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:''For other uses, see [[Human (disambiguation)]].'' |
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{{Taxobox_begin | color = pink | name = ''Homo sapiens''}}<br/>{{StatusSecure}} |
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{{Taxobox_image | image = [[Image:PPlaquecloseup.png|200px|Pioneer image]] | caption = Closeup of image of a man and a woman, sent to space with the ''[[Pioneer 11]]'' mission}} |
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{{Taxobox_begin_placement | color = pink}} |
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{{Taxobox_regnum_entry | taxon = [[Animal]]ia}} |
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{{Taxobox_phylum_entry | taxon = [[Chordata]]}} |
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{{Taxobox_classis_entry | taxon = [[Mammal]]ia}} |
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{{Taxobox_ordo_entry | taxon = [[Primates]]}} |
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{{Taxobox_superfamilia_entry | taxon = [[Hominoidea]]}} |
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{{Taxobox_familia_entry | taxon = [[Hominidae]]}} |
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{{Taxobox_subfamilia_entry | taxon = [[Homininae]]}} |
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{{Taxobox_tribus_entry | taxon = [[Hominini]]}} |
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{{Taxobox_genus_entry | taxon = ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''}} |
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{{Taxobox_species_entry | taxon = '''''H. sapiens '''''}} |
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{{Taxobox_end_placement}} |
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{{Taxobox_section_binomial | color = pink | binomial_name = Homo sapiens | author = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] | date = [[1758]]}} |
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{{Taxobox_section_subdivision | color = pink | plural_taxon = Subspecies}} |
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''[[Homo sapiens idaltu]]'' (extinct)<br/> |
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'''''Homo sapiens sapiens''''' |
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{{Taxobox_end}} |
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<!-- this paragraph is a general introduction--> |
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'''Human beings''' define themselves in [[biological]], [[social]], and [[spiritual]] terms. Biologically, humans are classified as the [[species]] '''''Homo sapiens''''' ([[Latin]] for "'''wise man'''" or "'''clever human'''"): a [[biped]]al [[primate]] belonging to the superfamily of [[Hominoidea]], with all of the other [[apes]]: [[chimpanzee]]s, [[bonobo]]s, [[gorilla]]s, [[orangutan]]s, and [[gibbon]]s. |
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Humans have an erect body carriage that frees the upper limbs for manipulating objects, a highly developed [[brain]] and consequent capacity for abstract [[reason]]ing, [[speech]], [[language]], and [[introspection]]. One current hypothesis within the [[scientific community]] is that the [[human evolution]] of bipedalism (two-legged locomotion) occurred in response to a need for long-distance [[running]]. Humans are said to be one of a short list of [[animal]]s with such a capacity. |
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<!-- this paragraph is about the mind and its products --> |
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The human [[mind]] has several distinct attributes. It is responsible for the complexity of human [[behaviour]], especially [[language]]. [[Curiosity]] and [[observation]] have led to a variety of explanations for [[consciousness]] and the relation between mind and [[body]]. [[Psychology]], especially [[neuropsychology]], attempts to study them from the scientific point of view. [[Religious]] perspectives generally emphasise a [[soul]], [[qi]] or [[atman]] as the essence of [[being]], and are often characterised by the belief in and worship of [[God]], [[gods]] or [[spirit]]s. [[Philosophy]], especially [[philosophy of mind]], attempts to fathom the depths of each of these perspectives. [[Art]], [[music]] and [[literature]] are often used in expressing these concepts and [[feelings]]. |
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<!-- this paragraph is about culture --> |
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Humans are inherently [[society|social]]. Humans create complex [[sociology|social structures]] composed of many [[co-operation|co-operating]] and [[competition|competing]] groups. These range from [[nation]]s and [[state]]s down to [[Family|families]], and also from the [[community]] to the [[self]]. Seeking to [[understand]] and [[manipulate]] the world around us led to the development of [[technology]] and [[science]] as a social, rather than an individual, enterprise. These [[institution]]s have given rise to shared [[Artifact (archaeology)|artefacts]], [[belief]]s, [[myths]], [[ritual]]s, [[values]], and [[norm (sociology)|social norms]] which form the group's [[culture]]. |
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==Human beliefs and conceptions== |
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{{main2|Religion|Human nature}} |
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[[Image:Yin yang.png|200px|thumb|The [[Yin-Yang]] or [[Taiji]] diagram, often used as a symbol in [[Taoism]]. It represents two polar [[essence]]s of nature and their relationship. The black spot in the white symbolizes a black "seed" that will regenerate white and transmute it into black, and the reverse, indicating the constancy of change in the [[Universe]].]] |
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Humans apply different approaches to attempt to answer fundamental questions about topics like the nature of the [[universe]] ([[cosmology]]), its creation ([[cosmogony]]) and destruction ([[eschatology]]), and our place in it – who we are, why we are here, what happens after life, and more. Broadly speaking, these questions can be addressed and beliefs formed from a number of approaches and perspectives, such as [[religion]], [[science]], [[philosophy]] (particularly [[ontology]] within [[metaphysics]]), [[esotericism]], and [[mysticism]]. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive. For example, an expert scientist can be highly religious, have a philosophy of life, and follow any number of esoteric or mystical practices. |
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Four major approaches to forming beliefs about the nature of the universe ([[cosmology]]) include [[religious cosmology]], scientific or [[physical cosmology]], [[cosmology (metaphysics)|metaphysical cosmology]] and [[esoteric cosmology]]. |
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The earliest form of cosmology appears in the [[origin belief]]s of many religions as they seek to explain the existence and nature of the world. In many cases, views about the creation ([[cosmogony]]) and destruction ([[eschatology]]) of the universe play a central role in shaping a framework of [[religious cosmology]] for understanding a person's role in the universe and its relationship to [[God|one]] or [[gods|more]] divine beings. |
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[[Religion]]—sometimes used interchangeably with “[[faith]]” or “[[belief|belief system]]”—is commonly defined as belief concerning the [[supernatural]], [[sacred]], or [[divine]], and the [[moral code]]s, practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. In the course of the [[development of religion]], it has taken a huge number of forms in various cultures and individuals. |
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Occasionally, the word "religion" is used to designate what should be more properly described as "organized religion" or "[[religion-supporting organization|religious organization]]" – that is, an organization of people that supports the exercise of some religion, often taking the form of a [[legal entity]]. |
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[[Image:Symbols of Religions.JPG|thumb|right|Various [[List of symbols#Religious, esoteric, metaphysical and mystical symbols|religious symbols]]]] |
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There are a number of perspectives regarding the fundamental nature and substance of humans. These are by no means mutually exclusive, and the list is by no means exhaustive. |
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*[[Materialism]] holds that humans are physical beings without any supernatural or spiritual component. Materialism holds to [[naturalism (Philosophy)|naturalism]] and rejects [[supernaturalism]]. |
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*[[Monotheism]] generally believes that a single [[deity]], who is either the only one in existence, or who incorporates or excels all lesser deities, created humanity. Humans are thus bound by filial and moral duty, and cared for by paternal providence. In all the [[Abrahamic religions]] ([[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]]), humans are lord or steward over the earth and all its other creatures. |
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*[[Pantheism]] holds that human beings, as part of the world, are a part of God, who is identified with the world (and vice versa). ([[Panentheism]] is similar, but holds that the world is God, but that God is more than the world.) [[Monism]], [[animism]], [[Vedic religion]], and other forms of [[Eastern philosophy]] have related beliefs. |
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*[[Monism]] is the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] view that [[all]] is of one essential [[essence]], [[matter|substance]] or [[energy]]. Monistic theism, a variant of both monism and Monotheism, views God as both [[immanent]] and [[transcendent]]. Both are dominant themes in [[Hinduism]] and [[Surat Shabd Yoga]], that hold humans are special in that they can conceptualise God and strive to achieve him, but their soul is akin to a divine spark just as an animal's is. |
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*[[Taoism]] may be rendered as [[religion]], [[morality]], [[duty]], [[knowledge]], [[rationality]], [[truth|ultimate truth]], [[path]], or [[Taste (aesthetics)|taste]]. Its [[semantics]] vary widely depending on the context. Tao is generally translated into [[English language|English]] as "The Way". |
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[[Image:7BrahmanMH.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Man [[Meditation|meditating]]]] |
