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{{featured article}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=250 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>'''Antarctica'''</big></big>
| align=center colspan=2 style="background:#f9f9f9;" |
[[Image:Flag of Antarctica.svg|center|100px]]

[[Image:LocationAntarctica.png|250px|Location of Antarctica]]
|-
| '''Area''' || 14,000,000 km² (280,000 km² ice-free, 13,720,000 km² ice-covered)
|-
| '''Population''' || ~1000 (none permanent)
|-
| '''Government''' || None, governed by the [[Antarctic Treaty System]]
|-
| '''Partial Territorial claims''' || {{ARG}} <br> {{AUS}} <br> {{CHL}} <br> {{FRA}} <br> {{NZL}} <br> {{NOR}} <br> {{GBR}}
|-
| '''Internet [[Top-level domain|TLD]]''' || [[.aq]]
|-
| '''Calling Code''' || +672
|}

'''Antarctica''' is the [[continent]] at the extreme [[south|southern]] [[latitude]]s of the [[Earth]], containing the [[South Pole]]. It is surrounded by the [[Southern Ocean]] and divided in two by the [[Transantarctic Mountains]]. On average, it is the coldest, driest, windiest, and highest of all the continents. With 98% of it covered in [[ice]], Antarctica, at 14 million&nbsp;km², is the fifth-largest continent (after Asia, Africa, North America and South America). Because there is little [[precipitation]], the entire continent is technically a [[desert]], the largest in the world. There are no permanent human residents and only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including [[penguin|penguins]], [[fur seals]], [[lichen]]s, and many types of [[algae]]. The name "Antarctica" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''antarky'', "opposite the [[Arctic]]."<ref>{{cite web
| author=[[Henry Liddell|Liddell, Henry George]] and [[Robert Scott|Scott, Robert]]
| work=[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]
| publisher=Clarendon Press
| title={{polytonic|ἀνταρκτικός}}
| year=1940
| url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=%239514
| accessdate=February 12
| accessyear=2006
}}</ref>

Although myths and speculation about a ''[[Terra Australis]]'' ("Southern Land") go back to antiquity, the first sighting of the continent is commonly accepted to have occurred in [[1821]] by the [[Russia]]n expedition of [[Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev|Mikhail Lazarev]] and [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]]. The continent was largely neglected in the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of resources, and isolated location.

Antarctica is not under the political [[sovereignty]] of any nation, although seven countries ([[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Chile]], [[France]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]] and the [[United Kingdom]]) maintain [[Antarctic territorial claims|territorial claims]]. Most other countries do not recognize these claims, and the claims of Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom all overlap. Human activity on the continent is regulated by the [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]], which was signed in [[1959]] by 12 countries and prohibits any military activity, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's [[ecozone]]. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4000 scientists of many different nationalities and with many different research interests.

==Exploration==
{{main|History of Antarctica}}
Antarctica has no indigenous population. It was unknown and unexplored until the [[19th century]].
[[Image:Orpheus-Gate-2.jpg|210px|thumb|right|Ice cap. Although this and the other pictures on this page show interesting features, a "typical" picture of Antarctica would show nothing but a flat white snowfield]]
[[Image:Port-Lockroy.jpg|210px|thumb|right|[[Port Lockroy]] Museum]]

Belief in the existence of a ''Terra Australis''—a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and north Africa—had existed since [[Ptolemy]] suggested the idea in order to preserve [[symmetry]] of [[landmass]] in the world. Depictions of a large southern landmass were common in maps such as the early 16th century Turkish [[Piri Reis map]]. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that [[South America]] and [[Australia]] were not part of "Antarctica," geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size.

