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{{otheruse|this=the Western board game|use1=other chess games or other uses}} |
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{{Infobox Game |
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| subject_name = Chess |
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| image_link = [[Image:ChessSet.jpg|250px]] |
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| image_caption = From left to right, a white [[King (chess)|king]], a black [[rook (chess)|rook]], a black [[queen (chess)|queen]], a white [[pawn (chess)|pawn]], a black [[knight (chess)|knight]], and a white [[bishop (chess)|bishop]] (all [[Staunton chess set|Staunton chessmen]]) |
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| players = 2 |
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| setup_time = One minute |
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| playing_time = Casual games without time control last usually 10 to 60 minutes; tournament games can last anywhere from less than ten minutes ([[blitz chess]]) to four hours or longer. |
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| skills = [[Chess tactics|Tactics]], [[Chess strategy|Strategy]] |
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}} |
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'''Chess''' is a recreational and competitive [[game]] played between two [[Player (game)|players]]. Sometimes called '''Western chess''' or '''international chess''' to distinguish it from [[Origins of chess|its predecessors]] and other [[chess variant]]s, the current form of the game emerged in [[Southern Europe]] during the second half of the 15th century after evolving from similar, much older games of [[India]]n and [[Persia]]n origin. Today, chess is one of the world's most popular games, played by millions of people worldwide at home, in [[Chess club|clubs]], online, by [[correspondence chess|correspondence]], and in [[List of chess terms#Tournament|tournaments]]. |
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The game is played on a square chequered [[chessboard]] with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight square. At the start, each player (one controlling the white pieces, the other controlling the black pieces) controls sixteen [[Chess piece|pieces]]: one [[king (chess)|king]], one [[queen (chess)|queen]], two [[rook (chess)|rooks]], two [[knight (chess)|knights]], two [[bishop (chess)|bishops]], and eight [[pawn (chess)|pawns]]. The object of the game is to [[checkmate]] the opponent's king, whereby the king is under immediate attack (in "[[Check (chess)|check]]") and there is no way to remove it from attack on the next move. |
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The tradition of organized competitive chess started in the 16th century and has developed extensively. Chess today is a recognized sport of the [[International Olympic Committee]]. The first official [[World Chess Champion]], [[Wilhelm Steinitz]], claimed his title in 1886; [[Viswanathan Anand]] is the current World Champion. Theoreticians have developed extensive [[chess strategy|chess strategies]] and [[chess tactics|tactics]] since the game's inception. Aspects of [[art]] are found in [[chess composition]]. |
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One of the goals of early computer scientists was to create a [[Computer chess|chess-playing machine]]. Today's chess is deeply influenced by the abilities of current chess programs and the ability to play against others online. In 1997, [[Deep Blue (chess computer)|Deep Blue]] became the first computer to beat the reigning World Champion in a [[Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov|match]] when it defeated [[Garry Kasparov]]. |
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==Rules== |
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{{main|Rules of chess}} ''For a simple demonstration of the gameplay, see [[b:Transwiki:Sample chess game|sample chess game]].'' |
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===Setup=== |
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[[Image:ChessStartingPosition.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Pieces at the start of a game]] |
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{{Chess diagram|= |
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|tright |
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|= |
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|rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|= |
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|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|= |
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| | | | | | | | |= |
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| | | | | | | | |= |
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| | | | | | | | |= |
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| | | | | | | | |= |
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|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|= |
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|rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|= |
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|Initial position: first row: rook, knight, bishop, queen, king, bishop, knight, and rook; second row: pawns |
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}} |
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Chess is played on a square [[Chessboard|board]] of eight rows (called [[rank (chess)|''ranks'']] and denoted with numbers ''1'' to ''8'') and eight columns (called [[file (chess)|''files'']] and denoted with letters ''a'' to ''h'') of squares. The colors of the sixty-four squares alternate and are referred to as "light squares" and "dark squares". The chessboard is placed with a light square at the right hand end of the rank nearest to each player, and the pieces are set out as shown in the diagram, with each [[Queen (chess)|queen]] on its own color. |
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The pieces are divided, by convention, into white and black sets. The players are referred to as "[[White and Black in chess|White]]" and "[[White and Black in chess|Black]]", and each begins the game with sixteen [[Chess piece|pieces]] of the specified color. These consist of one [[king (chess)|king]], one [[queen (chess)|queen]], two [[rook (chess)|rooks]], two [[bishop (chess)|bishops]], two [[knight (chess)|knights]] and eight [[pawn (chess)|pawns]]. White moves first. The players alternate moving one piece at a time (with the exception of [[castling]], when two pieces are moved simultaneously). Pieces are moved to either an unoccupied square, or one occupied by an opponent's piece, capturing it and removing it from play. With one exception (''[[en passant]]''), all pieces capture opponent's pieces by moving to the square that the opponent's piece occupies. |
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When a king is under immediate attack by one or two of the opponent's pieces, it is said to be in [[Check (chess)|''check'']]. The only permissible responses to a check are to capture the checking piece, interpose a piece between the checking piece and the king, or move the king to a square where it is not under attack. Castling is not a permissible response to a check. A move that would place the moving player's king in check is illegal. The object of the game is to [[checkmate]] the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check, and there is no way to remove it from attack. |
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===Moves=== |
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Each chess piece has its own style of moving. The X's mark the squares where the piece can move if no other pieces (including one's own piece) are on the X's between the piece's initial position and destination. If there is an opponent's piece at the destination square, then moving piece can capture the opponent's piece. The only exception is the pawn which can only capture pieces that are one square ''diagonally'' forward. |
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{{Chess diagram small |
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| tleft |
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| Moves of a king |
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|= |
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8 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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7 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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6 |__|__|__|__|xx|xx|xx|__|= |
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5 |__|__|__|__|xx|kl|xx|__|= |
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4 |__|__|__|__|xx|xx|xx|__|= |
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3 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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2 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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1 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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a b c d e f g h |
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}} |
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{{Chess diagram small |
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| tleft |
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| Moves of a rook |
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|= |
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8 |__|__|__|xx|__|__|__|__|= |
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7 |__|__|__|xx|__|__|__|__|= |
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6 |__|__|__|xx|__|__|__|__|= |
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5 |xx|xx|xx|rd|xx|xx|xx|xx|= |
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4 |__|__|__|xx|__|__|__|__|= |
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3 |__|__|__|xx|__|__|__|__|= |
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2 |__|__|__|xx|__|__|__|__|= |
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1 |__|__|__|xx|__|__|__|__|= |
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a b c d e f g h |
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}} |
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{{Chess diagram small |
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| tleft |
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| Moves of a bishop |
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|= |
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8 |xx|__|__|__|__|__|xx|__|= |
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7 |__|xx|__|__|__|xx|__|__|= |
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6 |__|__|xx|__|xx|__|__|__|= |
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5 |__|__|__|bl|__|__|__|__|= |
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4 |__|__|xx|__|xx|__|__|__|= |
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3 |__|xx|__|__|__|xx|__|__|= |
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2 |xx|__|__|__|__|__|xx|__|= |
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1 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|xx|= |
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a b c d e f g h |
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| |
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}} |
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{{-}} |
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{{Chess diagram small |
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| tleft |
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| Moves of a queen |
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|= |
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8 |__|__|__|xx|__|__|__|xx|= |
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7 |xx|__|__|xx|__|__|xx|__|= |
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6 |__|xx|__|xx|__|xx|__|__|= |
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5 |__|__|xx|xx|xx|__|__|__|= |
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4 |xx|xx|xx|qd|xx|xx|xx|xx|= |
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3 |__|__|xx|xx|xx|__|__|__|= |
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2 |__|xx|__|xx|__|xx|__|__|= |
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1 |xx|__|__|xx|__|__|xx|__|= |
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a b c d e f g h |
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}} |
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{{Chess diagram small |
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| tleft |
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| Moves of a knight |
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|= |
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8 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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7 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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6 |__|__|xx|__|xx|__|__|__|= |
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5 |__|xx|__|__|__|xx|__|__|= |
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4 |__|__|__|nd|__|__|__|__|= |
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3 |__|xx|__|__|__|xx|__|__|= |
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2 |__|__|xx|__|xx|__|__|__|= |
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1 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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a b c d e f g h |
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}} |
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{{Chess diagram small |
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| tleft |
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| Moves of a pawn<sup>*</sup> |
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|= |
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8 |__|__|__|oo|xx|oo|__|__|= |
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7 |__|__|__|__|pl|__|__|__|= |
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6 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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5 |oo|xx|oo|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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4 |__|pl|__|__|__|xx|__|__|= |
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3 |__|__|__|__|oo|xx|oo|__|= |
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2 |__|__|__|__|__|pl|__|__|= |
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1 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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a b c d e f g h |
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}} |
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{{-}} |
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<small>* pawns can only move to the white circles to capture, and cannot capture with their normal move</small> |
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===Special moves=== |
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====Castling==== |
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{{main|Castling}} |
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[[Image:Four Castling Positions.png|right|Quadrants show different ways of castling.]] |
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Once in every game, each king is allowed to make a special move, known as ''[[castling]]''. Castling consists of moving the king two squares towards a rook, then placing the rook immediately on the far side of the king. Castling is only permissible if all of the following conditions hold:<ref>{{cite web |
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| title=The rules of chess |
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| url=http://www.chessvariants.org/d.chess/chess.html |
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| author=Bodlaender, Hans |
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| publisher=Chess Variants |
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| accessdate=2008-01-07 |