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*In [[polytheism|polytheistic]] religions, humans are mainly characterised by their inferiority to the gods, sometimes reflected in a hierarchical society ruled by dynasties that claim divine descent. |
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*[[Animism]] is the belief that objects and ideas including other animal species, tools, and natural phenomena have or are expressions of living [[spirit]]s. Rituals in animistic cultures are often performed by [[shaman]]s or [[priest]]s, who are usually seen as possessing spiritual powers greater than or external to the normal human experience. |
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*[[Esotericism]] refers to “hidden” knowledge available only to the advanced, privileged, or initiated, as opposed to [[Exotericism|exoteric knowledge]], which is public. It is used especially for [[spiritual]] practices. |
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*[[Mysticism]] ("to conceal") is the pursuit of achieving communion with, or conscious awareness of [[ultimate reality]], the [[divine]], [[Spirituality|spiritual truth]], or [[God]] through direct, personal experience (intuition or insight); the belief in the existence of realities beyond perceptual or intellectual apprehension that are central to being and directly accessible through personal experience; or the belief that such experience is an important source of knowledge. |
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==Terminology== |
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[[image:Inuit women 1907.jpg|thumb|left|[[Inuit]] woman (c.1907)]] |
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In general, the word '''''people''''' is a collective or plural term for any specific group of individual [[person]]s. |
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However, when used to refer to a group of humans possessing a common [[Ethnic group|ethnic]], [[Culture|cultural]] or [[nation]]al unitary characteristic or identity, ''people'' is a singular count noun, and as such takes an "'''s'''" in the plural (examples: ''the English-speaking '''peoples''' of the world'','' the indigenous '''peoples''' of Brazil''). |
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Juvenile males are called [[boy]]s, adult males [[man|men]], juvenile females [[girl]]s, and adult females [[woman|women]]. Humans are commonly referred to as ''[[person]]s'' or ''[[people]]'' and collectively as ''Man'' (capital M), ''mankind'', ''humanity'', or ''the human race''. Until the [[20th century]], ''human'' was only used adjectivally ("pertaining to mankind"). Nominal use of ''human'' (plural ''humans'') is short for ''human being'', and used not to be considered good style in traditional English grammar. As an adjective, ''human'' is used neutrally (as in ''human race''), but ''human'' and especially ''humane'' may also emphasise positive aspects of [[human nature]], and can be synonymous with ''benevolent'' (versus ''inhumane''; c.f. ''[[humanitarian]]''). |
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A distinction is maintained in [[philosophy]] and [[law]] between the notions "human being", or "man", and "person". The former refers to the species, while the latter refers to a [[rational agent]] (see, for example, [[John Locke]]'s ''Essay concerning Human Understanding'' II 27 and [[Immanuel Kant]]'s ''Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals''). The term "person" is thus used of non-human [[animal]]s, and could be used of a [[mythical being]], an [[artificial intelligence]], or an [[extraterrestrial]]. An important question in [[theology]] and the [[philosophy of religion]] concerns whether [[God]] is a person. (See also [[Great ape personhood]].) |
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In [[Latin language|Latin]], ''humanus'' is the adjectival form of the noun ''homo'', translated as "man" (to include males and females). The [[Old English language|Old English]] word ''[[man]]'' could also have this generic meaning, as demonstrated by such compounds as ''wifman'' (“female person”) → ''wiman'' → ''woman''. For the etymology of '''man''' see [[mannaz]]. |
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==Classification and evolution== |
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{{main2|Human evolution|Human migration}} |
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Biologically, humans are defined as [[hominid]]s of the [[species]] ''Homo sapiens'', of which the only extant [[subspecies]] is ''Homo sapiens sapiens''. They are usually considered the only surviving species in the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'', although some argue that the two species of [[chimpanzee]]s should be reclassified from ''[[Pan troglodytes]]'' and ''[[Pan paniscus]]'' to ''Homo troglodytes'' and ''Homo paniscus'' respectively, given that they share a recent ancestor with man. [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/05/0520_030520_chimpanzees.html] |
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Partial genome sequencing resulted in these conclusions: "[C]himps, gorillas, and humans form a [[clade]] of closely related species; orangutans are slightly less close phylogenetically, and gibbons are a more distant branch." [http://www.primates.com/primate/hominidae.html] "To study the genomic divergences among hominoids [we] sequenced [DNA] in a human, a chimpanzee, a gorilla, and an orangutan. The average sequence divergence was only '''1.24%''' ± 0.07% for the human-chimpanzee pair, '''1.62%''' ± 0.08% for the human-gorilla pair, and 1.63% ± 0.08% for the chimpanzee-gorilla pair. [...] The average sequence divergences between orangutans and humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas were '''3.08%''' ± 0.11%, 3.12% ± 0.11%, and 3.09% ± 0.11%, respectively." [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?id=doi:10.1086/318206&erFrom=4282301866785473000Guest] |
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Full genome sequencing resulted in these conclusions: "After 6 [million] years of separate evolution, the differences between chimp and human are just 10 times greater than those between two unrelated people and 10 times less than those between rats and mice." [http://news.ft.com/cms/s/43445728-1a44-11da-b279-00000e2511c8.html Chimp and human DNA is 96% identical] |
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[[Image:Map-of-human-migrations.jpg|thumb|350px|Map of early human migrations according to [[Mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial]] [[population genetics]] (numbers are [[millennia]] before present).]] |
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It has been estimated that the human [[Lineage (evolution)|lineage]] diverged from that of chimpanzees about five million years ago, and from gorillas about eight million years ago. However, in [[2001]] a [[hominine]] skull approximately seven million years old, classified as [[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]], was discovered in [[Chad]] and seems to indicate an earlier divergence from the ape lineage. |
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Two prominent theories of the evolution of contemporary humans exist. They concern the relationship between modern humans and other hominids. The [[single-origin hypothesis]] proposes that modern humans evolved in Africa and later replaced hominids in other parts of the world. The [[multiregional hypothesis]] proposes that modern humans evolved at least in part from independent hominid populations. DNA evidence supports an African origin for the maternal and paternal lineages of contemporary humans. An unintuitive complication for this debate is that the evolutionary lineage of an individual may differ from the evolutionary history of each of an individual's genes. An emerging synthesis theory proposes that the genes of contemporary humans are predominantly descendent from a recent African origin, but that interbreeding and assimilation with other hominids may have contributed genes to local populations (Templeton, 2002). Eswaran et al. (2005) speculate that "as much as 80% of the nuclear genome is significantly affected by assimilation from archaic humans (i.e., 80% of loci may have some archaic admixture, not that the human genome is 80% archaic)." |
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[[Human evolution]] is characterised by a number of important trends <!--references needed for the following-->: |
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* expansion of the brain cavity and [[brain]] itself, which is typically 1,400 cm³ in volume, over twice that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. The pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs from that of other apes ([[heterochrony]]), allowing for an extended period of [[Language acquisition|social learning]] in juvenile humans. [[physical anthropology|Physical anthropologists]] argue that a reorganisation of the structure of the brain is more important than cranial expansion itself; |
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* [[canine tooth]] reduction; |
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* [[bipedal locomotion]]; |
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* descent of the [[larynx]], which makes speech possible. |
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How these trends are related and what their role is in the evolution of complex social organisation and culture are matters of ongoing debate. |
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During the [[1990s]], variations in human [[mitochondrial DNA]] were recognised as a valuable source for reconstructing the human [[race|"family tree"]] and for tracing early human migrations. As a result, the ancestors of all modern humans are thought to have evolved in Africa over 150,000 years ago; modern humans began to move [[Single-origin hypothesis|out of Africa]] less than 100,000 years ago. Australia was colonised 70,000 years ago; Europe 40,000 years ago with later waves 22,000 and 9,000 years ago, according to Ornello Semino of the [[University of Pavia]] and Peter Underhill of [[Stanford University]] [http://www.duerinck.com/migrate.html]; and the Americas 30,000 years ago, with a second colonisation from across the [[Pacific Ocean]] 15,000 years ago. (See [[Human migration]].) |
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Since the [[Embryogenesis|human embryo]] normally takes its [[mitochondrial DNA]] from its mother's [[Ovum|egg]] and not from the [[sperm]], variations in human mitochondrial DNA provide a means of identifying those individuals who share a common [[Matrilineality|matrilineal ancestor]]. A mathematical analysis of mitochondrial DNA from thousands of living individuals suggests that the matrilineal lines for the people analysed converges on one ancestor called [[Mitochondrial Eve]] (ME) who lived in Africa about 200,000 years ago. That is, ME is claimed to be the [[most recent common ancestor]] of all humans alive today with respect to matrilineal descent (Boyd and Silk 2003:389–99). <!-- please enter the full citation in the References section--> |
