>{{cite book|accessdate=2008-03-23|title=Tchaikovsky|last=Lee|first=Ernest Markham|date=1906|publisher=G. Bell & sons|location=[[Harvard University]]|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=x60NAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage|page=p. 21}}</ref> However, the overture was not recorded with real cannon fire until [[Mercury Records]] and [[conductor (music)|conductor]] [[Antal Doráti]]'s 1958 recording of the [[Minnesota Orchestra]].<ref>{{cite web |author= Flynn, Tony |url=http://www.musicweb-international.com/classrev/2007/Oct07/Dorati_flynn.htm |title=Antal Dorati - Recording Legend - October 2007 |accessdate=2008-02-22}}</ref> Cannon fire is also frequently used annually in presentations of the ''1812'' on the American [[Independence Day (United States)|Independence Day]], a tradition started by [[Arthur Fiedler]] of the [[Boston Pops]] in 1974.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.classical.net/music/comp.lst/works/tchaikov/1812.html |title=Classical Net - Tchaikovsky - 1812 Overture |accessdate=2008-02-22}}</ref><ref name=july4>{{cite news |first=Andrew |last=Druckenbrod |title=How a rousing Russian tune took over our July 4th |url=http://www.postgazette.com/ae/20030704overtureae3.asp|publisher=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |date=2003-08-04 |accessdate=2008-02-22 }}</ref>

The [[hard rock]] band [[AC/DC]] also used cannon in their song "[[For Those About to Rock (We Salute You)]]."<ref name=acdcsong>{{cite web |url=http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=33:w9fexze5ld6e |title=For Those About to Rock We Salute You |accessdate=2008-02-26 |publisher=[[Allmusic|All Music Guide]]}}</ref> The [[For Those About to Rock We Salute You|album of the same name]] also featured a cannon on its cover.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:06rsa9igb23h~T1 |title=For Those About to Rock We Salute You |accessdate=2008-02-26 |publisher=[[Allmusic|All Music Guide]]}}</ref> In live shows, real cannon were used to perform the piece.<ref name=acdcsong/>