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}}</ref> |
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*Neither of the pieces involved in the castling may have been previously moved during the game; |
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*There must be no pieces between the king and the rook; |
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*The king may not currently be in check, nor may the king pass through squares that are under attack by enemy pieces. As with any move, castling is illegal if it would place the king in check. |
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*The king and the rook must be on the same rank (to exclude castling with a [[promotion (chess)|promoted]] pawn, described later). |
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====''En passant''==== |
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{{main|En passant}} |
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When a pawn advances two squares, if there is an opponent's pawn on an adjacent file next to its destination square, then the opponent's pawn can capture it and move to the square the pawn passed over, but only on the next move. For example, if the black pawn has just advanced two squares from f7 to f5, then either of the white pawns on e5 and g5 can take it via ''en passant'' on f6. |
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{{Chess diagram small|= |
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|tright |
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|Special pawn moves |
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|= |
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|__|__|xx|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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|__|__|pl|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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|__|__|__|__|__|oo|__|__|= |
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|__|__|__|__|pl|pd|pl|__|= |
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|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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|The pawn on c7 can promote.<br />''If'' Black's last move was ...f7-f5, White's e- or g-pawn may capture the Black pawn '' en passant''. |
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}} |
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====Promotion==== |
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{{main|Promotion (chess)}} |
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When a pawn advances to its eighth rank, it is exchanged for the player's choice of a queen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color. Usually, the pawn is chosen to be promoted to a queen, but in some cases another piece is chosen, called [[underpromotion]]. In the diagram on the right, the pawn on c7 can choose to advance to the eighth rank to promote to a better piece. |
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===End of the game=== |
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Chess games do not have to end in checkmate — either player may [[List of chess terms#Resign|resign]] if the situation looks hopeless. If it is a [[time control| timed]] game a player may run out of time and lose, even with a much superior position. Games also may end in a [[Draw (chess)|draw]] (tie). A draw can occur in several situations, including [[draw by agreement]], [[stalemate]], [[threefold repetition]] of a position, the [[fifty-move rule]], or a draw by impossibility of checkmate (usually because of [[list of chess terms#Insufficient material|insufficient material]] to checkmate). |
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===Time control=== |
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Besides casual games without exact timing, chess is also played with a [[time control]], mostly by club and professional players. If a player's time runs out before the game is completed, the game is automatically lost (provided his opponent has enough pieces left to deliver checkmate). The timing ranges from long games played up to seven hours to shorter [[rapid chess]] games lasting usually 30 minutes or one hour per game. Even shorter is [[blitz chess]] with a time control of three to fifteen minutes for each player, or [[bullet chess]] (under three minutes). |
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The international rules of chess are described in more detail in the ''[[FIDE]] Handbook'', section Laws of Chess.<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.fide.com/info/handbook?id=32&view=category |
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| title=Laws of Chess |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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| publisher=FIDE |
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}}</ref> |
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==Strategy and tactics== |
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Chess strategy consists of setting and achieving long-term goals during the game — for example, where to place different pieces — while tactics concentrate on immediate manoeuvre. These two parts of chess thinking cannot be completely separated, because strategic goals are mostly achieved by the means of tactics, while the tactical opportunities are based on the previous strategy of play. |
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A game of chess is usually divided into three phases: [[Chess opening|opening]], usually the first 10 to 25 moves, when players move their pieces into useful positions for the coming battle; [[Chess middlegame|middlegame]], usually the fiercest part of the game; and [[Chess endgame|endgame]], when most of the pieces are gone, kings typically take a more active part in the struggle, and [[pawn promotion]] is often decisive. |
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===Fundamentals of strategy=== |
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{{main|Chess strategy}} |
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Chess strategy is concerned with evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long-term plans for the future play. During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous factors as the value of pieces on board, the [[pawn structure]], the king safety, the control of key squares or groups of squares (for example, diagonals, open-files, and dark or light squares), etc. |
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{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border:none; font-size: 95%; clear: right; padding:0" |
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|+ '''An example of visualizing pawn structures''' |
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|- |
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|{{Chess diagram small |
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| |
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| |
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|rd|__|bd|__|rd|__|kd|__|= |
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|pd|pd|__|nd|__|pd|bd|pd|= |
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|__|__|pd|rl|__|nd|pd|__|= |
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|__|__|__|__|pd|__|__|__|= |
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|__|__|pl|__|pl|__|__|__|= |
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|__|__|nl|__|bl|nl|__|pl|= |
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|pl|pl|__|__|__|pl|pl|__|= |
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|__|__|kl|__|__|bl|__|rl|= |
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a b c d e f g h |
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| After 12...Re8 at Tarrasch – Euwe<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1006866 |
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| title=Siegbert Tarrasch vs Max Euwe, Bad Pistyan it, CZE 1922 |
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| publisher=ChessGames |
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}} (Java needed)</ref>… |
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}} |
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| {{Chess diagram small |
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| |
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| |
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|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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|pd|pd|__|__|__|pd|__|pd|= |
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|__|__|pd|__|__|__|pd|__|= |
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|__|__|__|__|pd|__|__|__|= |
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|__|__|pl|__|pl|__|__|__|= |
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|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|pl|= |
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|pl|pl|__|__|__|pl|pl|__|= |
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|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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| …and its pawn skeleton (the "Rauzer formation") |
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}} |
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|} |
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The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the [[chess piece point value|total value of pieces]] of both sides.<ref>Harding 2003, p. 1–7</ref> The point values used for this purpose are based on experience; usually pawns are considered worth one point, knights and bishops about three points each, rooks about five points (the value difference between a rook and a bishop being known as [[The exchange (chess)|the exchange]]), and queens about nine points. In the endgame, the king is generally more powerful than a bishop or knight but less powerful than a rook, thus it is sometimes assigned a fighting value of four points. These basic values are then modified by other factors like ''position of the piece'' (for example, advanced pawns are usually more valuable than those on initial positions), ''coordination between pieces'' (for example, a pair of bishops usually coordinates better than the pair of a bishop and knight), or ''type of position'' (knights are generally better in closed positions with many pawns while bishops are more powerful in open positions). |
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Another important factor in the evaluation of chess positions is the pawn structure (sometimes known as the pawn skeleton), or the configuration of pawns on the chessboard.<ref>Harding 2003, p. 138ff</ref> Pawns being the least mobile of the chess pieces, the pawn structure is relatively static and largely determines the strategic nature of the position. Weaknesses in the pawn structure, such as [[Isolated pawn|isolated]], [[Doubled pawns|doubled]] or [[backward pawn]]s and [[chess terminology#Hole|holes]], once created, are usually permanent. Care must therefore be taken to avoid them unless they are compensated by another valuable asset (for example, by the possibility to develop an attack). |
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===Fundamentals of tactics=== |
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{{main|Chess tactics}} |
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[[Image:Lucena1497.jpg|thumb|left|A tactical puzzle from [[Luis Ramirez Lucena|Lucena's]] 1497 book]] |
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{{Chess diagram |= |
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| tright |
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| |
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|= |
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|rd| |bd| | |rd| | |= |
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| |pd|__|nd|qd| |bd| |= |
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| |nd|pd|__|pd| |kd|pd|= |
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|pd| | | | | |__|__|= |
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|__|__|__|pl|nl|__|__|__|= |
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|__|pl|__|__|bl|__|__| |= |
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| | |ql| |bl|pl|pl|pl|= |
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| | |rl|rl| | |kl| |= |
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| |
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{{HiddenMultiLine | {{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1031833 | title=Botvinnik-Yudovich,<br />USSR Championship 1933}} – how did White force a quick win? |
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| After [[sacrifice (chess)| sacrificing]] a piece to expose Black's King, Botvinnik played 1. Bh5+ and Yudovich resigned as mate is inevitable, e.g. 1...Kxh5 2.Ng3+ K moves 3.Qe4+ Rf4 4.Qxf4#, or 1...Kh7 2.Nf6+ [[double check]] Kh8 3.Qh7#. |
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}} |
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}} |
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In chess, tactics in general concentrate on short-term actions — so short-term that they can be calculated in advance by a human player or by a computer. The possible depth of calculation depends on the player's ability or speed of the processor. In quiet positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is not possible, while in "tactical" positions with a limited number of forced variations where much less than the best move would lose quickly, strong players can calculate very long sequences of moves. |
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Simple one-move or two-move tactical actions — threats, exchanges of material, double attacks etc. — can be combined into more complicated [[Combination (chess)| combinations]], sequences of tactical maneuvers that are often forced from the point of view of one or both players.<ref>Harding 2003, p. 70ff</ref> Theoreticians described many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers, for example [[Pin (chess)|pins]], [[Fork (chess)|forks]], [[Skewer (chess)|skewers]], [[discovered attack]]s (especially discovered checks), [[zwischenzug]]s, deflections, [[decoy (chess)|decoys]], [[Sacrifice (chess)|sacrifices]], [[undermining (chess)|underminings]], [[Overloading (chess)|overloadings]], and [[Interference (chess)|interferences]].<ref>Harding 2003, p. 8ff</ref> |
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A forced variation that involves a sacrifice and usually results in a tangible gain is called a [[combination (chess)|combination]].<ref>Harding 2003, p. 70ff</ref> Brilliant combinations — such as those in the [[Immortal Game]] — are considered beautiful and are admired by chess lovers. A common type of chess exercise, aimed at developing players' skills, is showing players a position where a decisive combination is available and challenging them to find it. |
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{{clear}} |
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===Opening=== |
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{{main|Chess opening}} |
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A chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game (the "opening moves"). Recognized sequences of opening moves are referred to as ''openings'' and have been given names such as the [[Ruy Lopez]] or [[Sicilian Defence]]. They are catalogued in reference works such as the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings]]''. |
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There are dozens of different openings, varying widely in character from quiet positional play (e.g. the [[Réti Opening]]) to very aggressive (e.g. the [[Latvian Gambit]]). In some opening lines, the exact sequence considered best for both sides has been worked out to 30–35 moves or more.<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Collins, Sam |
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| title=Understanding the Chess Openings |
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| publisher=Gambit Publications |