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Some [[religion|religious]] groups object to the [[Evolution of Homo sapiens|theory of evolution]]: see [[creationism]], [[argument from evolution]], [[intelligent design]], [[creation (theology)]]. |
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==Biology== |
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[[Image:Two young girls at Camp Christmas Seals.jpg|thumb|250px|Two young girls]] |
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===Life cycle=== |
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The human [[biological life cycle|life cycle]] is similar to that of other [[placenta]]l [[mammal]]s. New human [[life]] develops from [[fertilisation|conception]]. An [[Ovum|egg]] is usually fertilised inside the female by [[sperm]] from the male through [[sexual intercourse]], though [[In vitro fertilisation|''in vitro'']] fertilisation methods are also used. The developing individual is first called a [[zygote]]. This is a single [[diploid]] [[cell (biology)|cell]], which means that it has two sets of 23 [[chromosome]]s, each set received from one parent. Most of them are [[autosome]]s, while two are [[sex chromosome]]s. One is [[maternal]] and is always X, the other is [[paternal]] and can be X or Y. The combination determines the sex of the future human being: XX means a girl, while XY means a boy. As the zygote grows through successive stages inside the female's [[uterus]] over a period of 38 weeks, it is called an [[embryo]], then a [[foetus]]. At birth, the fully grown foetus, now called a [[baby]], is expelled from the female's body and breathes independently for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognise the baby as a [[person]] entitled to the full protection of the [[law]], though some jurisdictions extend [[personhood]] to human foetuses while they remain in the uterus. |
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Compared with that of other species, human [[childbirth]] is relatively complicated. Painful labours lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon, and may result in [[birth trauma|injury]] to the child or the death of the mother, although the chances of a successful labour increased significantly during the twentieth century in wealthier countries. It remains an arguably more dangerous ordeal in remote, underdeveloped regions of the world, though the women who live in these regions have argued that their [[natural childbirth]] methods are safer and less traumatic for mother and child. |
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Human children are born after a nine-month [[gestation]] period, with typically 3–4 kilograms (6–9 pounds) in weight and 50–60 centimetres (20–24 inches) in height in developed countries. [http://www.childinfo.org/eddb/lbw] Helpless at birth, they continue to grow for some years, typically reaching [[sexual maturity]] at 12–15 years of age. Boys continue growing for some time after this, reaching their maximum height around the age of 18. These values vary too, depending on genes and environment. |
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[[Image:Wheeler.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A man with a full [[beard]].]] |
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The human lifespan can be split into a number of stages: [[infancy]], [[childhood]], [[adolescence]], [[young adulthood]], [[maturity]] and [[old age]], though the lengths of these stages, especially the later ones, are not fixed. |
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[[Hindu]]'s have four phases of a man, namely, [[Brahmacharya]], [[Grihastha]], [[Vanaprastha]], and finally [[Sanyasa]], as prescribed by [[Manusmriti]] for the [[Dhwija]] [[castes]], in the Hindu system of life. |
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Brahmacharya is the stage of study, Grihastha is the stage of householding and building a family, Vanaprastha is somewhat similar to retirement, and involves living in the forest as a hermit after partially giving up material desires. Finially Sanyasa is the stage of complete renunciation, awaiting death. |
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There are striking differences in [[life expectancy]] around the world. The developed world is quickly getting older, with the median age around 40 years (highest in [[Monaco]] at 45.1 years), while in the [[third world|developing world]], the median age is 15–20 years (the lowest in [[Uganda]] at 14.8 years). Life expectancy at birth is 77.2 years in the U.S. as of [[2001]]. [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/lifexpec.htm] The expected life span at birth in [[Singapore]] is 84.29 years for a female and 78.96 years for a male, while in [[Botswana]], due largely to [[AIDS]], it is 30.99 years for a male and 30.53 years for a female. One in five [[European]]s, but one in twenty [[African]]s, is 60 years or older, according to ''The World Factbook''. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook] |
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The number of [[centenarian]]s in the world was estimated by the [[United Nations]] [http://www.un.org/ageing/note5713.doc.htm] at 210,000 in [[2002]]. The maximum human [[life span]] is thought to be over 120 years. Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or over for every 100 women, and among the oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women. |
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The philosophical questions of when human personhood begins and whether it persists after [[death]] are the subject of considerable debate. The prospect of death may cause unease or [[fear]]. (See also [[near-death experience]].) [[Burial]] ceremonies are characteristic of human societies, often inspired by beliefs in an [[afterlife]]. Institutions of [[inheritance]] or [[ancestor worship]] may extend an individual's presence beyond his physical lifespan (see [[immortality]]). |
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=== Anatomy and physiology === |
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[[Image:Skeleton_diag.png|thumbnail|140px|left|A vintage diagram of a male [[human skeleton]]]] |
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[[Image:Anatomical_Man.jpg|thumbnail|195px|right|Anatomical Man, Musée Condé, [[Chantilly]]]] |
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{{main2|Human anatomy|Human physical appearance]], [[Human height}} |
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Humans exhibit fully [[bipedal locomotion]]. This leaves the forelimbs available for manipulating objects using [[opposable thumb]]s. |
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Humans vary substantially around the mean height and mean weight, which vary depending on locality and historical factors. Although body size is largely determined by genes, it is also significantly influenced by [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] and exercise. The mean height of a North American adult female is 162 [[centimetre|cm]] (5'4") and the mean weight is 62 [[kilogram|kg]] (137 [[pound|lb]]). North American adult males are typically larger: 175 cm (5'9") and 78 kilograms (172 lb). |
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Human skin is relatively hairless in comparison to other primates. The colour of human hair and skin is determined by the presence of coloured pigments called [[melanin]]s. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a defence against [[UV]] solar radiation; melanin is an effective sunblock. The skin colour of contemporary humans can range from very dark brown to very pale pink. It is geographically stratified and in general correlates with the environmental level of UV. Human skin and hair colour is controlled in part by the [[Mc1r|MC1R]] gene. For example, the [[red hair]] and pale skin of some Europeans is the result of [[mutation]]s in MC1R. Human skin has a capacity to darken ([[sun tanning]]) in response to UV exposure. Variation in the ability to sun tan is also controlled in part by MC1R. |
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Because humans are [[bipedal]], the pelvic region and spinal column tend to get worn, creating locomotion difficulties in old age. |
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===Race and ethnicity=== |
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{{main2|Race|Ethnic group}} |
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[[Image:Map of skin hue equi.png|thumb|300px|Map of skin-colour distribution for "native populations" collected by Renato Biasutti before [[1940]]. [[Human skin colour]] can range from very dark brown to very pale pink in different people.]]Humans categorise themselves and others in terms of [[race]] or [[ethnicity]] when it is useful to do so. Racial categories are more likely to be primarily based on biological qualities, such as skin colour, facial features, ancestry, and other genetic variances, with cultural and historical differences also an influence. Identification of ethnic groups, however, are more likely to primarily be based on cultural affiliations. When in human society race and ethnicity lead to variant treatment of people based on perceived differences, it is thought to impact on what is presently termed [[social identity]], hence giving rise to the recent theory of [[identity politics]] in race and ethnicity. Ideologies of race or ethnicity are related to concepts of [[kinship and descent]]. |
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Although most humans recognise that variances occur within a species, it is often a point of dispute as to what these differences entail, and despite scientific findings that the human species is fairly similar in terms of brain size and functional capacity, discrimination by humans based on one's own race as opposed to another's ([[racism]]) is still very much an issue in the early twenty-first century. |
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===Genetics=== |
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{{main|Genetics of humans}} |
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[[Image:DNA-structure-and-bases.png|left|thumb|[[Double helix]] structure of the [[DNA]] which carries genetic information in one or more chromosomes.]] |
