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'''Peace Journalism''' also called conflict sensitive journalism, is a remedial journalistic practice aimed at correcting biases in much of conventional conflict journalism's that proponents argue work as War Journalism.
'''Peace Journalism''' also called conflict sensitive journalism, begins with the idea that all too often news about conflict has a value bias towards violence. Peace Journalism also proposes a practical methodology for correcting this bias through producing journalism in both the mainstream and alternative media, and working with journalists and media professionals, audiences and organisation which may find themselves the source of stories in conflict.


War Journalism is defined as leading audiences to over value violent responses to conflict. This is through reporting conventions which focus almost exclusively on: physical effects of conflict (for example ignoring psychological impacts)elites (who may or may not represent the actuals parties and their concerns), only the differences between parties, the here and now (rather the history and context of the conflict), and is zero sum orientated (assuming that one side's needs can only be met by the other side compromising or being defeated).
War Journalism is the term given by Peace Journalism proponents to conventional journalism which shows this value bias towards violence and violent groups, leading audiences to over value violent responses to conflict through ignoring non-violent alternatives. Proponents of Peace Journalism argue this because of reporting conventions which focus almost exclusively on: physical effects of conflict (for example ignoring psychological impacts)elites (who may or may not represent the actuals parties and their concerns), only the differences between parties, the here and now (rather the history and context of the conflict), and is zero sum orientated (assuming that one side's needs can only be met by the other side compromising or being defeated).


Thus its supporters argue that Peace Journalism, through identifying and avoiding these reporting conventions, aims to correct for this bias by allowing opportunities for society at large to consider and value non-violent response to conflict. In counter-acting War Journalism it aims to pick up calls for, and articulations of such policies from whatever quarter, and remit them into the public sphere.
Thus its supporters argue that Peace Journalism, through identifying and avoiding these reporting conventions, aims to correct for this bias by allowing opportunities for society at large to consider and value non-violent response to conflict. In counter-acting War Journalism it aims to pick up calls for, and articulations of such policies from whatever quarter, and remit them into the public sphere.
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Peace Journalism can also be understood as exploring the possibility of conflicts taking place in open space, open time with causes and exits anywhere. War Journalism then could also be understood as reporting on conflict in a way which is confined to closed space and closed time with causes and exits in the arena.<ref>Lynch, J. (2008).'' Debates in Peace Journalism,'' Sydney: Sydney University Press,2008, p.147 & 162</ref>.
Peace Journalism can also be understood as exploring the possibility of conflicts taking place in open space, open time with causes and exits anywhere. War Journalism then could also be understood as reporting on conflict in a way which is confined to closed space and closed time with causes and exits in the arena.<ref>Lynch, J. (2008).'' Debates in Peace Journalism,'' Sydney: Sydney University Press,2008, p.147 & 162</ref>.


Because of this approach,Peace Journalism has attracted controversy from scholars and journalists.
Considerable criticism has also been levelled at Peace Journalism because of this approach, as outlined below.


==Research and historical roots of Peace Journalism==
==Research and historical roots of Peace Journalism==
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Peace journalism pursues these goals - focusing on conflict resolution, complex truths, non-elite actors affected by war, and potential solutions - as a response to traditional [[reportage]]. Typical war journalism focuses on violence, propaganda, elite actors, and victory, emphasising the current conflict while ignoring the causes or outcomes.<ref>Galtung, Johan, “On the role of the media in worldwide security and peace,” In Tapio Varis (ed.),'' Peace and Communication,'' pp. 249–266, San Jose, Costa Rica: Universidad para La Paz.</ref>
Peace journalism pursues these goals - focusing on conflict resolution, complex truths, non-elite actors affected by war, and potential solutions - as a response to traditional [[reportage]]. Typical war journalism focuses on violence, propaganda, elite actors, and victory, emphasising the current conflict while ignoring the causes or outcomes.<ref>Galtung, Johan, “On the role of the media in worldwide security and peace,” In Tapio Varis (ed.),'' Peace and Communication,'' pp. 249–266, San Jose, Costa Rica: Universidad para La Paz.</ref>