==Restoration==
Cannon recovered from the sea are often extensively damaged from exposure to salt water; because of this, [[Extractive metallurgy|electrolytic reduction treatment]] is required to forestall the process of corrosion.<ref>{{cite web|last=Welss|first=Carmen|title=Rescue Project "Endeavour Cannon"|publisher=[[Foundation for National Parks & Wildlife]]|url=http://fnpw.com.au/enews4/cannon.htm|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> The cannon is then washed in [[purified|deionized]] water to remove the [[electrolyte]], and is treated in [[tannic acid]], which prevents further [[rust]] and gives the metal a bluish-black color.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Canadian Conservation Institute|url=http://www.preservation.gc.ca/gallery/cannon_e.asp|title=Preserving My Heritage - Before & After Gallery - Cannon|accessdate=2008-02-22}}</ref><ref name="union"/> After this process, cannon on display may be protected from oxygen and moisture by a [[wax]] sealant. A coat of [[polyurethane]] may also be painted over the wax sealant, to prevent the wax-coated cannon from attracting dust in outdoor displays.<ref name="union">{{cite web|url=http://nautarch.tamu.edu/crl/Report6/union.htm|title=Civil War Union Cannon Conservation, CRL Report 5|accessdate=2008-02-22}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
*{{1771 Britannica}}
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*{{Cite book | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=DZwQkZr0VrQC&printsec=frontcover | title = German Tanks of World War II in Color | year = 2000 | publisher = Zenith Imprint | last = Green | first = Michael | coauthors = Thomas Anderson, Frank Schulz | isbn = 0760306710}}
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*{{Cite book | last = Hazlett | first = James C. | coauthors = Edwin Olmstead, M. Hume Parks | title = Field Artillery Weapons of the American Civil War | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=twcQGSi1F7QC&printsec=frontcover | edition = 5th edition | publisher = [[University of Illinois Press]] | location = [[Champaign, Illinois]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-252-07210-3}}
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*{{Cite book | last = Hoffmeyer | first = Ada Bruhn de. | year = 1972 | publisher = Instituto de Estudios sobre Armas Antiguas | location = [[Madrid]] | title = Arms and Amour in Spain: A Short Survey}}
*{{Cite book | title = Naval Gun | year = 1978 | publisher = Blandford Press | first = Ian V. | last = Hogg | coauthors = John H. Batchelor | isbn = 0713709057}}
*{{Cite book | last = Holmes |first = Richard | title = Redcoat: the British Soldier in the age of Horse and Musket | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=p5XamBYUu0AC&printsec=frontcover | publisher = [[W. W. Norton & Company]] | year = 2002 | isbn = 0393052117}}
*{{Cite book | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=-PXQYVjbp6MC&printsec=frontcover | title = Tank Tactics: From Normandy to Lorraine | last = Jarymowycz | first = Roman Johann | year = 2001 | publisher = Lynne Rienner Publishers | isbn = 1555879500}}
*{{Cite book | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=4IYXxrcx1_0C&printsec=frontcover | title = World War II: A Visual Encyclopedia | last = Keegan | first = John | publisher = Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. | year = 2000 | isbn = 1855858789}}
*{{Cite book | last = Knox | first = Dudley W. | title = Naval Documents related to the United Stats Wars with the Barbary Powers, Volume I | location = Washington | publisher = [[United States Government Printing Office]] | year = 1939}}
*{{Cite book | last = Krebs | first = Robert E. | Publisher = Greenwood Publishing
Group | year = 2004 | title = Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance | isbn = 0313324336 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&printsec=frontcover}}
*{{Cite book | title = Tchaikovsky | last = Lee | first = Ernest Markham | year = 1906 | publisher = G. Bell & sons | location = [[Harvard University]] | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=x60NAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage}}
*{{Cite book | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=dS4yZLvS0soC&printsec=frontcover | title = Siege Train: The Journal of a Confederate Artilleryman in the Defense of Charleston | year = 1996 | publisher = [[University of South Carolina Press]] | location = [[Charleston, South Carolina]] | last = Manigault | first = Edward | coauthors = Warren Ripley | isbn = 1570031274}}
*{{Cite book | last = Manucy | first = Albert | url = http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/source/is3/is3toc.htm | title = Artillery Through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasising Types Used in America | isbn = 0788107453 | publisher = Diane Publishing | year = 1994}}
*{{Cite book | last = McCamley | first = Nicholas J. | title = Disasters Underground | publisher = Pen & Sword Military | year = 2004 | isbn = 1844150224}}
*{{Cite book | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=LwqhCwNAjSYC&printsec=frontcover | title = Panzerkrieg: The Rise and Fall of Hitler's Tank Divisions | last = McCarthy | first = Peter | coauthors = Mike Syron | year = 2003 | publisher = [[Carroll & Graf Publishers]] | isbn = 0786712643}}
*{{Cite book | last = Needham | first = Joseph | authorlink = Joseph Needham | title = Science & Civilisation in China: Volume 7, The Gunpowder Epic | year = 1987 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn = 0521303583}}