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| year=2005 |
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| isbn=1-904600-28-X |
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| oclc= 57484838 |
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}}</ref> Professional players spend years studying openings, and continue doing so throughout their careers, as [[Chess theory#Opening theory|opening theory]] continues to evolve. |
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The fundamental strategic aims of most openings are similar:<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=[[Siegbert Tarrasch|Tarrasch, Siegbert]] |
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| title=The Game of Chess |
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| publisher=Courier Dover Publications |
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| year=1987 |
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| isbn=0-486-25447-X |
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| oclc=15631832 |
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}}</ref> |
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*''Development'': To place (develop) the pieces (particularly bishops and knights) on useful squares where they will have an optimal impact on the game. |
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*''Control of the center'': Control of the central squares allows pieces to be moved to any part of the board relatively easily, and can also have a cramping effect on the opponent. |
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*''King safety'': Keeping the King safe from dangerous possibilities. A correct timing for castling can often enhance this. |
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*''[[Pawn structure]]'': Players strive to avoid the creation of pawn weaknesses such as isolated, doubled or backward pawns, and pawn islands – and to force such weaknesses in the opponent's position. |
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Most players and [[Chess theory|theoreticians]] consider that White, by virtue of the first move, [[First-move advantage in chess|begins the game with a small advantage]]. Black usually strives to neutralize White's advantage and achieve [[List of chess terms#Equality|equality]], or to develop [[List of chess terms#Dynamism|dynamic]] [[List of chess terms#Counterplay|counterplay]] in an unbalanced position. |
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===Middlegame=== |
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{{main|Chess middlegame}} |
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The middlegame is the part of the game when most pieces have been developed. Because the opening theory has ended, players have to assess the position, to form plans based on the features of the positions, and at the same time to take into account the tactical possibilities in the position.<ref>Harding 2003, p. 32–151</ref> |
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Typical plans or strategical themes — for example the minority attack, that is the attack of [[Chess terminology#Queenside|queenside]] pawns against an opponent who has more pawns on the queenside — are often appropriate just for some [[pawn structure]]s, resulting from a specific group of openings. The study of openings should therefore be connected with the preparation of plans typical for resulting middlegames. |
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Middlegame is also the phase in which most [[Combination (chess)|combinations]] occur. Middlegame combinations are often connected with the attack against the opponent's king; some typical patterns have their own names, for example the [[Boden's Mate]] or the [[Lasker - Bauer, Amsterdam, 1889|Lasker—Bauer]] combination. |
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Another important strategical question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce material and transform into an endgame (i.e. [[Chess terms#Simplification|simplify]]). For example, minor material advantages can generally be transformed into victory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achieve an ending. Not every reduction of material is good for this purpose; for example, if one side keeps a light-squared bishop and the opponent has a dark-squared one, the transformation into a [[Chess endgame#Bishop and pawn endings|''bishops and pawns'']] ending is usually advantageous for the weaker side only, because an endgame with [[opposite-colored bishops endgame|bishops on opposite colors]] is likely to be a draw, even with an advantage of one or two pawns. |
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===Endgame=== |
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{{main|Chess endgame}} |
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{{Chess diagram small|= |
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| tright |
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| |
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|= |
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8 |__|__|kd|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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7 |__|__|pl|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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6 |__|__|__|kl|__|__|__|__|= |
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5 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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4 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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3 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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2 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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1 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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a b c d e f g h |
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| An example of [[zugzwang]]: The side which is to make a move is in a disadvantage.}} |
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The endgame (or ''end game'' or ''ending'') is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board. There are three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and endgame:<ref>Harding 2003, p. 187ff</ref> |
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*During the endgame, pawns become more important; endgames often revolve around attempting to [[promotion (chess)|promote]] a pawn by advancing it to the eighth rank. |
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*The king, which has to be protected in the middlegame owing to the threat of checkmate, becomes a strong piece in the endgame. It is often brought to the center of the board where it can protect its own pawns, attack the pawns of opposite color, and hinder movement of the opponent's king. |
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*[[Zugzwang]], a disadvantage because the player has to make a move, is often a factor in endgames but rarely in other stages of the game. For example, in the diagram on the right, Black on move must play 1...Kb7 and allow white to queen after 2.Kd7, while White on move must allow a draw either after 1.Kc6 stalemate or lose the last pawn by going anywhere else. |
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Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces that remain on board. [[Checkmate#Basic checkmates|Basic checkmates]] are positions in which one side has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces and can checkmate the opposing king, with the pieces working together with their king. For example, [[Chess endgame#King and pawn endings|king and pawn endgames]] involve only kings and pawns on one or both sides and the task of the stronger side is to promote one of the pawns. Other more complicated endings are classified according to the pieces on board other than kings, e.g. "[[rook and pawn versus rook endgame]]". |
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==History== |
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===Predecessors=== |
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{{main|Origins of chess}} |
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[[Image:Shatranj.jpg|thumb|left|Iranian chess set, glazed [[fritware]], 12th century. [[New York Metropolitan Museum of Art]].]] |
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Chess originated in [[India]] during the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta empire]],<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=[[Harold James Ruthven Murray|Murray, H.J.R.]] |
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| title=A History of Chess |
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| publisher=Benjamin Press (originally published by Oxford University Press) |
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| year=1913 |
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| isbn=0-936317-01-9 |
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| oclc=13472872 |
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}}</ref> where its early form in the 6th century was known as [[chaturanga|''{{IAST|caturaṅga}}]]'', which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" – [[infantry]], [[cavalry]], [[war elephant|elephants]], and [[chariot]]ry, represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. In [[Sassanid Persia]] around 600 the name became ''[[shatranj]]'' and the rules were developed further. Shatranj was taken up by the [[Muslim world]] after the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]], with the pieces largely retaining their Persian names. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] "shatranj" was rendered as ''ajedrez'', in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] as ''xadrez'', and in [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''zatrikion'', but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persian ''shāh'' ("king"). |
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[[Image:KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg|thumb|[[Knights Templar]] playing chess, ''[[Libro de los juegos]]'', 1283.]] |
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The game reached Western Europe and Russia by at least three routes, the earliest being in the 9th century. By the year 1000 it had spread throughout Europe.<ref name="tacspx">Hooper & Whyld 1992, pp. 144–45</ref> Introduced into the [[Iberian Peninsula]] by the [[Moors]] in the 10th century, it was described in a famous 13th-century manuscript covering shatranj, [[backgammon]], and [[dice]] named the ''[[Libro de los juegos]]''. |
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Another theory contends that chess arose from the game [[xiangqi]] (Chinese Chess) or one of its predecessors.<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=[[David H. Li|Li, David H.]] |
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| title=The Genealogy of Chess |
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| publisher=Premier Pub. Co. |
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| year=1998 |
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| isbn=0-9637852-2-2 |
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| oclc=39281682 |
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}}</ref> |
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===Origins of the modern game (1450–1850)=== |
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[[Image:JaquesCookStaunton.jpg|thumb|left|Original [[Howard Staunton|Staunton]] chess pieces by [[Nathaniel Cook]] from 1849]] |
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Around 1200, rules of shatranj started to be modified in southern Europe, and around 1475, several major changes made the game essentially as it is known today.<ref name = "tacspx"/> These modern rules for the basic moves had been adopted in [[Italy]] and [[Spain]].<ref>Davidson 1981, p. 13–17</ref><ref name = "nauiua">{{cite web |
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| author=Calvo, Ricardo |
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| url=http://www.goddesschess.com/chessays/ricardovalencia.html |
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| title=Valencia Spain: The Cradle of European Chess |
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| accessdate=2008-11-28 |
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| publisher=GoddessChess |
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}}</ref> |
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Pawns gained the option of advancing two squares on their first move, while bishops and queens acquired their modern abilities. This made the queen the most powerful piece; consequently modern chess was referred to as "Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess".<ref>An analysis from the feminist perspective:<br>{{cite book |
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| author=Weissberger, Barbara F. |
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| title=Isabel Rules: constructing queenship, wielding power |
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| publisher=University of Minnesota Press |
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| year=2004 |
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| isbn=0-8166-4164-1 |
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| oclc=217447754 |
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| pages=152ff |
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}}</ref> These new rules quickly spread throughout western Europe, with the exception of [[Stalemate#History of the stalemate rule|the rules about stalemate]], which were finalized in the early 19th century. |
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Writings about the [[chess theory|theory]] of how to play chess began to appear in the 15th century. The oldest surviving printed chess book, ''Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez'' (''Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess'') by [[Spanish people|Spanish]] churchman [[Luis Ramirez de Lucena]] was published in [[Salamanca]] in 1497.<ref name = "nauiua"/> Lucena and later masters like [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Pedro Damiano]], [[Italians]] [[Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona]], [[Giulio Cesare Polerio]] and [[Gioachino Greco]] or Spanish bishop [[Ruy López de Segura]] developed elements of [[opening]]s and started to analyze simple [[Chess endgame|endgames]]. |
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[[Image:André Philidor.jpg|right|thumb|caption|[[François-André Danican Philidor]], 18th-century French chess Master]] |
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In the 18th century the center of European chess life moved from the Southern European countries to [[France]]. The two most important French masters were [[François-André Danican Philidor]], a musician by profession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy, and later [[Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais]] who won a famous series of matches with the [[Ireland|Irish]] master [[Alexander McDonnell]] in 1834.<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=31596 |
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| title=Louis Charles Mahe De La Bourdonnais |
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| publisher=ChessGames |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> Centers of chess life in this period were [[coffee house]]s in big European cities like ''[[Café de la Régence]]'' in [[Paris]] and ''[[Simpson's-in-the-Strand|Simpson's Divan]]'' in [[London]].<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Metzner, Paul |
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| title=Crescendo of the Virtuoso: Spectacle, Skill, and Self-Promotion in Paris during the Age of Revolution |
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| publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press |
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| year=1998 |
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| isbn=0-520-20684-3 |