==How Peace Journalism understands conventional conflict journalism as War Journalism==[put in here from essay: The necessity of convention based objectivity in War Journalism: Why War Journalism continues to dominate conflict coverage: to answer the burning question first: what's wrong with normal conflict journalism.
==How Peace Journalism outlines conventional conflict journalism as War Journalism==[put in here from essay: The necessity of convention based objectivity in War Journalism: Why War Journalism continues to dominate conflict coverage: to answer the burning question first: what's wrong with normal conflict journalism.






==War Journalism value bias favouring violence and violent groups==
==The effect on audiences of War Journalism's value bias favouring violence==
A pattern of WJ is likely to have certain effects on the way audiences conceptualise the conflict. Violence is typically presented as as its own cause, and ignoring structural or psychological context. Since violence is presented as having no cause or explanation, and therefore non-violent prevention is assumed to be impossible. Viewers are left to conclude that the only “natural” response to violence is more violence.<ref>Lynch, J. (2008).'' Debates in Peace Journalism,'' Sydney: Sydney University Press,2008.</ref>
A pattern of WJ is likely to have certain effects on the way audiences conceptualise the conflict. Violence is typically presented as as its own cause, and ignoring structural or psychological context. Since violence is presented as having no cause or explanation, and therefore non-violent prevention is assumed to be impossible. Viewers are left to conclude that the only “natural” response to violence is more violence.<ref>Lynch, J. (2008).'' Debates in Peace Journalism,'' Sydney: Sydney University Press,2008.</ref>


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This bias conflict journalism can have important effects on the way audiences understand a conflict. By presenting violence as its own cause, and ignoring structural or psychological context, viewers are left to conclude that the only “natural” response to violence is more violence.<ref>Lynch, 2008a, p.186</ref> War Journalism shows the role of power in representation and media to fix meaning for “it to become naturalised so that is the only meaning it can possibly carry…where you cannot see that anybody ever produced it<ref>Hall, S. (1997). [http://www.mediaed.org/handouts/pdfs/HALL-REPMEDIA.pdf Representation and the media. (Transcript). Media Education Foundation, p.19 & pp.21-22]. Retrieved July 23, 2007.</ref>
This bias conflict journalism can have important effects on the way audiences understand a conflict. By presenting violence as its own cause, and ignoring structural or psychological context, viewers are left to conclude that the only “natural” response to violence is more violence.<ref>Lynch, 2008a, p.186</ref> War Journalism shows the role of power in representation and media to fix meaning for “it to become naturalised so that is the only meaning it can possibly carry…where you cannot see that anybody ever produced it<ref>Hall, S. (1997). [http://www.mediaed.org/handouts/pdfs/HALL-REPMEDIA.pdf Representation and the media. (Transcript). Media Education Foundation, p.19 & pp.21-22]. Retrieved July 23, 2007.</ref>