European maps continued to show this land until [[Captain]] [[James Cook]]'s ships, ''[[HMS Resolution (Cook)|Resolution]]'' and ''[[HMS Adventure (1771)|Adventure]]'', crossed the [[Antarctic Circle]] on [[January 17]], [[1773]] and again in [[1774]].<ref>{{cite web
| author=The Mariners' Museum
| title=Age of Exploration: John Cook
| url=http://www.mariner.org/educationalad/ageofex/cook.php
| accessdate=February 12
| accessyear=2006
}}</ref>

The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by two individuals. According to various organizations (the [[National Science Foundation]],<ref>{{cite web
| author=U.S. Antarctic Program External Panel of the [[National Science Foundation]]
| title=Antarctica&mdash;Past and Present
| url=http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/antpanel/antpan05.pdf
| accessdate=February 6
| accessyear=2006
}}</ref> [[NASA]],<ref>NASA, U.S. Government [http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html Palmer biography] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref> the [[University of California, San Diego]],<ref>University of California, San Diego [http://arcane.ucsd.edu/pstat.html Palmer Station] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref> and other sources<ref>South-Pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000052.htm An Antarctic Time Line : 1519 - 1959]. Retrieved February 12, 2006</ref><ref>Polar Radar for Ice Sheet Measurements. [http://ku-prism.org/polarscientist/timeline/antarcticexplorers1800.html Antarctic Explorers Timeline: Early 1800s]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref>), ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica in 1820: [[Fabian von Bellingshausen]] (a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy), [[Edward Bransfield]] (a captain in the British Navy), and [[Nathaniel Palmer]] (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). [[Fabian von Bellingshausen|Von Bellingshausen]] supposedly saw Antarctica on [[January 27]], [[1820]], three days before [[Edward Bransfield|Bransfield]] sighted land, and ten months before [[Nathaniel Palmer|Palmer]] did so in November 1820. On that day the expedition led by [[Fabian von Bellingshausen]] and [[Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev]] on two ships reached a point within 32&nbsp;km (20&nbsp;miles) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there.

In 1841, explorer [[James Clark Ross]] sailed through what is now known as the [[Ross Sea]] and discovered [[Ross Island]]. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the [[Ross Ice Shelf]]. [[Mount Erebus]] and [[Mount Terror (Antarctica)|Mount Terror]] are named after two ships from his expedition: ''[[HMS Erebus (1826)|HMS Erebus]]'' and ''[[HMS Terror (1813)|HMS Terror]]''.<ref>[http://www.south-pole.com/p0000081.htm James Clark Ross] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref>
[[Image:Shackleton expedition.jpg|left|thumb|210px|''The Endurance'' at night during [[Ernest Shackleton]]'s [[Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition]] in 1914.]]
During an [[expedition]] led by [[Ernest Shackleton]], parties led by [[T. W. Edgeworth David]] became the first to climb [[Mount Erebus]] and to reach the [[South Magnetic Pole]].<ref>Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=6660 ''Tannatt William Edgeworth David''] Retrieved February 7, 2006.</ref> On [[December 14]], [[1911]], a party led by Norwegian polar explorer [[Roald Amundsen]] from the ship ''[[Fram]]'' became the first to reach the [[South Pole]], using a route from the [[Bay of Whales]] and up the [[Axel Heiberg Glacier]]. This area previously colonized by the famous "Claus Expedition"<ref>South-pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000101.htm ''Roald Amundsen''] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref>

[[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport and conducting extensive geological and biological research.<ref>70South. [http://www.70south.com/resources/antarctic-history/explorers/richardbyrd/ Richard Byrd]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref> However, it was not until [[October 31]], [[1956]] that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral [[George Dufek]] successfully landed an aircraft there.<ref>U.S. Navy. [http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm Dates in American Naval History: October]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref>

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==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Antarctica}}

[[Image:Antarctica satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|170px|right|A satellite composite image of Antarctica]]
[[Image:Maritime-Antarctica.jpg|thumb|170px|left|Maritime Antarctica]]
The continent of Antarctica is located mostly south of the [[Antarctic Circle]], surrounded by the [[Southern Ocean]]. It is the southernmost [[land mass]], comprising more than 14 million&nbsp;km², making it the fifth-largest continent. The coastline measures 17&nbsp;968&nbsp;km. Physically, it is divided in two by the [[Transantarctic Mountains]] close to the neck between the [[Ross Sea]] and the [[Weddell Sea]]. The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called [[West Antarctica|Western Antarctica]] and the remainder [[Eastern Antarctica]], because they correspond roughly to the Eastern and Western Hemispheres relative to the [[Greenwich meridian]].