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| oclc=185289629 |
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| url=http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft438nb2b6/ |
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}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |
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| author=[[Henry Edward Bird|Bird, Henry Edward]] |
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| url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4902 |
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| title=Chess History and Reminiscences |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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| publisher=Gutenberg |
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}}</ref> |
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As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many [[chess club]]s, chess books and chess journals appeared. There were correspondence matches between cities; for example the London Chess Club played against the [[Edinburgh]] Chess Club in 1824.<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=80740 |
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| title=London Chess Club |
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| publisher=ChessGames |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> [[Chess problems]] became a regular part of 19th-century newspapers; [[Bernhard Horwitz]], [[Josef Kling]] and [[Samuel Loyd]] composed some of the most influential problems. In 1843, [[Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa|von der Lasa]] published his and [[Paul Rudolf von Bilguer|Bilguer's]] ''[[Handbuch des Schachspiels]]'' (''Handbook of Chess''), the first comprehensive manual of chess theory. |
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===Birth of a sport (1850–1945)=== |
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[[Image:immortal game animation.gif|frame|left|The "[[Immortal Game]]", Anderssen-Kieseritzky, 1851]] |
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The first modern chess tournament was [[London 1851 chess tournament|held in London in 1851]] and won, surprisingly, by German [[Adolf Anderssen]], relatively unknown at the time. Anderssen was hailed as the leading chess master and his brilliant, energetic attacking style became typical for the time, although it was later regarded as [[chess strategy| strategically]] shallow.<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://web.archive.org/web/2006/worldchessnetwork.com/English/chessHistory/salute/matchesTournaments/london1851.php |
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| title=London, 1851 |
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| author=[[Larry Parr|Parr, Larry]] |
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| publisher=World Chess Network |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Hartston, W. |
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| title=The Kings of Chess |
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| year=1985 |
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| publisher=Pavilion Books Limited |
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| page=36 |
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| isbn=0-06-015358-X |
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}}</ref> Sparkling games like Anderssen's ''[[Immortal game]]'' or [[Paul Morphy|Morphy's]] ''[[Opera game]]'' were regarded as the highest possible summit of the chess art.<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Burgess, Graham |
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| coauthors=Nunn, John; Emms, John |
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| title=The Mammoth Book of the World's Greatest Chess Games |
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| publisher=Carroll & Graf Publishers |
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| year=1998 |
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| isbn=0-7867-0587-6 |
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| oclc=40209258 |
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| pages=14 |
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}}</ref> |
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Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with two younger players. [[United States|American]] [[Paul Morphy]], an extraordinary [[chess prodigy]], won against all important competitors, including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks.<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Shibut, Macon |
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| title=Paul Morphy and the Evolution of Chess Theory |
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| publisher=Courier Dover Publications |
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| year=2004 |
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| isbn=0-486-43574-1 |
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| oclc=55639730 |
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}}</ref> [[Prague]]-born [[Wilhelm Steinitz]] later described how to avoid weaknesses in one's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknesses in the opponent's position.<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Steinitz, William |
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| coauthors=Landsberger, Kurt |
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| title=The Steinitz Papers: Letters and Documents of the First World Chess Champion |
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| publisher=McFarland & Company |
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| year=2002 |
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| isbn=0-7864-1193-7 |
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| oclc=48550929 |
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}}</ref> In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading German master [[Johannes Zukertort]] in 1886 is regarded as the first official [[World Chess Championship]]. Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger German mathematician [[Emanuel Lasker]], who maintained this title for 27 years, the longest tenure of all World Champions.<ref>Kasparov 1983a</ref> |
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[[Image:Wilhelm Steinitz2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Wilhelm Steinitz]], the first World Chess Champion]] |
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It took a prodigy from [[Cuba]], [[José Raúl Capablanca]] (World champion 1921–27), who loved simple positions and endgames, to end the German-speaking dominance in chess; he was undefeated in tournament play for eight years until 1924. His successor was Russian-French [[Alexander Alekhine]], a strong attacking player, who died as the World champion in 1946, having briefly lost the title to [[Dutch people|Dutch]] player [[Max Euwe]] in 1935 and regaining it two years later.<ref>Kasparov 1983b</ref> |
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Between the world wars, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-called [[Hypermodernism (chess)|hypermodernists]] like [[Aron Nimzowitsch]] and [[Richard Réti]]. They advocated controlling the center of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns which become objects of attack.<ref>Fine 1952</ref> |
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Since the end of 19th century, the number of annually held master tournaments and matches quickly grew. Some sources state that in 1914 the title of [[International Grandmaster|chess grandmaster]] was first formally conferred by Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia]] to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, [[Siegbert Tarrasch|Tarrasch]] and [[Frank Marshall|Marshall]], but this is a disputed claim.<ref>This is stated for example in ''The Encyclopaedia of Chess'' (1970, p.223) by [[Anne Sunnucks]], but this is also disputed by [[Edward Winter (chess historian)]] in his [http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:Uv0K9qUrveUJ:www.chesshistory.com/winter/winter38.html+site:chesshistory.com/winter+Grandmaster+Tsar&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us Chess Notes 5144 and 5152].</ref> The tradition of awarding such titles was continued by the World Chess Federation ([[FIDE]]), founded in 1924 in [[Paris]]. In 1927, [[Women's World Chess Championship]] was established; the first to hold it was [[Czech people|Czech]]-[[English people|English]] master [[Vera Menchik]].<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=13277 |
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| title=Vera Menchik |
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| publisher=ChessGames |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> |
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===Post-war era (1945 and later)=== |
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[[Image:Capablanca-Lasker 1925.jpg|thumb|left|World Champions [[José Raúl Capablanca]] (left) and [[Emanuel Lasker]] in 1925]] |
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After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought in a tournament of elite players ruled by FIDE, who have controlled the title since then, with one interruption. The winner of the 1948 tournament, Russian [[Mikhail Botvinnik]], started an era of [[Soviet]] dominance in the chess world. Until the end of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American [[Bobby Fischer]] (champion 1972–1975).<ref>Kasparov 2003b, 2004a, 2004b, 2006</ref> |
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In the previous informal system, the World Champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match. FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches. The world's strongest players were seeded into "[[Interzonal]] tournaments", where they were joined by players who had qualified from "Zonal tournaments". The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go on the "Candidates" stage, which was initially a tournament, later a series of knock-out matches. The winner of the [[Candidates]] would then play the reigning champion for the title. A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later. This system worked on a three-year cycle. |
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Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of fifteen years. He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954. In 1957, he lost to [[Vasily Smyslov]], but regained the title in a rematch in 1958. In 1960, he lost the title to the [[Latvia]]n prodigy [[Mikhail Tal]], an accomplished tactician and attacking player. Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961. |
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Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch, and the next champion, [[Armenia]]n [[Tigran Petrosian]], a genius of defense and strong positional player, was able to hold the title for two cycles, 1963–1969. His successor, [[Boris Spassky]] from Russia (1969–1972), was a player able to win in both positional and sharp tactical style.<ref>Kasparov 2003b, 2004a</ref> |
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[[Image:Viswanathan Anand 08 14 2005.jpg|thumb|right|Current World Champion [[Viswanathan Anand]] ]] |
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The next championship, the so-called [[World Chess Championship 1972|Match of the Century]], saw the first non-Soviet challenger since [[World War II]], American [[Bobby Fischer]], who defeated his Candidates opponents by unheard-of margins and clearly won the world championship match. In 1975, however, Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet [[Anatoly Karpov]] when FIDE refused to meet his demands, and Karpov obtained the title by default. Karpov defended his title twice against [[Viktor Korchnoi]] and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string of tournament successes.<ref>Kasparov 2003a, 2006</ref> |
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Karpov's reign finally ended in 1985 at the hands of another Russian player, [[Garry Kasparov]]. Kasparov and Karpov contested five world title matches between 1984 and 1990; Karpov never won his title back.<ref>{{cite book | author=Keene, Raymond | title=Gary Kasparov's Best Games |publisher=B. T. Batsford Ltd. | year=1993 | isbn=0-7134-7296-0 | oclc=29386838}}, p. 16.</ref> |
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In 1993, Garry Kasparov and [[Nigel Short]] broke with FIDE to organize their own match for the title and formed a competing [[Professional Chess Association]] (PCA). From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous World Champions and World Championships: the PCA or Classical champion extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of many games; the other following FIDE's new format of many players competing in a tournament to determine the champion. Kasparov lost his Classical title in 2000 to [[Vladimir Kramnik]] of Russia. |
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The [[World Chess Championship 2006]] reunified the titles, when Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion [[Veselin Topalov]] and became the undisputed World Chess Champion.<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=12295 |
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| title=Vladimir Kramnik |
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| publisher=ChessGames |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> In September 2007, he lost the title to [[Viswanathan Anand]], who won the [[World Chess Championship 2007|championship tournament]] in [[Mexico City]]. Anand defended his title in the [[World Chess Championship 2008|revenge match 2008]].<ref>{{cite news |
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| title=Viswanathan Anand regains world chess title |
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| date=2007-09-30 |
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| publisher=[[Reuters]] |
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| url=http://in.reuters.com/article/sportsNews/idINIndia-29785520070930 |
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| accessdate=2007-12-13 |
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}}</ref> |
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==Place in culture== |
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[[Image:Meister der Manessischen Liederhandschrift 004.jpg|thumb|upright|Noble chess players, Germany, c. 1320]] |
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{{main |Chess in the arts and literature}} |
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===Pre-modern=== |
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In the [[Middle Ages]] and during the [[Renaissance]], chess was a part of [[Nobility|noble]] culture; it was used to teach war strategy and was dubbed the "[[Chess or the King's Game|King's Game]]".<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Vale, Malcolm |
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| title=The Princely Court: Medieval Courts and Culture in North-West Europe, 1270–1380 |
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| publisher=Oxford University Press |
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| year=2001 |
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| isbn=0-19-926993-9 |
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| oclc=47049906 |
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| pages=170–199 |
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}}</ref> Gentlemen are "to be meanly seene in the play at Chestes," says the overview at the beginning of [[Baldassare Castiglione]]'s ''[[The Book of the Courtier]]'' (1528, English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), but chess should not be a gentleman's main passion. Castiglione explains it further: |
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<blockquote>And what say you to the game at chestes? |