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Humans are a [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] species. A human has 46 [[chromosome]]s: (22 pairs of [[autosome]]s, and 2 [[sex chromosome]]s). At present estimate, humans have approximately 20,000–25,000 [[gene]]s and share 95% of their [[DNA]] with their closest living evolutionary relatives, the [[common chimpanzee]] and the [[bonobo]], or pygmy chimpanzee. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12368483] Like other [[mammal]]s, humans have an [[XY sex determination system]], so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and [[male]]s have XY. The X chromosome is larger and carries many genes not on the Y chromosome, which means that [[recessive gene|recessive]] diseases associated with X-linked genes affect men more often than women. For example, genes that control the clotting of [[blood]] reside on the X chromosome. Women have a blood-clotting gene on each X chromosome so that one normal blood-clotting gene can compensate for a flaw in the gene on the other X chromosome. But men are [[hemizygote|hemizygous]] for the blood-clotting gene, since there is no gene on the Y chromosome to control blood clotting. As a result, men will suffer from [[haemophilia]] more often than women. |
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===Intelligence=== |
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{{main|Intelligence (trait)}} |
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''see below: [[Human#Consciousness|Human Consciousness]]'' |
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[[Image:Vitruvian.jpg|right|thumb|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s [[Vitruvian Man]]]] |
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Most humans consider their species to be the most intelligent species in the animal kingdom. Certainly, humans are the only technologically advanced animal. Along with neural complexity, the brain-to-body-mass ratio is generally assumed to be a good indicator of relative intelligence. Humans have the second highest [[brain to body mass ratio|brain-to-body-mass ratio]] or encephalization quotient (EQ) of all animals, with the [[tree shrew]] having the highest [http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_935198,00300006.htm], and the [[bottlenose dolphin]] very similar to humans. ([[Shark]]s have the highest for a [[fish]]; and the [[octopus]] has the highest for an [[invertebrate]].) |
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The human ability to abstract may be unparalleled in the animal kingdom. Human beings are one of five species to pass the [[mirror test]] – which tests whether an animal recognises its reflection as an image of itself – along with [[chimpanzee]]s or [[bonobo]]s, [[orangutan]]s, and [[dolphin]]s. Human beings under the age of four usually fail the test. <!--I think recent tests show higher than this; reference needed. I will look for one. - Other intelligence tests show that a fully grown chimpanzee has approximately the same ability to abstract as a four-year-old human child.--><!--And it may be reasonably argued that children older than four whose *parents* have been exposed to the mirror test will show their children what it entails, or the child may have encountered mirrors more frequently and noted discrepencies by older ages, when self-care becomes more common.--> |
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===Emotion and sexuality=== |
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Human [[emotion]] has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behaviour. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, like [[love]], [[admiration]], or [[joy]], contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like [[hate]], [[envy]], or [[sorrow]]. There is often a distinction seen between refined emotions, which are socially learned, and survival oriented emotions, which are thought to be innate. |
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Human exploration of emotions as separate from other neurological phenomena is worth note, particularly in those cultures were emotion is considered separate from physiological state. In some cultural medical theories, to provide an example, emotion is considered so synonymous with certain forms of physical health that no difference is thought to exist. The Stoics believed excessive emotion was harmful, while some [[Sufi]] teachers (in particular, the poet and astronomer [[Omar Khayyám]]) felt certain extreme emotions could yield a conceptual perfection, what is often translated as [[ecstasy]]. |
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In modern [[scientific]] thought, certain refined emotions are considered to be a complex neural trait of many domesticated and a few non-domesticated [[mammal]]s, developed commonly in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. Still, when humans function in civilised tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social [[disorder]] and [[crime]]. |
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[[Image:RodinKiss.jpg|thumb|right|130px|Rodin's "[[The Kiss (Rodin sculpture)|The Kiss]]"]] |
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Human [[sexuality]], besides ensuring [[reproduction]], has important social functions, creating [[ physical intimacy]], bonds and hierarchies among individuals, and that may be directed to spiritual transcendence, and/or to the enjoyment of any activity involving sexual gratification. [[Sexual desire]] is experienced as a bodily urge, often accompanied by strong emotions, both positive (such as [[love]] or [[ecstasy (state)|ecstasy]]) and negative (such as [[jealousy]]). (See also [[Libido]].) |
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As with other behaviors, humans high intelligence and complex societies have produced the most complex sexual behaviors of any animal. Human sexual choices are usually made in reference to current cultural [[norms]]. For example, some choose to abstain from sex before marriage because of their [[religion|religious]] beliefs, while others may not have such [[mores]]. Most cultures, groups and individuals insist on [[monogamy]], while some others practice [[polygamy]] or other forms of [[human sexuality]]. There is still a widespread belief that sex acts are devalued when engaged in outside of a long-term, monogamous [[romantic relationship]], but extra-marital sexual activity and [[casual sex]] became increasingly accepted in modern society during the [[sexual revolution]]. |
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Human sexuality is an integral part of the social life of humans, governed by implied rules of behaviour. Sexuality influences social [[norms]] and society in turn influences the manner in which sexuality can be expressed. Acceptance of particular types of sexuality varies widely from culture to culture. |
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===Body=== |
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[[Image:Geisha-fullheight.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Women dressed as apprentice [[geisha]] in [[Kyoto]], [[Japan]]]]The [[Human physical appearance|physical appearance]] of the human body is central to [[culture]] and [[art]]. In every human culture, people adorn their bodies with [[tattoos]], [[cosmetics]], [[clothing]], and [[jewellery]]. [[Hairstyle]]s and hair colour also have important cultural implications. The perception of an individual as physically [[Beauty|beautiful]] or [[ugliness|ugly]] can have profound implications for their lives. This is particularly true of women, whose external [[appearance]] is highly valued in most, if not all, human societies. |
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[[Image:Tattoo-back.jpg|thumb|right|175px|A tattoo on the lower back, when worn by young women, is occasionally called a "[[tramp]] stamp" or "California license plate" in American slang.]]The individual need for regular intake of [[food]] and [[drink]] is prominently reflected in human culture. (See also [[food science]].) Failure to obtain food leads to [[hunger]] and eventually [[starvation]], while failure to obtain water leads to [[dehydration]] and [[thirst]]. Both starvation and dehydration cause [[death]] if not alleviated: human beings can survive for over two months without food, but only up to around 14 days without water. (See also [[famine]], [[malnutrition]]). |
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The average [[sleep]] requirement is between seven and eight hours a day for an adult and nine to ten hours for a child. Elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. It is common, however, in [[modern]] societies for people to get less sleep than they need. (See also [[sleep deprivation]].) |
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The human body is subject to an [[ageing]] process and to [[illness]]. [[Medicine]] is the science that explores methods of preserving bodily [[health]]. |
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===Habitat=== |
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{{Social Infobox/Human}} |
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The conventional view of human evolution states that humans evolved in inland [[savanna]] environments in Africa. (See [[Human evolution]], [[Vagina gentium]], [[Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness]].) Technology has allowed humans to colonise all of the [[continents]] and adapt to all climates. Within the last few decades, humans have been able to explore [[Antarctica]], the [[ocean]] depths, and [[space colonization|space]], although long-term habitation of these environments is not yet possible. Humans, with a population of about six billion, are one of the most numerous [[mammal]]s on Earth. |
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Most humans (61%) live in the [[Asia]]n region. The vast majority of the remainder live in the [[Americas]] (14%), [[Africa]] (13%) and [[Europe]] (12%), with only 0.3% in Australia. (See [[list of countries by population]] and [[list of countries by population density]].) |
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The original human lifestyle is [[Hunter-gatherer|hunting-gathering]], which is adapted to the savanna. Other human lifestyles are [[nomad]]ism (often linked to animal herding) and permanent settlements made possible by the development of agriculture. Humans have a great capacity for altering their [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]] by various methods, such as [[agriculture]], [[irrigation]], [[urban planning]], [[construction]], [[transport]], and [[manufacturing]] goods. |
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Permanent human settlements are dependent on proximity to [[water]] and, depending on the lifestyle, other natural resources such as fertile land for growing [[crops]] and grazing [[livestock]], or seasonally by populations of [[hunting|prey]]. With the advent of large-scale trade and transport infrastructure, immediate proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many places these factors are no longer the driving force behind growth and decline of population. |