About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the [[Antarctic ice sheet]]. The [[ice sheet]] is, on average, 2.5 kilometers thick. Despite its zero precipitation in some areas, the continent has approximately 90% of the world's [[fresh water]], in the form of ice.<ref name="cia">Central Intelligence Agency [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html Factbook] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref> Western Antarctica is covered by the [[West Antarctic Ice Sheet]]. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet has been of recent concern because of the possibility, real though small, of its collapse. If it does break down, [[Sea level change|ocean levels]] would rise by several meters in a relatively short period of time.

[[Image:Mt erebus.jpg|thumb|170px|right|[[Mt. Erebus]], an active volcano on [[Ross Island]].]]
[[Vinson Massif]], the highest peak in Antarctica at 4892&nbsp;meters, is located in the [[Ellsworth Mountains]]. Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only [[Deception Island]] and [[Mt. Erebus]] are active. Mount Erebus, located in [[Ross Island]], is the southernmost active volcano. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.<ref>British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/About_Antarctica/Rock/Volcanoes.html Volcanoes]. Retrieved February 13, 2006.</ref> In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.<ref>National Science Foundation. [http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100385 Scientists Discover Undersea Volcano Off Antarctica]. Retrieved February 13, 2006</ref>

Antarctica is home to more than 70 [[lake]]s that lie thousands of metres under the surface of the continental ice sheet. [[Lake Vostok]], discovered beneath [[Russia]]'s [[Vostok Station]] in 1996, is the largest of these [[subglacial lake]]s. It is believed that the lake has been sealed off for 35 million years. There is some evidence that Vostok's waters may contain [[microorganism|microbial life]]. Due to the lake's similarity to [[Europa]], a moon of [[Jupiter]], confirming that life can survive in Lake Vostok might strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Europa.<ref>National Science Foundation [http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/02/fslakevostok.htm Lake Vostok] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref><ref>NASA [http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/stories/europa_vostok_0899.html Lake Vostok may teach us about Europa] Retrieved February 4, 2006.</ref>

{{seealso|Extreme points of Antarctica|Antarctic territories}}

== Geology ==
===Geological history and paleontology===
More than 170 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the [[supercontinent]] [[Gondwana]]. Over time Gondwana broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 million years ago.

====Paleozoic era (540-250 Mya)====
[[Image:Survey-Route.jpg|210px|thumb|right|Survey route]]
During the Cambrian period Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the northern hemisphere, and during this period large amounts of [[sandstone]]s, [[limestone]]s and [[shale]]s were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea-floor [[invertebrate]]s and [[trilobite]]s flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Mya) Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time. [[Sand]] and [[silt]]s were laid down in what is now the [[Ellsworth Mountains|Ellsworth]], [[Horlick Mountains|Horlick]] and [[Pensacola Mountains]]. [[Glaciation]] began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Mya) as Gondwana became centered around the [[South Pole]] and the climate cooled, though flora remained. During the Permian period the plant life became dominated by fern-like plants such as [[Glossopteris]], which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the [[Transantarctic Mountains]]. Towards the end of the Permian period continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.<ref name="Stonehouse">{{cite book
| editor = Stonehouse, B. (ed.)
| title = Encyclopedia of Antarctica and the Southern Oceans
| year = 2002
| month = June
| publisher = John Wiley & Sons
| id = ISBN 0-471-98665-8
}}</ref>