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It is truely<!--sic--> an honest kynde of enterteynmente and wittie, quoth Syr Friderick. But me think it hath a fault, whiche is, that a man may be to couning at it, for who ever will be excellent in the playe of chestes, I beleave he must beestowe much tyme about it, and applie it with so much study, that a man may assoone learne some noble scyence, or compase any other matter of importaunce, and yet in the ende in beestowing all that laboure, he knoweth no more but a game. Therfore in this I beleave there happeneth a very rare thing, namely, that the meane is more commendable, then the excellency.<ref>[http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~rbear/courtier/courtier2.html The Second Book of the Courtier.] Translated by Sir Thomas Hoby (1561) as edited by Walter Raleigh for David Nutt, Publisher, London, 1900. Online at University of Oregon. Retrieved 21 Feb 2008</ref> </blockquote> |
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[[Image:UigChessmen SelectionOfKings.jpg|thumb|left|Two kings and two queens from the [[Lewis chessmen]] at the [[British Museum]] ]] |
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Many of the elaborate chess sets used by the English aristocracy have been lost, but others survive, such as the [[Lewis chessmen]]. |
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At the same time, chess was often used as a basis of sermons on [[morality]]. An example is ''Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum'' ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'), written by an Italian [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] monk [[Jacobus de Cessolis]] circa 1300. The popular work was translated into many other languages (first printed edition at Utrecht in 1473) and was the basis for [[William Caxton]]'s ''The Game and Playe of the Chesse'' (1474), one of the first books printed in [[English language|English]].<ref> [http://www.bartleby.com/212/1303.html The Introduction of Printing into England and the Early Work of the Press: The First Book printed in English], from ''[[The Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]'', Vol II. (1907) Online at bartleby.com. Retrieved 12 December 2006</ref> Different chess pieces were used as metaphors for different classes of people, and human duties were derived from the rules of the game or from visual properties of the chess pieces:<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Adams, Jenny |
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| title=Power Play: The Literature and Politics of Chess in the Late Middle Ages |
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| publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |
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| year=2006 |
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| isbn=0-8122-3944-X |
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| oclc=238812746 |
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}}</ref> |
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<blockquote> |
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The knyght ought to be made alle armed upon an hors in suche wyse that he haue an helme on his heed and a spere in his ryght hande/ and coueryd wyth his sheld/ a swerde and a mace on his lyft syde/ Cladd wyth an hawberk and plates to fore his breste/ legge harnoys on his legges/ Spores on his heelis on his handes his gauntelettes/ his hors well broken and taught and apte to bataylle and couerid with his armes/ whan the knyghtes ben maad they ben bayned or bathed/ that is the signe that they shold lede a newe lyf and newe maners/ also they wake alle the nyght in prayers and orysons vnto god that he wylle gyue hem grace that they may gete that thynge that they may not gete by nature/ The kynge or prynce gyrdeth a boute them a swerde in signe/ that they shold abyde and kepe hym of whom they take theyr dispenses and dignyte.<ref>{{cite web |
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| author=Caxton, William |
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| url=http://www.classicistranieri.com/english/1/0/6/7/10672/10672-h/10672-h.htm |
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| title=The Game and Playe of the Chesse |
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| publisher=Project Gutenberg |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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Known in the circles of clerics, students and merchants, chess entered into the popular culture of Middle Ages. An example is the 209th song of [[Carmina Burana]] from the 13th century, which starts with the names of chess pieces, ''Roch, pedites, regina…''<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost13/CarminaBurana/bur_cpo2.html |
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| title=Carmina potoria |
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| publisher=Bibliotheca Augustana |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> |
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===Modern=== |
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To the [[Age of Enlightenment]], chess appeared mainly for self-improvement. [[Benjamin Franklin]], in his article "The Morals of Chess" (1750), wrote: |
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<blockquote> |
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"The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement; several very valuable qualities of the mind, useful in the course of human life, are to be acquired and strengthened by it, so as to become habits ready on all occasions; for life is a kind of Chess, in which we have often points to gain, and competitors or adversaries to contend with, and in which there is a vast variety of good and ill events, that are, in some degree, the effect of prudence, or the want of it. By playing at Chess then, we may learn: |
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'''I. Foresight''', which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may attend an action [...] |
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'''II. Circumspection''', which surveys the whole Chess-board, or scene of action: - the relation of the several Pieces, and their situations [...] |
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'''III. Caution''', not to make our moves too hastily [...]"<ref>{{cite web |
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| author=Franklin, Benjamin |
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| url=http://www.metajedrez.com.ar/franklineng.htm |
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| title=The Morals of Chess |
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| publisher=Metajedrez |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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[[Image:Red King sleeping.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'', Red King snoring, illustration by [[John Tenniel]] ]] |
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With these or similar hopes, chess is taught to children in schools around the world today and used in armies to train minds of cadets and officers.<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.nscfchess.org/nscfmiss.html |
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| title=National Scholastic Chess Foundation |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> Many schools hold chess clubs and there are many scholastic tournaments specifically for children. In addition, many countries have chess federations, such as the United States Chess Federation, that hold tournaments regularly in addition to FIDE. |
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Moreover, chess is often depicted in the [[arts]]; significant works, where chess plays a key role, range from Thomas Middleton's ''[[A Game at Chess]]'' over ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'' by Lewis Carroll to ''[[The Royal Game]]'' by Stefan Zweig or Vladimir Nabokov's ''[[The Defense]]''. Chess is also important in films like Ingmar Bergman's ''[[The Seventh Seal]]'' or Satyajit Ray's ''[[The Chess Players]]''. |
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Chess is also present in the contemporary popular culture. For example, J. K. Rowling's [[Harry Potter]] plays "[[Magical objects in Harry Potter|Wizard's Chess]]" while the characters of ''[[Star Trek]]'' prefer "[[Three-dimensional chess#Tri-Dimensional Chess|Tri-Dimensional Chess]]" and the hero of ''[[Searching for Bobby Fischer]]'' struggles against adopting the aggressive and misanthropic views of a real chess grandmaster.<ref>{{cite web |
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| author=O'Neill, Eamonn |
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| title=The Brain Issue |
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| url=http://www.eamonnoneill.net/articles/Josh%20Waitzkins.PDF |
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| format=PDF |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> Chess has also been used as the core theme of a [[Musical theatre|musical]], ''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'', by [[Tim Rice]], [[Björn Ulvaeus]] and [[Benny Andersson]]. |
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==Notation for recording moves== |
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[[Image:SCD algebraic notation.png|frame|left|Algebraic chess notation]] |
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{{main|Chess notation}} |
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Chess games and positions are recorded using a special notation, most often [[algebraic chess notation]].<ref>See paragraph "E. Algebraic notation" in:<br>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?id=125&view=article |
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| title=E.I.01B. Appendices |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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| publisher=FIDE |
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}}</ref> ''Abbreviated (or short) algebraic notation'' generally records moves in the format ''abbreviation of the piece moved - file where it moved - rank where it moved'', e.g. ''Qg5'' means "queen moves to the ''g''-file and ''5th'' rank (that is, to the square ''g5''). If there are two pieces of the same type that can move to the same square, one more letter or number is added to indicate the file or rank from which the piece moved, e.g. ''Ngf3'' means "knight from the g-file moves to the square f3". The letter ''P'' indicating a pawn is not used, so that ''e4'' means "pawn moves to the square ''e4''". |
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If the piece makes a capture, "x" is inserted before the destination square, e.g. ''Bxf3'' means "bishop captures on f3". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn departed is used in place of a piece initial, and ranks may be omitted if unambiguous. For example, ''exd5'' (pawn on the e-file captures the piece on ''d5'') or ''exd'' (pawn on e-file captures something on the d-file). |
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[[Image:Scholars mate animation.gif|frame|The "[[Scholar's mate]]"]] |
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If a pawn moves to its last rank, achieving promotion, the piece chosen is indicated after the move,<ref>{{cite web |
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| title=Learn Chess Notation |
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| url=http://www.chesshouse.com/howto/How-to-Read-and-Write-Chess-Notation.asp |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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| publisher=Chess House |
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}}</ref> for example ''e1Q'' or ''e1=Q''. Castling is indicated by the special notations 0-0 for kingside castling and 0-0-0 for queenside. A move which places the opponent's king in check usually has the notation "+" added. Checkmate can be indicated by "#" (occasionally "++", although this is sometimes used for a [[double check]] instead). At the end of the game, "1-0" means "White won", "0-1" means "Black won" and "½-½" indicates a draw. |
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Chess moves can be annotated with [[punctuation (chess)|punctuation marks and other symbols]]. For example ''!'' indicates a good move, ''!!'' an excellent move, |
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''?'' a mistake, ''??'' a blunder, ''!?'' an interesting move that may not be best or ''?!'' a dubious move, but not easily refuted. |
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For example, one variant of a simple trap known as the [[Scholar's mate]], animated in the picture to the right, can be recorded: |
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# e4 e5 |
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# Qh5?! Nc6 |
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# Bc4 Nf6?? |
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# Qxf7# 1-0 |
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==Chess composition== |
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{{Chess diagram |
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| tright |
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| '''[[Richard Réti]]'''<br /> ''[[Ostrava|Ostrauer]] Morgenzeitung'' 4 December 1921 |
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|= |
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8 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|kl|= |
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7 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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6 |kd|__|pl|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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5 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|pd|= |
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4 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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3 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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2 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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1 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|= |
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a b c d e f g h |
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|<center>'''White to play and draw'''</center> |
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One of the most famous chess studies ever. It seems impossible to catch the advanced black pawn, while the black king can easily stop the white pawn. The solution is [[diagonal]] advance, bringing the king to ''both'' pawns at the same time: 1. Kg7! h4 2. Kf6 Kb6 (or 2. …h3 3. Ke7 and the white king can support its pawn) 3. Ke5!! (now the white king comes just in time to his pawn, or catches the black one) 3. …h3 4. Kd6 draw. |
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}} |
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{{main|Chess problem}} |
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Chess composition is the art of creating chess problems (these problems themselves are sometimes also called chess compositions). A person who creates such problems is known as a [[chess composer]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Howard, Kenneth S | title=How to Solve Chess Problems |publisher=Courier Dover Publications| year=1961 | isbn=0-486-20748-X}}</ref> |
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Most chess problems exhibit the following features: |
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*The position is ''composed'', that is, it has not been taken from an actual game, but has been invented for the specific purpose of providing a problem. |
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* There is a specific ''stipulation'', that is, a goal to be achieved; for example, to checkmate black within a specified number of moves. |
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* There is a ''theme'' (or combination of themes) that the problem has been composed to illustrate: chess problems typically instantiate particular ideas. Many of these themes have their own names, often by persons who used them first, for example [[Novotny (chess)|Novotny]] or [[Lacny]] theme. |