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Human habitation within [[closed ecological system]]s in hostile environments ([[Antarctica]], [[outer space]]) is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with a maximum of thirteen humans in space at any given time, in part because of human vulnerability to [[ionising radiation]], starting with [[Yuri Gagarin]]'s space flight in [[1961]]. Between [[1969]] and [[1974]], up to two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the [[Moon]]. [[As of 2005]], no other [[astronomical object|celestial body]] has been visited by human beings, although there has been a continuous human presence in space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the [[International Space Station]] on [[October 31]], [[2000]]. |
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[[Image:Earthlights dmsp.jpg|thumb|left|550px|City lights from space. NASA. Credit-Marc Imhoff]] |
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===Population=== |
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From [[1800]] to 2000, [[world human population|the human population]] increased from one to six [[billion]]. It is expected to crest at around ten billion during the [[21st century]]. [[As of 2004]], around 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people live in [[urban]] centres, and this is expected to rise during the 21st century. Problems for humans living in [[city|cities]] include various forms of [[pollution]], [[crime]], and [[poverty]], especially in inner city and [[suburb]]an slums. |
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[[Genetics|Geneticists]] Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the [[University of Utah]] have concluded that the variation in the total stock of human [[DNA]] is minute compared to that of other species; and that around 74,000 years ago, human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs, possibly as small as 1000, resulting in a very small residual gene pool. Various reasons for this bottleneck have been postulated, the most popular being the eruption of a volcano called [[Toba]]. (See the [[Toba catastrophe theory]].) |
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===Human extinction=== |
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{{main|Human extinction}} |
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Human extinction refers to the possibility that the human species may become [[extinction|extinct]], either through its own actions (for example, because of [[pollution]] or the use of [[nuclear weapon]]s) or because of a natural disaster. |
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===Evolution=== |
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{{main|Human evolution|Creationism}} |
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{{Human Evolution}} |
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The study of [[human evolution]] encompasses many scientific disciplines, but most notably [[physical anthropology]] and [[genetics]]. The term "human", in the context of human evolution, refers to the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'', but studies of human evolution usually include other [[hominid]]s, such as the [[australopithecines]]. |
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While little attention is generally given to humanities future evolution, [[transhumanism]] and [[eugenics]] involve the intentional crafting of that process. [[Nazi Germany]] made an organised attempt at [[selective breeding]] and the extremination of those they deemed inferior. The [[lebensborn]] program was one example of that. |
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[[Creationism]] or creation [[theology]] is the belief that [[human]]s, the [[Earth]], and the [[universe]] were created by a [[supreme being]] or [[deity]]. The event itself may be seen either as an ''act of creation'' (''[[ex nihilo]]'') or the emergence of order from preexisting chaos ([[demiurge]]). |
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Virtually every culture has its characteristic [[origin beliefs]] that include aspects about human evolution. Many who hold "creation" beliefs consider such belief to be a part of religious [[faith]], and hence compatible with, or otherwise unaffected by [[science|scientific]] views while others maintain the scientific data is compatible with creationism. Proponents of [[evolutionary creationism]] may claim that understood scientific mechanisms are simply ''aspects'' of supreme creation. Otherwise, science-oriented believers may consider the [[scripture|scriptural]] account of [[creation]] as simply a [[metaphor]]. There is also the [[intellegent design]] movement, which intends to prove creationism by scientific means. |
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While the general idea of [[natural selection]] may fit into various particular views, the evolutionary concept of [[common descent]] —that humans are "descended from lesser creatures" — is a point of great debate. Some creationists may also dispute scientific accounts of the [[origin of life]], and of the [[Age of the Earth|geological history of Earth]], [[solar nebula|the formation of the solar system]], [[Big Bang|the origin of the physical universe]], and a few even support such ideas as [[modern geocentrism|geocentrism]]. |
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==Consciousness== |
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:''See main article [[Consciousness]]'' |
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[[Image:Senses_brain.png|right|thumb|200px|Human head with lines connecting the senses of taste, hearing, sight, and smell to areas of the brain. (d.1525)]] |
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Consciousness is a state of [[mind]], said to possess qualities such as, [[self-awareness]], [[sentience]], [[sapience]], and the ability to [[perception|perceive]] the relationship between [[personal identity|oneself]] and one's [[natural environment|environment]]. |
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The way in which the world is experienced is the subject of much debate and research in [[philosophy of mind]], [[psychology]], [[brain]] [[biology]], [[neurology]], and [[cognitive science]]. |
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Humans (and often others as well) are variously said to possess consciousness, [[self-awareness]], and a [[mind]], the fruition of being our senses and perceptions. Each of us has a [[subjective]] view of [[existence]], the passage of [[time]], and [[free will]]. |
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There are many debates about the extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world, and regarding the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above. |
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Cognitive scientist [[Daniel Dennett]], for example, argues that there is no such thing as a narrative centre called mind, but that instead there is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of software running in parallel (Dennett, 1991). |
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===Psychology and human ethology=== |
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[[Image:SigmundFreud2.jpg|thumb|Sigmund Freud]] |
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{{main2|Mind|Psychology}} |
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[[Psychology]] ([[Greek language|Classical Greek]]: ''psyche'' = "soul" or "mind", ''logos'' = "study of") is the [[study]] of[[behavior|behaviour]], [[mind]] and [[thought]] and the [[neurological]] basis for them. |
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[[Psychoanalysis]], the examination of the [[subconscious]] was, devised by [[Sigmund Freud]] and expanded and refined by the Swiss psychiatrist [[Carl Gustav Jung]] (initially one of Freud's followers and friend) and others. |
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Freud divided the mind into the ''[[id]]'' (an individual's basic needs and instincts), the ''[[superego]]'' (personal and cultural values and norms), and the ''[[ego]]'' (the central, organising [[self]], whose job it is to satisfy the ''id'' but not upset the ''superego''). [http://allpsych.com/psychology101/ego.html] (See also [[Ego, Superego and Id]].) |
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C. G. Jung founded the school of [[analytical psychology]] and introduced the notion of the [[collective unconscious]], a term taken from philosophy and used by Jung to describe symbols or [[archetype]]s that he believed might be common to all cultures. |
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There are also the [[Conscious]], [[Subconscious]], and [[Superconsciousness]], a related but not identical set of categories. |
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The behaviour and mental processes of [[animal]]s (human and non-human) can be described through [[animal cognition]], [[ethology]], and [[comparative psychology]] as well. |
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[[Human ecology]] is an [[List of academic disciplines|academic discipline]] that investigates how humans and human [[society|societies]] interact with their [[environment]], [[nature]] and the human [[social environment]]. |
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===Philosophy=== |
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{{main2|Philosophy|Philosophy of mind|mind}} |
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[[Image:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|right| [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] in detail from [[Raffaello Sanzio|Raphael's]] [[Raphael Rooms#The School of Athens|School of Athens]]]] |
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[[Philosophy]] is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. It is the discipline searching for a general understanding of values and reality by chiefly speculative rather than observational means comprising as its core [[logic]], [[ontology]] or [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], and [[axiology]] which includes the branches of [[ethics]] and [[aesthetics]]. The term covers a very wide range of approaches, and is also used to refer to a [[worldview]], to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions argued for by a particular philosopher or school of philosophy. |
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[[Metaphysics]] is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of "first principles" and "being" ([[ontology]]). Problems that were not originally considered metaphysical have been added to metaphysics. Other problems that were considered metaphysical problems for centuries are now typically relegated to their own separate subheadings in philosophy, such as [[philosophy of religion]], [[philosophy of mind]], [[philosophy of perception]], [[philosophy of language]], and [[philosophy of science]]. In rare cases subjects of metaphysical research have been found to be entirely physical and natural. |