Research also indicates that War Journalism can have negative emotional impacts in audience members, such as feelings of hopelessness and powerlessness, compounded by increased anxiety, mood disturbance, sadness and a sense of disconnection with physical and social environments. research by Galtung and Ruge’s (1965) finding of negativity bias in foreign news has been confirmed more recently by Nohrstedt and Ottosen (2008)<ref>Galtung, J. & Ruge, M. (1965). The Structure of Foreign News: The Presentation of the
Research also indicates that War Journalism can have negative emotional impacts in audience members, such as feelings of hopelessness and powerlessness, compounded by increased anxiety, mood disturbance, sadness and a sense of disconnection with physical and social environments. research by Galtung and Ruge’s (1965) finding of negativity bias in foreign news has been confirmed more recently by Nohrstedt and Ottosen (2008)<ref>Galtung, J. & Ruge, M. (1965). The Structure of Foreign News: The Presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crises in Four Norwegian Newspapers. Journal of Peace Research, 2, pp. 64-91; Nohrstedt, S. & Ottosen, R. (2008). War Journalism and the Threat Society. Conflict
Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crises in Four Norwegian Newspapers. Journal of Peace Research, 2, pp. 64-91; Nohrstedt, S. & Ottosen, R. (2008). War Journalism and the Threat Society. Conflict
and Communication Online, 7, pp.1-17.</ref> This can impact both reactions towards both the conflict itself and audience’s own general psychological wellbeing, contributing to a view of the world as excessively chaotic, serious anxiety and emotional difficulties, and a sense of disempowerment and disconnection.<ref>Frohlich, G. (2004). [http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/Frohlich.pdf Emotional intelligence in Peace Journalism.], Master of Arts Thesis.
and Communication Online, 7, pp.1-17.</ref> This can impact both reactions towards both the conflict itself and audience’s own general psychological wellbeing, contributing to a view of the world as excessively chaotic, serious anxiety and emotional difficulties, and a sense of disempowerment and disconnection.<ref>Frohlich, G. (2004). [http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/Frohlich.pdf Emotional intelligence in Peace Journalism.], Master of Arts Thesis.
European University Center for Peace Studies, p.17 & p.47, Retrieved October 12, 2009; McGoldrick, A. (2008). Psychological effects of War Journalism and Peace Journalism. Peace & Policy, 13, 86-98, see p.91; Nohrstedt & Ottosen, 2008, pp.4-6; Szabo, A. & Hopkinson, K. (2007). Negative Psychological Effects of Watching the News in the Television: Relaxation or Another Intervention May Be Needed to Buffer Them! International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 14, 57-62, see p.60.</ref> Vicarious traumatisation can influence these negative effects, where "even ‘normal’, intelligent, educated individuals can be highly suggestible towards violent acts in formerly unexpected contexts".<ref>Frohlich, 2004, p.60.</ref>
European University Center for Peace Studies, p.17 & p.47, Retrieved October 12, 2009; McGoldrick, A. (2008). Psychological effects of War Journalism and Peace Journalism. Peace & Policy, 13, 86-98, see p.91; Nohrstedt & Ottosen, 2008, pp.4-6; Szabo, A. & Hopkinson, K. (2007). Negative Psychological Effects of Watching the News in the Television: Relaxation or Another Intervention May Be Needed to Buffer Them! International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 14, 57-62, see p.60.</ref> Vicarious traumatisation can influence these negative effects, where "even ‘normal’, intelligent, educated individuals can be highly suggestible towards violent acts in formerly unexpected contexts".<ref>Frohlich, 2004, p.60.</ref>
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Therefore these negative emotional states may discourage audience members from critically engaging with and challenging the bias information presented through War Journalism. These may appear to be "someone else’s problem" and best left to "experts" who alone have the necessary knowledge, time, and emotional endurance. These negative emotional responses may also discourage creative engagement with the conflict and conflict parties. This is especially troubling considering the critical role of creativity in conflict resolution and peacebuilding.<ref>Fisher, R. J. (1997). Interactive Conflict Resolution. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, pp.26-36; Lederach, J. (1995). Preparing for peace: Conflict transformation across cultures. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, pp.55-62; Schirch, L. (2002). Human Rights and Peacebuilding: Towards Justpeace. Paper presented at the 43rd Annual International Studies Association Convention, New Orleans, Louisiana, 24-27 March, 2002, pp.12-14).</ref>
Therefore these negative emotional states may discourage audience members from critically engaging with and challenging the bias information presented through War Journalism. These may appear to be "someone else’s problem" and best left to "experts" who alone have the necessary knowledge, time, and emotional endurance. These negative emotional responses may also discourage creative engagement with the conflict and conflict parties. This is especially troubling considering the critical role of creativity in conflict resolution and peacebuilding.<ref>Fisher, R. J. (1997). Interactive Conflict Resolution. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, pp.26-36; Lederach, J. (1995). Preparing for peace: Conflict transformation across cultures. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, pp.55-62; Schirch, L. (2002). Human Rights and Peacebuilding: Towards Justpeace. Paper presented at the 43rd Annual International Studies Association Convention, New Orleans, Louisiana, 24-27 March, 2002, pp.12-14).</ref>