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* The problem exhibits ''economy'' in its construction: no greater force is employed than that required to guarantee that the problem's intended solution is indeed a solution and that it is the problem's only solution. |
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* The problem has ''aesthetic value''. Problems are experienced not only as puzzles but as objects of beauty. This is closely related to the fact that problems are organized to exhibit clear ideas in as economical a manner as possible. |
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There are many types of chess problems. The two most important are: |
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* '''Directmates''': white to move first and checkmate black within a specified number of moves against any defense. These are often referred to as "mate in ''n''" - for example "mate in three" (a ''three-mover''). |
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* '''[[Endgame study|Studies]]''': orthodox problems in which the stipulation is that white to play must win or draw. Almost all studies are [[Chess endgame|endgame]] positions. |
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Chess composition is a distinct branch of chess sport, and tournaments (or ''tourneys'') exist for both the composition and solving of chess problems.<ref name="WeeninkChessProblem">{{ cite book | author=Weenink, H.G.M. | editor=Hume, G., and White, A.C. | title=The Chess Problem | year=1926 }}</ref> |
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==Competitive play== |
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===Organization of competitions=== |
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Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues, tournaments and [[congress]]es. Chess's international governing body is [[FIDE]] (Fédération Internationale des Échecs). Most countries have a national chess organization as well (such as the [[United States Chess Federation|US Chess Federation]] and [[English Chess Federation]]), which in turn is a member of FIDE. FIDE is a member of the [[International Olympic Committee]],<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/if/fi_uk.asp?Id_federation=44 |
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| title=World Chess Federation |
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| publisher=International Olympic Committee |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> but the game of chess has never been part of the [[Olympic Games]]; chess does have its own [[Chess Olympiad|Olympiad]], held every two years as a team event. An estimated 605 million people worldwide know how to play chess, and 7.5 million are members of national chess federations, which exist in 160 countries worldwide. This makes chess one of the most popular sports worldwide. |
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The current World Chess Champion is [[Viswanathan Anand]] of [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.usatoday.com/sports/2007-09-30-anand_N.htm |
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| title=India's Anand seizes chess title |
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| publisher=USA Today |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> The reigning Women's World Champion is [[Alexandra Kosteniuk]] from [[Russia]] but the world's highest rated female player, [[Judit Polgar]], has never participated in the [[Women's World Chess Championship]], instead preferring to compete with the leading men and maintaining a ranking among the top twenty male players. |
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Other competitions for individuals include the [[World Junior Chess Championship]], the [[European Individual Chess Championship]] and the [[List of national chess championships|National Chess Championships]]. Invitation-only tournaments regularly attract the world's strongest players and these include Spain's [[Linares chess tournament|Linares]] event, Monte Carlo's [[Melody Amber]] tournament, the [[Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting|Dortmund Sparkassen]] meeting, Sofia's [[M-tel Masters]] and Wijk aan Zee's [[Corus chess tournament|Corus]] tournament. |
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Regular team chess events include the aforementioned [[Chess Olympiad]] and the [[European Team Championship]]. The [[37th Chess Olympiad]] was held 2006 in [[Turin]], [[Italy]]; [[Armenia]] won the gold in the unrestricted event, and [[Ukraine]] took the top medal for the women. The [[World Chess Solving Championship]] and World [[Correspondence Chess]] Championships are both team and individual events. |
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Besides these prestigious competitions, there are thousands of other chess tournaments, matches and festivals held around the world every year, which cater to players of all levels, from beginners to experts. |
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===Titles and rankings=== |
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{{main|Chess titles}} |
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[[Image:Garri kasparow 20070318.jpg|thumb|left|[[Grandmaster (chess)|Grandmaster]] [[Garry Kasparov]], former [[World Chess Championship|World Chess Champion]]]] |
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The best players can be awarded specific lifetime titles by the world chess organization FIDE:<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?id=10&view=category |
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| publisher=FIDE |
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| title=01. International Title Regulations (Qualification Commission) |
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| accessdate=2008-11-26 |
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}}</ref> |
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*''[[Grandmaster (chess)|Grandmaster]]'' (shortened as GM, sometimes ''International Grandmaster'' or IGM is used) is awarded to world-class chess masters. Apart from World Champion, Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain. Before FIDE will confer the title on a player, the player must have an Elo chess rating (see below) of at least 2500 at one time and three favorable results (called norms) in tournaments involving other Grandmasters, including some from countries other than the applicant's. There are also other milestones a player can achieve to attain the title, such as winning the World Junior Championship. |
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*''[[International Master]]'' (shortened as IM). The conditions are similar to GM, but less demanding. The minimum rating for the IM title is 2400. |
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*''[[FIDE Master]]'' (shortened as FM). The usual way for a player to qualify for the FIDE Master title is by achieving a FIDE Rating of 2300 or more. |
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*''[[Candidate Master]]'' (shortened as CM). Similar to FM, but with a FIDE Rating of at least 2200. |
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All the titles are open to men and women. Separate women-only titles, such as Woman Grandmaster (WGM), are also available. Beginning with [[Nona Gaprindashvili]] in 1978, a number of women have earned the GM title, and most of the top ten women in 2006 hold the unrestricted GM title.<ref name="FIDE_top_players">Current FIDE lists of top players with their titles are online at<br>{{cite web |
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| url=http://ratings.fide.com/toplist.phtml |
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| accessdate=2008-11-29 |
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| publisher=FIDE |
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| title=World Top Chess players |
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}}</ref> |
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International titles are awarded to composers and solvers of chess problems, and to correspondence chess players (by the International Correspondence Chess Federation). Moreover, national chess organizations may also award titles, usually to the advanced players still under the level needed for international titles; an example is the [[Chess expert]] title used in the United States. |
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In order to rank players, FIDE, [[ICCF]] and national chess organizations use the [[Elo rating system]] developed by [[Arpad Elo]]. Elo is a [[Statistical model|statistical system]] based on assumption that the chess performance of each player in their games is a random variable. Arpad Elo thought of a player's true skill as the average of that player's performance random variable, and showed how to estimate the average from results of player's games. The [[US Chess Federation]] implemented Elo's suggestions in 1960, and the system quickly gained recognition as being both fairer and more accurate than older systems; it was adopted by FIDE in 1970.<ref>For the official process see:<br>{{cite web |
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| title=02. FIDE Rating Regulations (Qualification Commission) |
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| url=http://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?id=11&view=category |
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| publisher=FIDE |
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| accessdate=2008-11-29 |
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}}</ref> |
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The highest ever FIDE rating was 2851, which Garry Kasparov had on the July 1999 and January 2000 lists.<ref>{{cite web |
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| title=Garry Kasparov |
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| url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=15940 |
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| publisher=ChessGames |
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| accessdate=2008-11-29 |
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}}</ref> In the most recent list (October 2008), the highest rated player is the former world champion [[Veselin Topalov]] of Bulgaria with a rating of 2791.<ref name="FIDE_top_players"/> |
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==Mathematics and computers== |
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{{see also|Computer chess|List of mathematicians who studied chess|Human-computer chess matches|Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov}} |
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[[Image:Knight's tour.svg|right|thumb|Mathematicians [[Euler]], [[de Moivre]] and [[Vandermonde]] studied the [[knight's tour]].]] |
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The game structure and nature of chess is related to several branches of mathematics. Many [[combinatorics|combinatorical]] and [[topology|topological]] problems connected to chess were known of for hundreds of years. In 1913, [[Ernst Zermelo]] used it as a basis for his theory of game strategies, which is considered as one of the predecessors of [[game theory]].<ref>Zermelo, Ernst (1913), Uber eine Anwendung der Mengenlehre auf die Theorie des Schachspiels, Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Mathematicians 2, 501-4. Cited from Eichhorn, Christoph: Der Beginn der Formalen Spieltheorie: Zermelo (1913), http://www.mathematik.uni-muenchen.de/~spielth/artikel/Zermelo.pdf Retrieved March 23, 2007.</ref> |
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The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be between 10<sup>43</sup> and 10<sup>50</sup>, with a [[game-tree complexity]] of approximately 10<sup>123</sup>. The game-tree complexity of chess was first calculated by [[Claude Shannon]] as 10<sup>120</sup>, a number known as the [[Shannon number]].<ref>[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chess.html Chess.] ''Mathworld.Wolfram.com''. Retrieved 5 December 2006.</ref> Typically an average position has thirty to forty possible moves, but there may be as few as zero (in the case of checkmate or stalemate) or as many as 218. |
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The most important mathematical challenge of chess is the development of [[algorithm]]s which can play chess. The idea of creating a chess playing machine dates to the 18th century; around 1769, the chess playing [[automaton]] called [[The Turk]] became famous before being exposed as a [[hoax]].<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Levitt, Gerald M. |
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| title=The Turk, chess automaton |
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| publisher=McFarland & Company |
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| year=2000 |
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| isbn=0-7864-0778-6 |
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| oclc=226148928 |
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}}</ref> Serious trials based on [[automaton]]s, such as [[El Ajedrecista]], were too complex and limited to be useful. |
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Since the advent of the [[digital computer]] in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts and [[computer engineer]]s have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs. The groundbreaking paper on computer chess, "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", was published in 1950 by Shannon.<ref>[[Alan Turing]] also made an attempt in 1953:<br>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.turingarchive.org/browse.php/B/7 |
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| title=Digital computers applied to games |
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| author=Alan Turing |
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| publisher=University of Southampton and King's College Cambridge |
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}}</ref> He wrote: |
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<blockquote> |
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The chess machine is an ideal one to start with, since: (1) the problem is sharply defined both in allowed operations (the moves) and in the ultimate goal (checkmate); (2) it is neither so simple as to be trivial nor too difficult for satisfactory solution; (3) chess is generally considered to require "thinking" for skillful play; a solution of this problem will force us either to admit the possibility of a mechanized thinking or to further restrict our concept of "thinking"; (4) the discrete structure of chess fits well into the digital nature of |
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modern computers.<ref>Shannon, Claude E. XXII. Programming a Computer for Playing Chess. ''Philosophical Magazine'', Ser.7, Vol. 41, No. 314 - March 1950. Available online at {{PDFlink|[http://archive.computerhistory.org/projects/chess/related_materials/text/2-0%20and%202-1.Programming_a_computer_for_playing_chess.shannon/2-0%20and%202-1.Programming_a_computer_for_playing_chess.shannon.062303002.pdf ''computerhistory.org'']|175 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 179879 bytes -->}} Retrieved 6 December 2006.</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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[[Image:RS Chess Computer.JPG|thumb|left|1990s chess-playing computer]] |
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The [[Association for Computing Machinery]] (ACM) held the first major chess tournament for computers, the [[North American Computer Chess Championship]], in September 1970. [[Chess (Northwestern University)|CHESS 3.0]], a chess program from [[Northwestern University]], won the championship. Nowadays chess programs compete in the [[World Computer Chess Championship]], held annually since 1974. At first considered only a curiosity, the best [[chess engine|chess playing programs]], for example [[Rybka]] or [[Hydra (chess)|Hydra]], have become extremely strong. In 1997 a computer won a [[chess match| match]] against a reigning World Champion for the first time: [[International Business Machines|IBM's]] [[IBM Deep Blue|Deep Blue]] beat [[Garry Kasparov]] 3½–2½ (it scored two wins, one loss and three [[draw (chess)| draws]]).<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Feng-Hsiung Hsu |