====Mesozoic era (250-65 Mya)====
As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In East Antarctica the [[seed fern]] became established, and large amounts of sandstones and shales were laid down at this time. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206-146 Mya), and islands gradually rose out of the ocean. [[Ginkgo]] trees and [[cycad]]s were plentiful during this period, as were reptiles such as [[lystrosaurus]]. In West Antarctica [[conifer]] [[forest]]s dominated through the entire Cretaceous period (146-65 Mya), though [[Nothofagus|Southern beech]] began to take over at the end of this period. [[Ammonite]]s were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only two Antarctic dinosaur species (''[[Cryolophosaurus]]'' and ''[[Antarctopelta]]'') have been described to date. It was during this period that Gondwana began to break up.

====Gondwana breakup (160-23 Mya)====
[[Africa]] separated from Antarctica around 160 Mya, followed by [[India]] in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Mya). About 65 Mya, Antarctica (then connected to [[Australia]]) still had a tropical to subtropical climate, complete with a [[marsupial]] fauna. About 40 Mya [[Australia]]-[[New Guinea]] separated from Antarctica and the first ice began to appear. Around 23 Mya, the [[Drake Passage]] between Antarctica and [[South America]] resulted in the [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]]. The ice spread, replacing the forests that then covered the continent. Since about 15 Mya, the continent has been mostly covered with ice.<ref name="Trewby">{{cite book
| editor = Trewby, Mary (ed.)
| title = Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton
| year = 2002
| month = September
| publisher = Firefly Books
| id = ISBN 1-55297-590-8
}}</ref>

===Geology of present-day Antarctica===
[[Image:AntarcticaRockSurface.jpg|thumb|300px|Antarctica without its ice-shield. This map does not consider that sea level would rise because of the melted ice, nor that the landmass would rise by several hundred meters over a few tens of thousands of years after the weight of the ice was no longer depressing the landmass.]]
The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by the fact that nearly all of the continent is permanently covered with a thick layer of ice. However, newer techniques such as [[remote sensing]] have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice.

West Antarctica closely resembles the [[Andes]] of [[South America]].<ref name="Stonehouse" /> The [[Antarctic Peninsula]] was formed by uplift and [[metamorphism]] of sea-bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by [[igneous]] intrusions and [[volcanism]]. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are [[andesite]] and [[rhyolite]] volcanics formed during the Jurassic Period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in [[Marie Byrd Land]] and [[Alexander Island]]. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the [[Ellsworth Mountains]] region, where the [[stratigraphy]] is more similar to the eastern part of the continent.

East Antarctica is geologically very old, dating from the [[Precambrian]] era, with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. It is composed of a [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] and [[igneous]] platform which is the basis of the [[Shield (geology)|continental shield]]. On top of this base are various more modern rocks, such as [[sandstone]]s, [[limestone]]s, coal and [[shale]]s laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the [[Transantarctic Mountains]]. In coastal areas some [[Geologic fault|faulting]] has occurred, for example in the [[Shackleton Range]] and in [[Victoria Land]].

The main [[mineral]] resource known on the continent is [[coal]].<ref name="Trewby" /> It was first recorded near the [[Beardmore Glacier]] by [[Frank Wild]] on the [[Nimrod Expedition]], and now low-grade coal is known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The [[Prince Charles Mountains]] contain significant deposits of [[iron ore]]. The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore, namely the [[oil field|oil]] and [[natural gas field]]s found in the [[Ross Sea]] in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resources is banned until 2048 by the [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]].

===The Future===
Scientists have predicted that Antarctica will move further north in the future. This means that in around 100 million years time, it will be across the equator and probably covered in rainforest. The documentary series [[The Future Is Wild]] set one episode on this future tropical Antarctica.