*{{Cite book | last = Needham | first = Joseph | authorlink = Joseph Needham | year = 1986 | title = Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3 | location = [[Taipei]] | publisher = Caves Books, Ltd. | isbn = 0521070600 | isbn = 9780521070607}}
*{{Cite book | first = David | last = Nicolle| authorlink = David Nicolle | title = Crécy 1346: Triumph of the Longbow | publisher = [[Osprey Publishing]] | year = 2000 | isbn = 9781855329669 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=lujfZqpd2JoC&printsec=frontcover}}
*{{Cite book | last = Norris | first = John | year = 2003 | title = Early Gunpowder Artillery: 1300–1600 | place = [[Marlborough]] | publisher = The Crowood Press | isbn = 1861266154 | isbn = 978-1861266156}}
*{{cite book | last = Nossov | first = Konstantin | year = 2007 | title = Medieval Russian Fortresses AD 862–1480 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Pyo5bKLO-0oC&printsec=frontcover | publisher = [[Osprey Publishing]] | isbn = 9781846030932}}
*{{Cite book | last = Nossov | first = Konstantin | title = Russian Fortresses, 1480–1682 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=fzftK0dlZg8C&printsec=frontcover | [[Osprey Publishing]] | isbn = 1-84176-916-9 | year = 2006 | publisher = [[Osprey Publishing]] | isbn = 1841769169}}
*{{Cite book | last = Pacey | first = Arnold | title = Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&printsec=frontcover | year = 1990 | publisher = [[MIT Press]] | isbn = 0262660725}}
*{{Cite book | title = The Mediterranean and Middle East | last = Playfair | first = Ian S. O. | coauthors = T. P. Gleave | publisher = [[HMSO]] | isbn = 0116309466}}
*{{Cite book | first = John | last = Sadler | authorlink = John Sadler (historian) | title = Flodden 1513: Scotland's Greatest Defeat |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=ZXX1SrxKTg0C&printsec=frontcover | publisher = [[Osprey Publishing]] | year = 2006 | isbn=9781841769592}}
*{{Cite book | last = Reymond | first = Arnold | title = History of the Sciences in Greco-Roman Antiquity | publisher = Biblo & Tannen Publishers | year = 1963 | isbn = 0819601284 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=yt7qsvmmXdQC&printsec=frontcover}}
*{{Cite book | last = Russ | first = Martin | year = 1999 | title = Breakout: The Chosin Reservoir Campaign, Korea 1950 | publisher = [[Penguin Books]] | isbn = 0-14-029259-4}}
*{{Cite book | last = Shakespeare | first = William | title = Henry IV, Part 1 | year = 1598}}
*{{Cite book | last = Stone | first = George Cameron | title = A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration, and Use of Arms and Armor in All Countries and in All Times | year = 1999 | publisher = Courier Dover Publications | isbn = 0486407268 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=J5PgapzD6FoC&printsec=frontcover}}
*{{Cite book | last = Temple | first = Robert | coauthors = Needham, Joseph | title = The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery and Invention | publisher = Prion Books | isbn = 1-85375-292-4}}
*{{Cite book | last = Tunis | first = Edwin | title = Weapons: A Pictorial History | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=sCnyIzibmywC&printsec=frontcover | publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | location = [[Baltimore, Maryland]] | year = 1999 | isbn = 0-8018-6229-9}}
*{{Cite book | first = Stephen | last = Turnbull | authorlink = Stephen Turnbull (historian) | title = The Walls of Constantinople AD 413–1453 | publisher = [[Osprey Publishing]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 1-84176-759-X | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=sVnXSObRUYIC&printsec=frontcover}}
*{{Cite book | title = The People's Almanac | publisher = [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] | year = 1975 | last = Wallechinsky | first = David | authorlink = David Wallechinsky | coauthors = [[Irving Wallace]] | isbn = 0385041861}}
*{{Cite book | last = Wilkinson | first = Philip | title = Castles | publisher = [[Dorling Kindersley]] | date = [[1997-09-09]] | isbn = 0789420473 | isbn = 978-0789420473}}
*{{Cite book | title = Napoleon's Artillery | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=W7ngGaRS6nkC&printsec=frontcover | last = Wilkinson-Latham | first = Robert | publisher = [[Osprey Publishing]] | year = 1975 | location = [[France]] | isbn = 0850452473}}
*{{Cite book | last = Williams | first = Anthony G. | title = Rapid Fire | publisher = Shrewsbury: Airlife Publishing Ltd. | year = 2000 | isbn = 1-84037-435-7}}
*{{Cite book | title = Guinness Book of World Records | edition = 2002 | [[Bantam Books]] | isbn = 0553583786 | isbn = 978-0553583786 | last = Young | first = Mark C}}
*{{Cite book | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Xa6HLAhSzBAC&printsec=frontcover | title = Kursk 1943: A Statistical Analysis | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2000 | last = Zetterling | first = Niklas | coauthors = Anders Frankson | isbn = 0714650528}}

==External links==
{{commons|Cannon}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/artillery_tactics.htm Artillery Tactics and Combat during the Napoleonic Wars]
* [http://homepages.ihug.com.au/~dispater/handgonnes.htm Handgonnes and Matchlocks - History of firearms to 1500]
* {{US patent|5236}} – ''Patent for a Casting ordnance''
* {{US patent|6612}} – ''Cannon patent''
* {{US patent|13851}} – ''Muzzle loading ordnance patent''

[[Category:Cannon]]
[[Category:Artillery]]
[[Category:Weapon history]]

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{{featured article}}

Revision as of 14:25, 6 May 2008

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