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| title=Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion |
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| publisher=Princeton University Press |
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| year=2002 |
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| isbn=0-691-09065-3 |
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| oclc=50582855 |
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}}; [http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/watch/html/c.shtml Deep Blue — Kasparov Match.] ''research.ibm.com''. Retrieved 30 November 2006.</ref> Nevertheless, from the point of view of [[artificial intelligence]], chess-playing programs are relatively simple: they essentially explore huge numbers of potential future moves by both players and apply an [[evaluation function]] to the resulting positions, an approach described as [[Brute-force search|"brute force"]] because it relies on the sheer speed of the computer.<ref name="Brudno2000Computer Chess">{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.cs.toronto.edu/~brudno/essays/cchess.pdf | accessdate=2008-11-18 |
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| title=Competitions, Controversies, and Computer Chess |
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| author=Brudno, Michael |
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| month=May | year=2000 |
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|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name="Laramée2000ChessProgrammingPart3">{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.gamedev.net/reference/articles/article1126.asp | accessdate=2008-11-18 |
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| title=Chess Programming Part III: Move Generation | author=Laramée, F.D. | publisher=gamedev.net | month=July | year=2000 |
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}}</ref> |
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With huge databases of past games and high analytical ability, computers also help players to learn chess and prepare for matches. Additionally, [[Internet Chess Server]]s allow people to find and play opponents all over the world. The presence of computers and modern communication tools have also raised concerns regarding [[cheating]] during games, most notably the "[[FIDE World Chess Championship 2006#Bathroom controversy|bathroom controversy]]" during the 2006 World Championship. |
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==Psychology== |
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There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology.<ref>Chess is even called the "[[drosophila]]" of [[cognitive psychology]] and artificial intelligence ([[AI]]) studies, because it represents the domain in which expert performance has been most intensively studied and measured.<br>{{cite journal |
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| title=Individual differences in chess expertise: A psychometric investigation |
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| journal=Acta Psychologica |
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| volume=124 |
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| issue=3 |
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| month=March | year=2007 |
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| pages=398–420 |
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}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Gobet, Fernand, de Voogt, Alex, & Retschitzki, Jean |
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| title=Moves in mind: The psychology of board games |
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| publisher= Psychology Press |
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| year=2004 |
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| isbn=1-84169-336-7 |
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| oclc= 53962630 |
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}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Holding, Dennis |
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| title=The psychology of chess skill |
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| publisher=Erlbaum |
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| year=1985 |
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| isbn=978-0-89859-575-8 |
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| oclc=11866227 |
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}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Saariluoma, Pertti |
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| title=Chess players' thinking: A cognitive psychological approach |
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| publisher=Routledge |
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| year=1995 |
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| isbn=0415120799-1-DBS |
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}}</ref> [[Alfred Binet]] and others showed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core of expertise.<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=Binet, A. |
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| year=1894 |
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| title=Psychologie des grands calculateurs et joueurs d'échecs |
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| language=French |
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| location=Paris |
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| publisher=Hachette |
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}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |
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| last=Robbins |
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| first=T.W. |
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| year=1996 |
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| title=Working memory in chess |
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| journal=Memory & Cognition |
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| pages=83–93 |
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| url=http://www.dur.ac.uk/c.p.fernyhough/Robbinsetal1996.pdf |
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|format=PDF}}</ref> [[Adriaan de Groot]], in his doctoral thesis, showed that chess masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position.<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=de Groot, A.D. |
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| year=1946 (first Dutch ed.); 1965 (English ed.) |
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| title=Thought and choice in chess |
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| location=The Hague |
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| publisher=Mouton Publishers |
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}}</ref> According to de Groot, this [[perception]], made possible by years of practice and study, is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves. De Groot also showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly. The ability to memorize does not, alone, account for this skill, since masters and novices, when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about half a dozen positions in each case). Rather, it is the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilled players from the novices. When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters had almost total positional recall.<ref>Richards J. Heuer, Jr. ''Psychology of Intelligence Analysis'' Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency 1999 (see [[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/psychology-of-intelligence-analysis/art6.html Chapter 3]]).</ref> |
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More recent research has focused on [[chess as mental training]]; the respective roles of [[knowledge]] and look-ahead [[search]]; [[brain imaging]] studies of chess masters and novices; [[blindfold chess]]; the role of [[Personality psychology|personality]] and [[intelligence]] in chess skill, gender differences, and computational models of chess expertise. In addition, the role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise has led to a lot of research recently. Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise, like master in chess.<ref>Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. Th., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). {{PDFlink| [http://www.freakonomics.com/pdf/DeliberatePractice(PsychologicalReview).pdf The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance.] |1.25 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 1,314,864 bytes -->}} ''Psychological Review'', 100, 363–406. Retrieved 15 July 2007.</ref> However, more recent research indicates that factors other than practice are important. For example, Gobet and colleagues have shown that stronger players start playing chess earlier, that they are more likely to be left-handed, and that they are more likely to be born in late winter and early spring.<ref>Gobet, F. & Chassy, P. (in press). {{PDFlink| [http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/736/1/Seasonality+and+chess.pdf Season of birth and chess expertise.] |65.8 KB}} ''Journal of Biosocial Science''. <br> Gobet, F. & Campitelli, G. (2007). {{PDFlink| [http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/611/1/Gobet_DevPsyc_Final.pdf The role of domain-specific practice, handedness and starting age in chess.]|196 KB}} ''Developmental Psychology'', 43, 159–172. Both retrieved 15 July 2007.</ref> |
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==Variants== |
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{{main |Chess variant}} |
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[[Image:Glinski Chess Setup.png|thumb|Glinski's [[hexagonal chess]], a chess variant popular in 1930s]] |
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Chess variants are forms of chess where the game is played with a different board, special [[Fairy chess piece|fairy pieces]] or different rules. There are more than two thousand published chess variants, the most popular being [[xiangqi]] in [[China]] and [[shogi]] in [[Japan]].<ref>{{cite book |
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| author=[[David Pritchard (chess writer)|Pritchard, D.]] |
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| title=Popular Chess Variants |
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| publisher=Batsford Chess Books |
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| year=2000 |
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| isbn=0-7134-8578-7 |
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| oclc=44275285 |
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}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |
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| author=[[David Pritchard (chess writer)|Pritchard, D.]] |
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| title=The Encyclopedia of Chess Variants |
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| publisher=Games & Puzzles Publications |
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| year=1994 |
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| isbn=0-9524142-0-1 |
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| oclc=60113912 |
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}}</ref> |
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Chess variants can be divided into: |
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* Direct predecessors of chess, [[chaturanga]] and [[shatranj]]. |
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* Traditional national or regional chess variants like [[xiangqi]], [[shogi]], [[janggi]] and [[makruk]], which share common predecessors with Western chess. |
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* Modern variants of chess, such as ''[[Chess960]]'', where the initial position is [[Chess960#Rules|selected randomly]] before each game. This random positioning makes it more difficult to prepare the opening play in advance.<ref>van Reem, Eeric. [http://www.chessvariants.com/diffsetup.dir/fischerh.html The birth of Fischer Random Chess.] ''chessvariants.com'', 24 July 2001. Retrieved 30 November 2006.</ref> |
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{{clear}} |
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==See also== |
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{{portal}} |
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<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> |
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*[[Chess around the world]] |
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*[[Chess in early literature]] |
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*[[Chess Olympiad]] |
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*[[Chess terminology]] |
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*[[Comparing top chess players throughout history]] |
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*[[List of chess players]] |
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*[[List of chess topics]] |
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*[[List of chess world championship matches]] |
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*[[List of famous chess games]] |
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*[[List of strong chess tournaments]] |
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*[[White and Black in chess]] |
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</div> |
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==Notes== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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==References== |
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* {{cite book |
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| last = Davidson |
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| first = Henry A. |
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| authorlink = |
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| year = 1949, 1981 |
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| title = A Short History of Chess |
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| publisher = McKay |
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|isbn = 0-679-14550-8 |
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| oclc = 17340178 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| last= Harding |
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| first = Tim |
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| title=Better Chess for Average Players |
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| year=2003 |
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| publisher=Courier Dover Publications |
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| isbn=0-486-29029-8 |
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| oclc= 33166445 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| author=[[David Vincent Hooper|Hooper, David]] and [[Kenneth Whyld|Whyld, Kenneth]] |
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| title=[[The Oxford Companion to Chess]], Second edition|publisher=Oxford University Press |
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| year=1992 |
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| isbn=0-19-866164-9 |
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| oclc=25508610}} Reprint: (1996) ISBN 0-19-280049-3 |
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*{{cite book |
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| last= Kasparov |
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| first = Garry |