==Climate==
{{Main|Climate of Antarctica}}

[[Image:Lake Fryxell.jpg|thumb|left|225px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice]] covering [[Lake Fryxell]], in the [[Transantarctic Mountains]], comes from [[glacier|glacial]] meltwater from the [[Canada Glacier]] and other smaller glaciers.]]
Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. It has little [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]], with the South Pole getting almost none, making it a frozen desert. Temperatures reach a minimum of between &minus;85&nbsp;°C and &minus;90&nbsp;°C (&minus;121 °F and &minus;130 °F) in the winter and about 30&nbsp;degrees higher in the summer months. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects over 90% of the sunlight falling on it.<ref name="weather">British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/jds/weather/weather.htm ''Weather in the Antarctic''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref> Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. [[Weather front]]s rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of the continent, [[ice]] there lasts for extended time periods. Heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22&nbsp;meters (48&nbsp;inches) in 48&nbsp;hours have been recorded. [[Image:Friesland-St-Boris.jpg|210px|thumb|right|Mountain glaciation]] At the edge of the continent, strong [[katabatic wind]]s off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are often moderate. During summer more [[solar radiation]] reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the [[equator]] in an equivalent period.<ref name="cia" />

Antarctica is colder than the [[Arctic]] for two reasons. First, its elevation is generally greater - much of the continent is above 3 km in height - and temperature decreases with height. Second, the [[Arctic Ocean]] covers the north polar zone. The ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica.

Depending on the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight mean that climates familiar to humans are not generally present on the continent. The [[aurora australis]], commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the South Pole. Another unique spectacle is [[diamond dust]], a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. It generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A [[sundog]], a frequent atmospheric [[optical phenomenon]], is a bright "spot" beside the true [[sun]].<ref name="weather" />

[[image:iceberg09.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Tabletop [[iceberg]]s in Antarctica]]

==Population==
{{seealso|Demographics of Antarctica}}
Although Antarctica has no permanent residents, a number of governments maintain permanent [[research station]]s throughout the continent. The population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands varies from approximately 4000 in summer to 1000 in winter. Many of the stations are staffed around the year.

[[Image:Antarctic researchers.jpg|thumb|left|Two American researchers studying [[plankton]] through [[microscope]]s.]]
The first settlers of Antarctica (the world region situated south of the [[Antarctic Convergence]]) were English and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on [[South Georgia Island|South Georgia]], from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1000 in the summer (over 2000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included [[Grytviken]], [[Leith Harbour]], [[King Edward Point]], [[Stromness]], [[Husvik]], [[Prince Olav Harbour]], [[Ocean Harbour]] and [[Godthul]]. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of [[Grytviken]], Captain [[Carl Anton Larsen]], a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who adopted British citizenship in 1910. His family included his wife, three daughters and two sons.

[[Image:Fieldwork-Melnik.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Field work]]The first child born in Antarctica was Norwegian girl [[Solveig Gunbjörg Jacobsen]], born in Grytviken on [[8 October]] [[1913]], and her birth registered by the resident British Magistrate of [[South Georgia Island|South Georgia]]. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and of Klara Olette Jacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 to become the manager of [[Grytviken]], serving from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island<ref>R.K. Headland, The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984.</ref>.

[[Emilio Marcos Palma]] was the first person born on the Antarctic mainland, at Base Esperanza in 1978, his parents being sent there along with seven other families by the Argentinean government to determine if family life was suitable in the continent. In 1986 Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.<ref>''The Antarctic Sun'' [http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/oldissues2002-2003/answer.html Questions and answers] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref>

==Flora and fauna==
{{seealso|Antarctic ecozone}}
===Flora===
{{main|Antarctic flora}}
[[Image:Lichen squamulose.jpg|thumb|left|More than 200 species of [[lichen]]s are known in Antarctica.]]
The climate of Antarctica does not allow much vegetation to exist. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor [[soil]] quality, lack of moisture and sunlight limit the chances for plants to exist. As a result, plant life is limited to mostly [[moss]]es and [[liverwort]]s. The autotrophic community is made up of mostly [[protist]]s. The [[flora]] of the continent largely consists of [[lichen]]s, [[bryophyte]]s, [[algae]], and [[fungi]]. Growth generally occurs in the summer, and only for a few weeks at most.