==War Journalism's effect on groups in a conflict==
==War Journalism's effect on groups involved in a conflict==
Peace Journalism analysis also proposes that typical news on conflict, with its value bias towards violence and violent groups, has important effects on the actual parties of a conflict. Firstly, Peace Journalism proponents argues that the bias in favour of publicity for violence and violent actors, "plays into" violent actors interests to intimidate and disrupt peace processes.<ref>Frohlich, 2004, p.63.</ref> This is an important example of the Feedback Loop effect: "it is not the influence of news on public opinion as such, but assumptions by parties to conflict about its likely or possible influence, that condition their behaviour".<ref>Lynch, 2008, p.61.</ref> This bias also weakens and punishes non-violent groups effected by a conflict, with less publicity for their lack of violence. Nohrstedt and Ottosen (2002) note:
Peace Journalism analysis also proposes that typical news on conflict, with its value bias towards violence and violent groups, has important effects on conflict parties. Firstly, Peace Journalism proponents argues that the bias in favour of publicity for violence and violent actors, "plays into" violent actors interests to intimidate and disrupt peace processes.<ref>Frohlich, 2004, p.63.</ref> This is an important example of the Feedback Loop effect: "it is not the influence of news on public opinion as such, but assumptions by parties to conflict about its likely or possible influence, that condition their behaviour".<ref>Lynch, 2008, p.61.</ref> This bias also weakens and punishes non-violent groups effected by a conflict, with less publicity for their lack of violence. Nohrstedt and Ottosen (2002) note:
"if traditional media themselves are unable to transmit alternative perspectives and voice the danger is that those … that feel marginalised will turn to terror in order to make a difference in the media agenda".<ref>Nohrstedt & Ottosen 2002, p.13.</ref>
"if traditional media themselves are unable to transmit alternative perspectives and voice the danger is that those … that feel marginalised will turn to terror in order to make a difference in the media agenda".<ref>Nohrstedt & Ottosen 2002, p.13.</ref>


The most visible actions of a group one is not a member of are often considered representative of that group’s behaviour (an effect called the “availability heuristic”)<ref>Rothman, A. J. & Hardin, C. D. (1997). Differential use of the availability heuristic in social judgement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 123-138.</ref> Therefore WJ's over-selection of violent compared to non-violent responses to conflict may actually foster a misperception of excessive threat between parties. This is then generally exaggerated by the effect of other inter-group social-cognitive biases within conventional conflict reporting. These include
The most visible actions of a group one is not a member of (and outgroup) are often considered representative of that group’s behaviour (an effect called the “availability heuristic”)<ref>Rothman, A. J. & Hardin, C. D. (1997). Differential use of the availability heuristic in social judgement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 123-138.</ref> Therefore WJ's over-selection of violent compared to non-violent responses to conflict may actually foster a misperception of excessive threat between parties. This is then generally exaggerated by other inter-group social-cognitive biases within War Journalism. These include biases towards: seeing an outgroup as more homogeneous (with less internal variety) than it really is<ref>Boldry, J. G., Gaertner, L. & Quinn, J. (2007). Measuring the measures: a meta-analytic investigation of the measures of out-group homogeneity. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12, 157-178.</ref>, seeing ambiguous situations or negative outgroup behaviour as playing out internal and stable, outgroup characteristics rather than external variable circumstances<ref>Branscombe, N. & Wann, D. (1992). Physiological arousal and reactions to outgroup members during competitions that implicate an important social identity. Aggressive Behavior,18, 85-93; Chin, M. & McClintock, C. (1993). The effects of intergroup discrimination and social values on level of self-esteem in the minimal group paradigm. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 63-75; Hunter, J., Platow, M., Howard, M. & Stringer, M. (1996). Social identity and intergroup evaluative bias: Realistic categories and domain specific self-esteem in a conflict setting. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 631-647; Zimbardo, P. (2004). A Situationist Perspective on the Psychology of Evil: Understanding How Good People Are Transformed into Perpetrators. In A. Miller (Ed.), The social psychology of good and evil: Understanding our capacity for kindness and cruelty (pp.21-50). New York: Guilford.</ref>, favourable ingroup/outgroup ingroup/outgroup comparison to increase collective self esteem<ref>Hunter, J. (2003). State, category specific collective self esteem and intergroup
discrimination. Current Research in Social Psychology, 8,139-148.</ref>, members of groups who perceive themselves to be under threat to be more pressured internally to conform with and reinforce dominant internal social norms<ref>Long, G. (2005). [http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20051208/If¬¬_nm/crime/britain_honor.html Britain grapples with gruesome ‘honor’ crimes.] Reuters. Retrieved December 9, 2005.</ref>