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| title=My Great Predecessors, part I |
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| year=2003a |
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| publisher=[[Everyman Chess]] |
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| isbn=1-85744-330-6 |
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| oclc= 223602528 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| last= Kasparov |
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| first = Garry |
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| title=My Great Predecessors, part II |
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| year=2003b |
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| publisher=Everyman Chess |
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| isbn=1-85744-342-X |
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| oclc= 223906486 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| last= Kasparov |
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| first = Garry |
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| title=My Great Predecessors, part III |
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| year= 2004a |
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| publisher=Everyman Chess |
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| isbn=1-85744-371-3 |
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| oclc= 52949851 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| last= Kasparov |
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| first = Garry |
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| title=My Great Predecessors, part IV |
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| year=2004b |
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| publisher=Everyman Chess |
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| isbn=1-85744-395-0 |
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| oclc= 52949851 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| last= Kasparov |
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| first = Garry |
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| title=My Great Predecessors, part V |
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| year=2006 |
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| publisher=Everyman Chess |
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| isbn=1-85744-404-3 |
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| oclc= 52949851 |
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}} |
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*{{cite journal |
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| last=Wilkinson |
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| first=Charles K. |
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| title=Chessmen and Chess |
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| journal=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin |
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| volume=New Series, Vol. 1, No. 9 |
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| pages=271–279 |
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| month=May |
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| year=1943 |
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| doi=10.2307/3257111 |
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}} |
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==Further reading== |
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*{{cite book |
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| author=[[Reuben Fine|Fine, Reuben]] |
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| title=The World's Great Chess Games |
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| publisher=Courier Dover Publications |
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| year=1983 |
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| isbn=0-486-24512-8 |
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| oclc=9394460}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| author=Gobet, Fernand |
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| coauthors=de Voogt, Alex; Retschitzki, Jean |
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| title=Moves in mind: The psychology of board games |
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| publisher=Psychology Press |
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| year=2004 |
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| isbn=1-84169-336-7 |
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| oclc= 53962630}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| author=[[James Mason (chess player)|Mason, James]] |
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| title=The Art of Chess |
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| publisher=Dover Publications |
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| year=1947 |
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| isbn=0-486-20463-4 |
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| oclc=45271009}} (see the included supplement, "How Do You Play Chess") |
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*{{cite book |
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| author=Rizzitano, James |
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| title=Understanding Your Chess |
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| publisher=Gambit Publications |
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| year=2004 |
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| isbn=1-904600-07-7 |
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| oclc=55205602}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| author=[[Siegbert Tarrasch|Tarrasch, Siegbert]] |
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| title=The Game of Chess. Algebraic Edition |
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| publisher=Hays Publishing |
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| year=1994 |
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| isbn=1-880673-94-0 |
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| oclc=31152893}} |
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==External links==<!-- PLEASE DISCUSS ALL ADDITIONAL LINKS ON TALK PAGES BEFORE YOU ADD THEM HERE. OTHERWISE THEY WILL BE REMOVED INSTANTLY.--> |
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{{Spoken Wikipedia|Chess.ogg|2006-09-26}} |
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{{sisterlinks|Chess}} |
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;International organizations |
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* [http://www.fide.com/ FIDE] - [[FIDE|World Chess Federation]] |
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<!-- :*[http://www.fide.com/official/handbook.asp?level=EE101 Official rules - FIDE Laws of Chess] old URL --> |
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:*[http://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?id=124&view=article Official rules - FIDE Laws of Chess] |
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:*[http://ratings.fide.com/top.phtml?list=men FIDE list of top rated players] |
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* [http://www.iccf.com/ ICCF] - [[International Correspondence Chess Federation]] |
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* [http://www.chess-players.org/eng/index.html ACP] - [[Association of Chess Professionals]] |
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;News |
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* [http://www.chessbase.com/ Chessbase news] |
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* [http://www.chesscenter.com/twic/twic.html The Week in Chess] |
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;Other |
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* [http://www.chessgames.com/ ChessGames.com] - online chess database and community |
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* [http://www.chesslive.de/ ChessLive] - online database |
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* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chess.html Mathworld] - chess and mathematics |
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* [http://www.jmrw.com/Chess/Tableau_echecs/ Jmrw.com] - chess and art |
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{{Chess}} |
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{{featured article}} |
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[[Category:Chess]] |
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[[Category:Abstract strategy games]] |
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[[Category:Board wargames]] |
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[[Category:Persian loanwords]] |
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{{Link FA|cs}} |
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{{Link FA|de}} |
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{{Link FA|eo}} |
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{{Link FA|es}} |
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{{Link FA|fo}} |
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{{Link FA|fr}} |
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{{Link FA|he}} |
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{{Link FA|it}} |
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{{Link FA|la}} |
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{{Link FA|ms}} |
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{{Link FA|pt}} |
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{{Link FA|vi}} |
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{{Link FA|tl}} |
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[[af:Skaak]] |
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[[am:ቼዝ]] |
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[[ar:شطرنج]] |
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[[an:Axedrez]] |
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[[ast:Axedrez]] |
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[[az:Şahmat]] |
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[[bn:দাবা]] |
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[[zh-min-nan:Kok-chè bú-kî]] |
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[[be:Шахматы]] |
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[[be-x-old:Шахматы]] |
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[[bs:Šah]] |
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[[br:Echedoù]] |
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[[bg:Шахмат]] |
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[[ca:Escacs]] |
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[[cs:Šachy]] |
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[[cy:Gwyddbwyll]] |
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[[da:Skak]] |
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[[de:Schach]] |
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[[dsb:Šach]] |
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[[et:Male]] |
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[[el:Σκάκι]] |
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[[es:Ajedrez]] |
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[[eo:Ŝako]] |
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[[eu:Xake]] |
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[[fa:شطرنج]] |
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[[fo:Talv]] |
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[[fr:Échecs]] |
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[[ga:Ficheall]] |
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[[gl:Xadrez]] |
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[[gan:棋]] |
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[[ko:체스]] |
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[[hy:Շախմատ]] |
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[[hi:शतरंज]] |
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[[hsb:Šach]] |
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[[hr:Šah]] |
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[[io:Shak-ludo]] |
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[[id:Catur]] |
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[[ia:Chacos]] |
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[[is:Skák]] |
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[[it:Scacchi]] |
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[[he:שחמט]] |
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[[kn:ಚದುರಂಗ (ಆಟ)]] |
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[[ka:ჭადრაკი]] |
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[[kk:Шахмат]] |
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[[sw:Sataranji]] |
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[[la:Scacci]] |
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[[lv:Šahs]] |
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[[lb:Schach]] |
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[[lt:Šachmatai]] |
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[[li:Sjaaksjpèl]] |
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[[jbo:caxmati]] |
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[[hu:Sakk]] |
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[[mk:Шах]] |
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[[ml:ചെസ്സ്]] |
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[[mr:बुद्धिबळ]] |
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[[ms:Catur]] |
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[[mn:Шатар]] |
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[[nah:Cuappatōlli]] |
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[[nl:Schaken]] |
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[[ja:チェス]] |
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[[no:Sjakk]] |
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[[nn:Sjakk]] |
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[[oc:Escacs]] |
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[[uz:Shaxmat]] |
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[[nds:Schachspeel]] |
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[[pl:Szachy]] |
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[[pt:Xadrez]] |
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[[ro:Şah (joc)]] |
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[[qu:Qhapaq chunkana]] |
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[[ru:Шахматы]] |
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[[sah:Саахымат]] |
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[[sq:Shahu]] |
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[[scn:Scacchi]] |
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[[simple:Chess]] |
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[[sd:شطرنج]] |
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[[sk:Šach (hra)]] |
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[[sl:Šah]] |
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[[sr:Шах]] |
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[[sh:Šah]] |
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[[fi:Shakki]] |
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[[sv:Schack]] |
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[[tl:Ahedres]] |
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[[ta:சதுரங்கம்]] |
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[[te:చదరంగం (ఆట)]] |
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[[th:หมากรุกสากล]] |
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[[vi:Cờ vua]] |
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[[tg:Шоҳмот]] |
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[[tr:Satranç]] |
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[[uk:Шахи]] |
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[[vo:Cög]] |
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[[yi:שאך (שפיל)]] |
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[[zh-yue:棋]] |
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[[bat-smg:Šachmatā]] |
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[[zh:國際象棋]] |
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