There are more than 200 species of lichens and approximately 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are [[phytoplankton]]. Multicolored [[snow algae]] and [[diatoms]] are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula: [[Antarctic hair grass]] and [[Antarctic pearlwort]].<ref>Australian Antarctic Division [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=5551 Antarctic Wildlife] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref>

===Fauna===
[[Image:Emperor penguin.jpg|thumb|165px|[[Emperor Penguin]]s in [[Ross Sea]], Antarctica.]]

Land [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] is completely [[invertebrate]]. Such invertebrate life includes [[microscopic]] [[mite]]s, [[lice]], and [[springtail]]s. The [[midge]], just 12 [[millimeter|mm]] in size, is the largest land animal in Antarctica (other than humans). The [[Snow Petrel]] is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica and have been seen at the [[South Pole]].

A variety of marine animals exists, and they rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes [[penguin]]s, [[blue whales]], and [[fur seal]]s. More specifically, the [[Emperor penguin]] is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica. The [[Adélie Penguin]] breeds further south than any penguin. The [[Rockhopper penguin]] has distinctive feathers around the eyes; one could call them elaborate eyelashes. [[King penguin]]s, [[Chinstrap penguin]]s and [[Gentoo Penguin]]s also breed in the Antarctic. The [[Antarctic fur seal]] was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. [[Antarctic krill]], which congregates in large [[swarm|schools]], is the [[keystone species]] of the [[ecosystem]] of the [[Southern Ocean]], and is an important food organism for whales, seals, [[leopard seal]]s, fur seals, [[squid]], [[icefish]], penguins, [[albatross]]es and many other birds.<ref>[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/fauna_and_flora.htm Creatures of Antarctica] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref>

The passing of the [[Antarctic Conservation Act]] brought several restrictions to the continent. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.<ref name="cia" /> Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of [[Patagonian toothfish]], remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing, with estimates of 32,000&nbsp;tonnes in 2000.<ref>BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1492380.stm Toothfish at risk from illegal catches]. Retrieved February 11, 2006.</ref><ref>Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=1539 Toothfish]. Retrieved February 11, 2006.</ref>
* [http://scilib.ucsd.edu/sio/nsf/fguide/index.html Underwater Field Guide to Ross Island & McMurdo Sound, Antarctica]

==Politics==
[[Image:Logistic-Support.jpg|210px|thumb|left|Logistical support by the Navy<!---this caption needs more detail--->]]
As the only uninhabited continent, Antarctica has no government and belongs to no country. Various countries claim areas of it, but most other countries do not recognize those claims. The area between 90°W and 150°W is the only part of Antarctica not claimed by any country.<ref name="cia" />

Since [[1959]], claims on Antarctica have been suspended and the continent is considered politically neutral. Its status is regulated by the 1959 [[Antarctic Treaty]] and other related agreements, collectively called the [[Antarctic Treaty System]]. For the purposes of the Treaty System, Antarctica is defined as all land and [[ice shelf|ice shelves]] south of 60°S. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]]. It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first [[arms control]] agreement established during the [[Cold War]].

The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military manoeuvres, or the testing of any type of weapon. Military personnel or equipment are only permitted for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes.<ref>Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. [http://www.scar.org/treaty/ ''Antarctic Treaty''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref> The only documented large-scale land military maneuver was "[[Operación 90]]", undertaken ten years before the Antarctic Treaty by the [[Military of Argentina|Argentinian military]].<ref>Antarctica Institute of Argentina. [http://www.dna.gov.ar/INGLES/DIVULGAC/ARGANT.HTM ''Argentina in Antarctica''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref>

The [[United States military]] issues the [[Antarctica Service Medal]] to military members or civilians who perform research duty on the Antarctica continent. The medal includes a winter-over bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons.<ref>U.S. Navy [http://www.history.navy.mil/medals/antarc.htm Antarctic Service Medal] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref>