Another effect on groups within a conflict comes with War Journalism's common focus on the human drama and tragedy of violence: Hamber and Lewis (1997) note WJ "often involves painting doomsday scenarios of victims who are irreparably damaged and for whom there appears to be no solution and no future"<ref>Hamber, B & Lewis, S. (1997). [http://www.csvr.org.za/wits/papers/papptsd.htm An Overview of the Consequences of Violence and Trauma in South Africa.] Research paper written for the Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation. Retrieved October 10, 2009.







Revision as of 08:39, 28 June 2010

Peace Journalism also called conflict sensitive journalism, begins with the idea that all too often news about conflict has a value bias towards violence. Peace Journalism also proposes a practical methodology for correcting this bias through producing journalism in both the mainstream and alternative media, and working with journalists and media professionals, audiences and organisation which may find themselves the source of stories in conflict.

War Journalism is the term given by Peace Journalism proponents to conventional journalism which shows this value bias towards violence and violent groups, leading audiences to over value violent responses to conflict through ignoring non-violent alternatives. Proponents of Peace Journalism argue this because of reporting conventions which focus almost exclusively on: physical effects of conflict (for example ignoring psychological impacts)elites (who may or may not represent the actuals parties and their concerns), only the differences between parties, the here and now (rather the history and context of the conflict), and is zero sum orientated (assuming that one side's needs can only be met by the other side compromising or being defeated).

Thus its supporters argue that Peace Journalism, through identifying and avoiding these reporting conventions, aims to correct for this bias by allowing opportunities for society at large to consider and value non-violent response to conflict. In counter-acting War Journalism it aims to pick up calls for, and articulations of such policies from whatever quarter, and remit them into the public sphere.

Peace Journalism can also be understood as exploring the possibility of conflicts taking place in open space, open time with causes and exits anywhere. War Journalism then could also be understood as reporting on conflict in a way which is confined to closed space and closed time with causes and exits in the arena.[1].

Because of this approach,Peace Journalism has attracted controversy from scholars and journalists.

Research and historical roots of Peace Journalism

Peace journalism follows a long history of news publication originating in non-sectarian Christian peace movements and societies of the early 1800s, which published periodicals.[2] Sectarian organizations also created publications focused on peace as part of their proselytizing in the 19th century, as did utopian communities of the period. From the 20th century, a prominent example of sectarian journalism focused on peace was Dorothy Day's Catholic Worker.[3]

Besides an element in the histories of pacifism and the social movement press, peace journalism is a set of journalism practices that emerged in the 1970s. Norwegian sociologist Johan Galtung proposed the idea of peace journalism for journalists to follow when covering war and conflict.[4]

In practice, peace journalism is a linguistic and action orientation that frames stories to encourage conflict analysis and a non-violent response. Editors and reporters make choices – about what to report and how to report it – that create opportunities for society at large to consider and to value non-violent responses to conflict.