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The [[mind]] is the term most commonly used to describe the higher functions of the [[human brain]], particularly those of which humans are subjectively conscious, such as [[personality]], [[thought]], [[reason]], [[memory]], [[intelligence]] and [[emotion]]. Other species of animals share some of these mental capacities, and it is also used in relation to [[supernatural]] beings, as in the expression "the mind of [[God]]." The term is used here only in relation to humans. |
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There are many [[Philosophies of mind]], the most common relating to the nature of being, and ones way of being, or purpose. |
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[[Image:Kant.jpg|thumb|right|[[Immanuel Kant]] in his [[middle age]].]] |
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[[Adi Shankara]] in [[Eastern world|the East]] proposed [[Advaita Vedanta]], a popular argument for [[monism]] (the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] view that all is of one essential essence, [[matter|substance]] or [[energy]]). |
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Another type of monism is [[physicalism]] or [[materialism]], which holds that only the physical is real, and that the mental can be [[Reduction (philosophy)|reduced]] to the physical. [[Idealism]] and [[phenomenalism]], on the contrary, assert the existence of the mind and deny, or at the least deny the importance of, an external reality that exists independently of the mind. |
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[[René Descartes]] proposed that both mind and matter exist, and that the one cannot be reduced to the other. This philosophical position is called ''[[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|dualism]]''. [[Dvaita]] is the [[Hindu philosophy]] incorporating dualism. |
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[[Johannes Jacobus Poortman]] proposed a [[Pluralism (philosophy of mind)|Pluralist]] classification of a number of different [[mystical]] and [[metaphysical]] views. [[Vishishtadvaita]] is the Hindu philosophy incorporating pluralism. |
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[[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Socrates]], [[Kant]], and [[John Locke]] are also Human [[philosopher]]s of note. |
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[[Image:Plato's allegory of the cave.jpg|thumb|205px|left|Illustration of [[Plato's allegory of the cave|Plato's cave]]]] |
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Many [[religion]]s and [[spirituality|spiritual]] traditions hold that humans have both a body and a [[soul]], usually proposing that the soul can in some way survive the death of the body. Although the soul sometimes is equated with the mind, this is not always the case. |
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As a finer distinction between religion and philosophy, [[esoteric cosmology]] is distinguished from religion in its more sophisticated construction and reliance on intellectual understanding rather than faith, and from philosophy in its emphasis on techniques of psycho-spiritual transformation. |
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In between the doctrines of religion and science, stands the [[philosophy|philosophical]] perspective of [[cosmology (metaphysics)|metaphysical cosmology]]. This ancient field of study seeks to draw [[logic]]al conclusions about the nature of the universe, humanity, god and/or their connections based on the extension of some set of presumed facts borrowed from religion and/or observation. |
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What might be called the ''core'' metaphysical problems would be the ones which have ''always'' been considered metaphysical. What most of such problems have in common is that they are the problems of [[ontology]], the science of [[being]] or [[existence]] as well as the [[category of being|basic categories]] thereof—trying to find out what [[entity|entities]] and what [[type theory|types of entities]] exist. Ontology has strong implications for the conceptions of [[reality]]. |
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=== Motivation === |
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{{main3|Motivation|Happiness|Love}} |
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[[Motivation]] is the driving force of [[desire]] behind all [[action]]s of any [[organism]]. |
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Motivation is based on [[emotion]], specifically, on the search for [[satisfaction]] (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of [[conflict]]; positive and negative are defined by the individual brain state, not by social norms: a person may be driven to [[self-injury]] or [[violence]] because their [[brain]] is conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of all learned responses. |
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Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the [[libido]] are seen to be primary motivators. Within economics motivation is often seen to be based on [[Financial]] [[incentive]]s, [[Moral]] incentives, or [[Coercive]] incentives. Religions generally posit [[God]]ly or [[demon]]ic influences. |
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For many [[love]] is the central motivation in life. The [[classical]] [[Greek]]s had [[Greek words for love|four words for love]]: |
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* ''[[Eros (love)|Eros]]'' : Romantic love |
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* ''[[-philia|Philia]]'' : Friendship, Love (but especially [[platonic love]]). |
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* ''[[Agapē|Agape]]'' : Divine, unconditioned love. Many religious persons will refer to the love that they feel towards, or receive from [[God]] as ''agape love''. |
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* ''[[Storge]]'' : Natural familial affection. |
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[[Image:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|right|thumb|220px|[[Aristotle]], [[marble]] copy of [[bronze]] by [[Lysippos]]. [[Louvre Museum]].]] |
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Happiness or being happy is a condition which humans can have. The definition of happiness is one of the greatest [[philosophy|philosophical]] topics, at least since the time of Socrates, and is especially central to [[Ethics]], being the starting point of Aristotle's ethical works. Some people might define it as the best condition which a human can have - a condition of mental and physical health. Others may define it as [[freedom]] from want and distress; [[consciousness]] of the [[good]] [[order]] of things; assurance of one's place in the [[universe]] or [[society]], [[inner peace]], and so forth. [[Aristotle]] concieved of [[Eudaimonia]], a society governed by pursuit of happiness. |
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:The happy life is thought to be one of excellence; now an excellent life requires exertion and does not consist of amusement. If Eudaimonia, or happiness, is an activity in accordance with excellence, it's reasonable that it should be in accordance with the highest excellence, and will be that of the best thing in us." |
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::[[Aristotle]], "[[Nicomachean Ethics]]" |
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=== Self-reflection and humanism === |
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{{main|Humanism}} |
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[[Image:Thinker.jpg|thumb|190px|'''Homo Sapiens ''' (An artist rendition of ''[[The Thinker]]'' by [[Auguste Rodin]])]] |
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[[Thales of Miletus]], when asked what was difficult, answered in a well-known [[apophthegm]]: "To Know Thyself" {{polytonic|γνῶθι σεαυτόν}} (also attributed to [[Socrates]], and inscribed on the [[Temple of Apollo]] at [[Delphi]]). |
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Humans often consider themselves to be the dominant species on [[Earth]], and the most advanced in intelligence and ability to manage their environment. This belief is especially strong in modern [[Western_culture|Western culture]], and is derived in part from the [[Hebrew Bible]]'s [[creation (theology)|creation]] story in which [[Adam]] is explicitly given dominion over the Earth and all of its creatures. Alongside such claims of dominance we often find radical [[pessimism]] because of the frailty and brevity of human [[life]]. In the Hebrew Bible, for example, dominion of man is promised in [[Genesis]] 1:28, but the author of [[Ecclesiastes]] bewails the vanity of all human effort. |
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The [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] philosopher [[Protagoras]] made the famous claim that "Man is the measure of all things; of what is, that it is; of what is not, that it is not." [[Aristotle]] describes man as the "communal animal" ({{polytonic|ζῷον πολιτικόν}}), i.e. emphasising society-building as a central trait of human nature, and "animal with sapience" ({{polytonic|ζῷον λόγον ἔχων}}, ''animal rationale''), a term that also inspired the species' taxonomy, ''Homo sapiens''. This philosophy is today called "[[Humanism]]". |
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[[Humanism]] as a philosophy defines a socio-political doctrine the bounds of which are not constrained by those of locally developed cultures, but which seeks to include all of humanity and all issues common to human beings. Because spiritual beliefs of a community often manifests as religious doctrine, the history of which is as factious as it is unitive, [[secular humanism]] grew as an answer to the need for a common philosophy that transcended the cultural boundaries of local moral codes and religions. Many humanists are religious, however, and see humanism as simply a mature expression of a common truth present in most religions. Humanists affirm the possibility of an objective truth and accept that human perception of that truth is imperfect. The most basic tenets of humanism are that humans matter and can solve human problems, and that [[science]], [[freedom of speech]], [[reason|rational thought]], [[democracy]], and freedom in the arts are worthy pursuits or goals for all peoples. Modern humanism depends on reason and [[logic]] and rejects the [[supernatural]]. |