Peace journalism aims to shed light on structural and cultural causes of violence, as they bear upon the lives of people in a conflict arena, as part of the explanation for violence. It aims to frame conflicts as consisting of many parties, pursuing many goals, rather than a simple dichotomy. An explicit aim of peace journalism is to promote peace initiatives from whatever quarter, and to allow the reader to distinguish between stated positions and real goals.

Peace journalism pursues these goals - focusing on conflict resolution, complex truths, non-elite actors affected by war, and potential solutions - as a response to traditional reportage. Typical war journalism focuses on violence, propaganda, elite actors, and victory, emphasising the current conflict while ignoring the causes or outcomes.[5]

==How Peace Journalism outlines conventional conflict journalism as War Journalism==[put in here from essay: The necessity of convention based objectivity in War Journalism: Why War Journalism continues to dominate conflict coverage: to answer the burning question first: what's wrong with normal conflict journalism.


The effect on audiences of War Journalism's value bias favouring violence

A pattern of WJ is likely to have certain effects on the way audiences conceptualise the conflict. Violence is typically presented as as its own cause, and ignoring structural or psychological context. Since violence is presented as having no cause or explanation, and therefore non-violent prevention is assumed to be impossible. Viewers are left to conclude that the only “natural” response to violence is more violence.[6]

A recent example helps to show how Peace Journalism advocates might point out that a lot of conventional conflict reporting is often biased in favour of violence and violent groups. The example used here is the coverage leading up to the September, 2009 meeting between Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas, and US President Barack Obama.

Reporting was highly reactive and focused on the visible effects of the conflict such announcements and public disagreements between official spokespeople which appeared to disrupt peace efforts.[7] Coverage was elite-orientated with little mention of non-official peace efforts by groups such as the Hand in Hand network of schools, Peace Now, Breaking the Silence, Physicians for Human Rights, Machsom Watch and Checkpoint Watch.[8] With a focus almost solely on the highly divisive issues such as Israeli illegal settlements in the West Bank and Jerusalem, and the status of Jerusalem and the diplomatic status of Israel, coverage was also differences orientated with which focused on the here and now. Potential benefits in physical, economic and social security of peaceful relations were ignored and “progress” towards peace was portrayed as having to come with one or more parties compromising and surrendering their positions on key issues so was zero sum orientated.[9] Coverage generally ignored the background or context of positions. These positions were therefore presented as unchangeable conditions on any peaceful settlement rather than the public "face" of unmet needs that often drive violent conflicts but because of distrust between parties are often not honestly expressed publicly.[10]

War Journalism's effect of audiences

This bias conflict journalism can have important effects on the way audiences understand a conflict. By presenting violence as its own cause, and ignoring structural or psychological context, viewers are left to conclude that the only “natural” response to violence is more violence.[11] War Journalism shows the role of power in representation and media to fix meaning for “it to become naturalised so that is the only meaning it can possibly carry…where you cannot see that anybody ever produced it[12]

Research also indicates that War Journalism can have negative emotional impacts in audience members, such as feelings of hopelessness and powerlessness, compounded by increased anxiety, mood disturbance, sadness and a sense of disconnection with physical and social environments. research by Galtung and Ruge’s (1965) finding of negativity bias in foreign news has been confirmed more recently by Nohrstedt and Ottosen (2008)[13] This can impact both reactions towards both the conflict itself and audience’s own general psychological wellbeing, contributing to a view of the world as excessively chaotic, serious anxiety and emotional difficulties, and a sense of disempowerment and disconnection.[14] Vicarious traumatisation can influence these negative effects, where "even ‘normal’, intelligent, educated individuals can be highly suggestible towards violent acts in formerly unexpected contexts".[15]

Therefore these negative emotional states may discourage audience members from critically engaging with and challenging the bias information presented through War Journalism. These may appear to be "someone else’s problem" and best left to "experts" who alone have the necessary knowledge, time, and emotional endurance. These negative emotional responses may also discourage creative engagement with the conflict and conflict parties. This is especially troubling considering the critical role of creativity in conflict resolution and peacebuilding.[16]

War Journalism's effect on groups involved in a conflict

Peace Journalism analysis also proposes that typical news on conflict, with its value bias towards violence and violent groups, has important effects on conflict parties. Firstly, Peace Journalism proponents argues that the bias in favour of publicity for violence and violent actors, "plays into" violent actors interests to intimidate and disrupt peace processes.[17] This is an important example of the Feedback Loop effect: "it is not the influence of news on public opinion as such, but assumptions by parties to conflict about its likely or possible influence, that condition their behaviour".[18] This bias also weakens and punishes non-violent groups effected by a conflict, with less publicity for their lack of violence. Nohrstedt and Ottosen (2002) note: "if traditional media themselves are unable to transmit alternative perspectives and voice the danger is that those … that feel marginalised will turn to terror in order to make a difference in the media agenda".[19]

The most visible actions of a group one is not a member of (and outgroup) are often considered representative of that group’s behaviour (an effect called the “availability heuristic”)[20] Therefore WJ's over-selection of violent compared to non-violent responses to conflict may actually foster a misperception of excessive threat between parties. This is then generally exaggerated by other inter-group social-cognitive biases within War Journalism. These include biases towards: seeing an outgroup as more homogeneous (with less internal variety) than it really is[21], seeing ambiguous situations or negative outgroup behaviour as playing out internal and stable, outgroup characteristics rather than external variable circumstances[22], favourable ingroup/outgroup ingroup/outgroup comparison to increase collective self esteem[23], members of groups who perceive themselves to be under threat to be more pressured internally to conform with and reinforce dominant internal social norms[24]

Another effect on groups within a conflict comes with War Journalism's common focus on the human drama and tragedy of violence: Hamber and Lewis (1997) note WJ "often involves painting doomsday scenarios of victims who are irreparably damaged and for whom there appears to be no solution and no future"Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).

Debates and Criticisms

Some opponents characterise peace journalism as "activist" news writing and production that while being socially engaged to promote peace, is unlike mainstream objective or balanced news coverage that seeks to remain impartial or above the fray.[25]