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[[Image:South Djoum Chimp.jpg|left|250px|thumbnail|Genetic testing has shown that humans and [[chimpanzee]]s have most of their [[DNA]] in common. In a study of 90,000 [[base pair]]s, [[Wayne State University]]'s Morris Goodman found humans and chimpanzees share 99.4% of their DNA.[http://www.freep.com/news/nw/chimp20_20030520.htm][http://www.reasons.org/resources/apologetics/humans_chimps_same_genus.shtml].]] |
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From a scientific viewpoint, ''Homo sapiens'' certainly is among the most generalised species on [[Earth]], and few single species occupy as many diverse environments as humans. Various attempts have been made to identify a single behavioural characteristic that distinguishes humans from all other animals, e.g. the ability to make and use tools, the ability to alter the environment, language use, and the development of complex social structures. Some anthropologists think that these readily observable characteristics (tool-making and language) are based on less easily observable mental processes that might be unique among humans: the ability to think [[symbol|symbolically]], in the abstract or [[logic|logically]]. Others, that our capacity for symbolic thought is a development from our capacity to manipulate tools and/or the development of [[speech]]. It is difficult however to arrive at a set of attributes that includes all humans, and humans only. The wish to find unique human characteristics could be more a matter of [[Anthropocentrism]] than of [[zoology]] in the end. |
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==Culture== |
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{{main2|Culture of human beings|Culture}} |
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[[Image:cavehand.jpg|thumb|180px|Cave art]] |
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[[Culture]] is defined here as a set of distinctive material, [[intellect|intellectual]], [[emotion|emotional]], and [[spirit|spiritual]] features of a social group, including [[art]], [[literature]], [[lifestyle]]s, [[ethics|value systems]], [[tradition]]s, [[ritual]]s, and [[belief]]s. |
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Culture consists of at least three elements: values, social norms, and [[Artifact (archaeology)|artefacts]]. A culture's values define what it holds to be important. Norms are expectations of how people ought to behave. Artefacts – things, or material culture – derive from the culture's values and norms together with its understanding of the way the world functions. |
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===Language=== |
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{{main2|Language|Philosophy of language}} |
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[[Image:Human langs.png|left|thumb|150px|From top-left, "human" in [[English language|English]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Traditional Chinese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]]] |
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Values, norms and technology are dependent on the capacity for humans to share ideas. The faculty of [[speech]] may be a defining feature of humanity, probably predating [[phylogenetic]] separation of the modern population. (See [[Proto-World language]], [[Origins of language]].) [[Language]] is central to the [[communication]] between humans. Some scientists argue that non-human animals are able to use language too, and that non-human [[primate]]s are able to learn human [[sign language]] [http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/language/chimpanzee.html] [http://www.msubillings.edu/asc/PDF-WritingLab/3-Minute%20Spr05/APA%20sample%20paper.pdf] (pdf). Language is central to the sense of identity that unites [[culture]]s and [[ethnicity|ethnicities]]. |
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The invention of [[writing systems]] some [[4th millennium BCE|5000 years ago]], allowing the preservation of speech, was a major step in cultural evolution. Language, especially written language, is sometimes thought to have supernatural status or powers. (See [[Magic]], [[Mantra]], [[Vac]].) |
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The science of [[linguistics]] describes the structure of language and the relationship between languages. There are estimated to be some 6,000 different languages, including sign languages, used today. |
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===Music=== |
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[[Music]] is a natural [[intuition|intuitive]] phenomenon operating in the three worlds of [[time]], [[pitch (music)|pitch]], [[energy]], and under the three distinct and interrelated organization structures of [[rhythm]], [[harmony]], and [[melody]]. |
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[[Composing]], [[improvising]] and performing music are all [[art]] forms. Listening to music is perhaps the most common form of [[entertainment]], while learning and understanding it are popular [[discipline]]s. There are a wide variety of [[Music genre]]s and [[ethnic music]]s. |
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===Trade and economics=== |
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[[Image:Market-Chichicastenango.jpg|thumb|350px|Buyers bargain for good prices while sellers put forth their best front in [[Chichicastenango]] Market, [[Guatemala]].]] |
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[[Trade]] is the voluntary exchange of [[goods]], [[service]]s, or both, and a form of [[economics]]. A mechanism that allows trade is called a [[market]]. The original form of trade was [[barter]], the direct exchange of goods and services. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as [[money]]. As a result, '''buying''' can be separated from '''selling''', or [[earning]]. The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. |
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Trade exists for many reasons. Due to specialization and [[division of labor]], most people concentrate on a small aspect of [[manufacturing]] or [[service]], trading their labour for products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have an absolute or [[comparative advantage]] in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of [[mass production]]. As such, trade between locations benefits both locations. |
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Economics is a [[social science]] that studies the [[production]], [[distribution]], [[trade]] and [[consumption]] of [[goods]] and services. |
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Economics, which focuses on measurable variables, is broadly divided into two main branches: '''[[microeconomics]]''', which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and '''[[macroeconomics]]''', which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers [[aggregate supply]] and [[aggregate demand|demand]] for [[money]], [[capital (economics)|capital]] and [[commodity|commodities]]. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are [[resource allocation]], production, distribution, trade, and [[competition]]. Economic logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic [[value#Economics|value]]. Mainstream economics focuses on how prices reflect [[supply and demand]], and uses equations to predict consequences of decisions. |
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===Artefacts, technology, and science=== |
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[[Image:Industrial Robotics in car production.jpg|thumb|[[Computer]]-controlled [[robot]]s are ubiquitous in [[industrial manufacture]].]] |
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{{main2|Archaeology|Technology]], [[Science]], [[Civilisation}} |
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Human cultures are both characterised and differentiated by the objects that they make and use. [[Archaeology]] attempts to tell the story of past or lost cultures in part by close examination of the [[Artifact (archaeology)|artefacts]] they produced. Early humans left [[stone tools]], [[pottery]] and [[jewellery]] that are particular to various regions and times. |
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Improvements in technology are passed from one culture to another. For instance, the [[agriculture|cultivation]] of crops arose in several different locations, but quickly spread to be an almost ubiquitous feature of human life. Similarly, advances in [[weapons]], [[architecture]] and [[metallurgy]] are quickly disseminated. |
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Such techniques can be passed on by [[oral tradition]]. The development of [[writing]], itself a type of artefact, made it possible to pass information from generation to generation and from region to region with greater accuracy. |
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Together, these developments made possible the commencement of [[civilisation]] and [[urbanisation]], with their inherently complex social arrangements. Eventually this led to the institutionalisation of the development of new technology, and the associated understanding of the way the world functions. This [[Science]] now forms a central part of human culture. |
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In recent times, [[physics]] and [[astrophysics]] have come to play a central role in shaping what is now known as [[physical cosmology]], that is, the understanding of the universe through scientific observation and experiment. This discipline, which focuses on the universe as it exists on the largest scales and at the earliest times, begins by arguing for the [[big bang]], a sort of cosmic explosion from which the universe itself is said to have erupted ~13.7 ± 0.2 [[billion]] (10<sup>9</sup>) years ago. After its violent beginnings and until its very [[end of the universe|end]], scientists then propose that the entire history of the universe has been an orderly progression governed by [[physical laws]]. |
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== See also == |
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* [[Anthropology]] |
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* [[Baby]], [[Toddler]], [[Child]], [[Man]], and [[Woman]] |
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* [[Culture]] |
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* [[Civilization]] |
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* [[Emotion]] |
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* [[Environmentalism]] |
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* [[Graphical_timeline_of_human_evolution]] |
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* [[Homo (genus)]], [[Humanoid]] |
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* [[Human behaviour]] |