Include my criticisms of PJ: no compassion for challenging world view etc

References

  1. ^ Lynch, J. (2008). Debates in Peace Journalism, Sydney: Sydney University Press,2008, p.147 & 162
  2. ^ Roberts, Nancy L., "Peace Journalism," The International Encyclopedia of Communication, Wolfgang Donsbach (ed), Blackwell Publishing, 2008.
  3. ^ Roberts, Nancy L., American peace writers, editors, and periodicals: A dictionary, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1991.
  4. ^ Seow Ting Lee & Crispin C. Maslog, "War or Peace Journalism? Asian Newspaper Coverage of Conflicts," Journal of Communication 55 (June 2005): p. 311.
  5. ^ Galtung, Johan, “On the role of the media in worldwide security and peace,” In Tapio Varis (ed.), Peace and Communication, pp. 249–266, San Jose, Costa Rica: Universidad para La Paz.
  6. ^ Lynch, J. (2008). Debates in Peace Journalism, Sydney: Sydney University Press,2008.
  7. ^ For example see: Benhorin, Y. (2009, July, 22). Mitchell, Gates, Jones to visit Jerusalem next week., Ynetnews.com. Retrieved October 3, 2009; Hardy, R. (2009, September 7). Obama Mid-East plans in jeopardy, BBC. Retrieved October 3, 2009; Kershner, I. (2009, September 7). Israel Tries to Placate Settlers by Allowing Some Construction Before Freeze, New York Times. Retrieved October 3, 2009; Koutsoukis, J. (2009, September 9). Likud rebels rebuke Netanyahu over settlements. The Sydney Morning Herald (print edition), p.10.
  8. ^ For an outline of some of these groups activities see Lynch, 2008, and Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2005). Peace Journalism. Gloucestershire: Hawthorn Press.
  9. ^ Barker, A. (2009, June 15). [www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2008/s2599059.htm Israeli PM endorses Palestinian independence.] ABC (Australia): Lateline. Retrieved October 3, 2009; Israel could freeze settlements for 9 months-official (2009, September 18). Retrieved June 26, 2009; Knight, B. (2009, August 3). [www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2009/s2644942.htm Securing peace in the West Bank]. ABC (Australia): 7:30 Report. Retrieved October 1, 2009; Kousoutkis, 2009)
  10. ^ Lynch & McGoldrick, 2005, p.44.
  11. ^ Lynch, 2008a, p.186
  12. ^ Hall, S. (1997). Representation and the media. (Transcript). Media Education Foundation, p.19 & pp.21-22. Retrieved July 23, 2007.
  13. ^ Galtung, J. & Ruge, M. (1965). The Structure of Foreign News: The Presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crises in Four Norwegian Newspapers. Journal of Peace Research, 2, pp. 64-91; Nohrstedt, S. & Ottosen, R. (2008). War Journalism and the Threat Society. Conflict and Communication Online, 7, pp.1-17.
  14. ^ Frohlich, G. (2004). Emotional intelligence in Peace Journalism., Master of Arts Thesis. European University Center for Peace Studies, p.17 & p.47, Retrieved October 12, 2009; McGoldrick, A. (2008). Psychological effects of War Journalism and Peace Journalism. Peace & Policy, 13, 86-98, see p.91; Nohrstedt & Ottosen, 2008, pp.4-6; Szabo, A. & Hopkinson, K. (2007). Negative Psychological Effects of Watching the News in the Television: Relaxation or Another Intervention May Be Needed to Buffer Them! International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 14, 57-62, see p.60.
  15. ^ Frohlich, 2004, p.60.
  16. ^ Fisher, R. J. (1997). Interactive Conflict Resolution. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, pp.26-36; Lederach, J. (1995). Preparing for peace: Conflict transformation across cultures. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, pp.55-62; Schirch, L. (2002). Human Rights and Peacebuilding: Towards Justpeace. Paper presented at the 43rd Annual International Studies Association Convention, New Orleans, Louisiana, 24-27 March, 2002, pp.12-14).
  17. ^ Frohlich, 2004, p.63.
  18. ^ Lynch, 2008, p.61.
  19. ^ Nohrstedt & Ottosen 2002, p.13.
  20. ^ Rothman, A. J. & Hardin, C. D. (1997). Differential use of the availability heuristic in social judgement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 123-138.
  21. ^ Boldry, J. G., Gaertner, L. & Quinn, J. (2007). Measuring the measures: a meta-analytic investigation of the measures of out-group homogeneity. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12, 157-178.
  22. ^ Branscombe, N. & Wann, D. (1992). Physiological arousal and reactions to outgroup members during competitions that implicate an important social identity. Aggressive Behavior,18, 85-93; Chin, M. & McClintock, C. (1993). The effects of intergroup discrimination and social values on level of self-esteem in the minimal group paradigm. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 63-75; Hunter, J., Platow, M., Howard, M. & Stringer, M. (1996). Social identity and intergroup evaluative bias: Realistic categories and domain specific self-esteem in a conflict setting. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 631-647; Zimbardo, P. (2004). A Situationist Perspective on the Psychology of Evil: Understanding How Good People Are Transformed into Perpetrators. In A. Miller (Ed.), The social psychology of good and evil: Understanding our capacity for kindness and cruelty (pp.21-50). New York: Guilford.
  23. ^ Hunter, J. (2003). State, category specific collective self esteem and intergroup discrimination. Current Research in Social Psychology, 8,139-148.
  24. ^ Long, G. (2005). Britain grapples with gruesome ‘honor’ crimes. Reuters. Retrieved December 9, 2005.
  25. ^ Thomas Hanitzsch, “Deconstructing Journalism Culture: Toward a Universal Theory,” Communication Theory 17 (2007): 367–385.

See also

External links


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