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* [[Human biology]], [[Human ecology]], [[Human evolution]], [[Human variability]] |
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* [[Human condition]], [[Human nature]], [[Human rights]], [[Humanitarian]] |
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* [[Humanism]], [[Transhumanism]] |
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* [[Humanities]] |
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* [[Mannaz]] (etymology) |
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* [[Metahuman]] |
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* [[Misanthropy]] (dislike of the human race) |
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* [[Parahumans]] |
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* [[Personal life]] |
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* [[Space and survival]] |
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* [[World population]], [[World hunger]] |
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* [[Humanitas]] |
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==References== |
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*[http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/primates/primate_order.html Taxonomy of living primates], Minnesota State University Mankato, retrieved April 4, 2005 |
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*[http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/lifexpec.htm Life expectancy in the U.S., 2001], National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, December 8, 2004, retrieved April 2, 2005 |
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*[http://www.un.org/ageing/note5713.doc.htm U.N. Statistics on Population Ageing], United Nations press release, February 28, 2002, retrieved April 2, 2005 |
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*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ ''The World Factbook''], U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, retrieved April 2, 2005 |
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*[http://allpsych.com/psychology101/ego.html ''Freud's Structural and Topographical Models of Personalit''], All-Psych online, retrieved April 2, 2005 |
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*[http://brainmind.com/SplitBrain.html ''Conscious Awareness & The Unconscious Min''] by Rhawn Joseph, Brainmind.com, retrieved April 3, 2005 |
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*[http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/language/chimpanzee.html ''Chimpanzee Communication: Insight into the Origin of Languag''] by Amy Stafford, Minnesota State University Mankato, retrieved April 4, 2005 |
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*[http://www.duerinck.com/migrate.html Genetic migrations], by Kevin Duerinck, retrieved April 5, 2005 |
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*[http://www.msubillings.edu/asc/PDF-WritingLab/3-Minute%20Spr05/APA%20sample%20paper.pdf ''Apes and Language: A Literature Review''] (pdf) by Karen Shaw, Montana State University-Billings, retrieved April 19, 2005 |
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*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12368483 ''Divergence between samples of chimpanzee and human DNA sequences is 5%, counting indels''] by R.J. Britten, California Institute of Technology, October 4, 2002 |
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* Boyd, Robert, and Joan B. Silk. 2003. ''How Humans Evolved.'' New York: Norton & Company. ISBN 0393978540. |
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* Descartes, René. ''Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy''. (''Meditations'' first published 1641), Hackett Publishing Company, 1999, ISBN 0872204200 |
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*Dennett, Daniel. ''Consciousness Explained''. Little Brown & Co, 1991, ISBN 0316180653 |
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* Harding, Rosalind M., Eugene Healy, Amanda J. Ray, Nichola S. Ellis, Niamh Flanagan, Carol Todd, Craig Dixon, Antti Sajantila, Ian J. Jackson, Mark A. Birch-Machin, and Jonathan L. Rees. 2000. ''Evidence for variable selective pressures at MC1R''. American Journal of Human Genetics 66: 1351-1361. |
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*Pascal, Blaise. 1669. ''Pensées''. Penguin Books, 1995; ISBN 0140446451 |
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* Rogers, Alan R., David Iltis, and Stephen Wooding. 2004. ''Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair'', Current Anthropology 45 (1): 105-108. |
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* Saint Augustine. ''Augustine: Earlier Writings'', Westminster John Knox Press, 1979, ISBN 066424162X |
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*Templeton, Alan. [http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/Templeton_02.html "Out of Africa again and again"] ''Nature'' 416 (2002): 45 - 51. |
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*Vinayak Eswaran, Henry Harpending and Alan R. Rogers, ''Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans'', Journal of Human Evolution, In Press, Corrected Proof, Available online 6 May 2005. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6WJS-4G3SC6X-1/2/aae7c2810f0d87628e228363c0e1bd66] |
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==Further reading== |
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{{Wiktionary}} |
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{{Commons|Human}} |
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{{wikiquotepar|Mankind}} |
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{{wikispecies|Homo sapiens}} |
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*[http://www.modernhumanorigins.com/ ''A Look at Modern Human Origins''] by C. David Kreger. |
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*[http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Homo_sapiens&contgroup=Homo ''Homo Sapiens''] ''Tree of Life'' web project |
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*[http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/966532/posts ''Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Way''] by Nicholas Wade, ''New York Times'', August 19, 2003. |
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*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/3d/index.html 3-D Brain Anatomy], ''The Secret Life of the Brain'', Public Broadcasting Service, retrieved April 3, 2005 |
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*[http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/human/# Human evolution: the fossil evidence in 3D] by Philip L. Walker and Edward H. Hagen, Dept of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, retrieved April 5, 2005 |
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* Dobzhansky, Theodosius. 1963. ''Anthropology and the natural sciences-The problem of human evolution'', ''Current Anthropology'' '''4''' (2): 138-148. |
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*Jablonski, N.G. & Chaplin, G. 2000. ''The evolution of human skin coloration'' 'Journal of Human Evolution 39: 57-106. [http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/chem/faculty/leontis/chem447/PDF_files/Jablonski_skin_color_2000.pdf] (pdf) |
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*Robin, Ashley. 1991. ''Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation''' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. |
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* Sagan, Carl. 1978. ''The Dragons of Eden'', A Balantine Book, ISBN 0345346297 |
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[[Category:Apes]] |
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[[Category:Humans| ]] |
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[[ast:Homo sapiens]] |
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[[bn:মানুষ]] |
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[[ca:Homo sapiens sapiens]] |
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[[cs:Člověk]] |
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[[da:Menneske]] |
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[[de:Mensch]] |
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[[dz:Omo dapeonz]] |
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[[el:Άνθρωπος]] |
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[[es:Humano]] |
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[[eo:Homo]] |
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[[fr:Homo sapiens]] |
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[[ga:Duine]] |
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[[gl:Ser Humano]] |
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[[ko:사람]] |
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[[hr:Čovjek]] |
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[[id:Manusia]] |
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[[iu:ᐃᓄᒃ]] |
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[[it:Homo sapiens sapiens]] |
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[[he:אדם]] |
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[[kw:Tus]] |
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[[la:Homo sapiens]] |
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[[li:Mins]] |
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[[ln:Moto]] |
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[[ms:Manusia]] |
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[[nah:Tlaca]] |
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[[nl:Mens]] |
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[[nds:Minsch]] |
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[[ja:人間]]{{Link FA|ja}} |
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[[nb:Menneske]] |
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[[pl:Człowiek]] |
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[[pt:Homo sapiens]] |
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[[ro:Om]] |
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[[ru:Человек]] |
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[[scn:Umanu]] |
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[[simple:Human]] |
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[[sl:Človek]] |
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[[sr:Човек]] |
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[[fi:Ihminen]] |
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[[sv:Människan]] |
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[[tl:Tao]] |
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[[uk:Людина]] |
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[[zh:人]] |
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[[Category:Invasive species]] |
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