{{-}}
===Antarctic territories===
{{main|Antarctic territorial claims}}

[[Image:antarctica.jpg|thumb|300px||Territorial claims of Antarctica]]
{| class="wikitable"
!Flag
!Territory
!Claimant
!Claim limits
!Date
|-
| [[Image:Flag of France.svg|50px]]
| [[Adelie Land]]
| [[France]]
| {{coor dm Antarctic|142|2|E}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|136|11|E}}
| 1924
|-
| [[Image:Flag of Argentina.svg|50px]]
| [[Argentine Antarctica]]
| [[Argentina]]
| {{coor d Antarctic|25|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|74|W}}
| 1943
|-
| [[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|50px]]
| [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]
| [[Australia]]
| {{coor d Antarctic|160|E}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|142|2|W}} and {{coor dm Antarctic|136|11|W}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|44|38|E}}
| 1933
|-
| [[Image:Flag of Chile.svg|50px]]
| [[Antártica Chilena Province]]
| [[Chile]]
| {{coor d Antarctic|53|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|90|W}}
| 1940
|-
| [[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|50px]]
| [[British Antarctic Territory]]
| [[United Kingdom]]
| {{coor d Antarctic|20|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|80|W}}
| 1908
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Image:Flag of Norway.svg|50px]]
| [[Queen Maud Land|Dronning Maud Land]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Norway]]
| {{coor dm Antarctic|44|38|E}} to {{coor d Antarctic|20|W}}
| 1939
|-
| [[Peter I Island]]
| {{coor dm|68|50|S|90|35|W|}}
| 1929
|-
| [[Image:Flag of New Zealand.svg|50px]]
| [[Ross Dependency]]
| [[New Zealand]]
| {{coor d Antarctic|150|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|160|E}}
| 1923
|}

The Argentinean, British and Chilean claims all overlap.

[[Germany]] also maintained a claim to Antarctica, known as [[New Swabia]], between 1939 and 1945. It was situated from {{coor d Antarctic|20|E}} to {{coor d Antarctic|10|W}}, overlapping Norway's claim.

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Antarctica}}
[[Image:Antarctic cod.jpg|thumb|left|The illegal capture and sale of the [[Patagonian toothfish]] has led to several arrests.]]

Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they exist in quantities too small to exploit. The 1991 [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] prevents such struggle for resources. In 1998 a compromise agreement was reached to add a 50-year ban on mining until the year 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary agricultural activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 reported landing 112,934 tonnes.<ref name="cia"><ref>Santa Barbara City College Biological Sciences [http://www.biosbcc.net/ocean/AAimportance.htm Importance of Antarctica] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref>

[[Image:Antarctic-Postal-Services.jpg|210px|thumb|Antarctic postal services]]
Small-scale [[tourism]] has existed since 1957 and is currently self-regulated by [[International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators]] (IAATO). However, not all vessels have joined the IAATO. Several [[ship]]s transport people into Antarctica for specific scenic locations. A total of 27,950 tourists visited in the 2004-05 Antarctic summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The number is predicted to increase to over 80,000 by 2010.<ref>International association of Antarctica Tour Operators. [http://www.iaato.org/tourism_stats.html Tourism Statistics]. Retrieved March 4, 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/political.htm Politics of Antarctica] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref> There has been some recent concern over the adverse effect done to the environment and ecosystem by this influx of visitors. A call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quota have been made by environmentalists and scientists alike.<ref>''Telegraph UK''. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/main.jhtml?xml=/travel/2006/02/11/etnewsant.xml&sSheet=/travel/2006/02/11/ixtrvhome.html ''Tourism threatens Antarctic'']. Retrieved March 4, 2006.</ref> Antarctic flights brought tourists from Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of [[Air New Zealand Flight 901]] in 1979 near [[Mount Erebus]].

==Research==
{{seealso|List of research stations in Antarctica}}

[[Image:Amundsen-Scott marsstation ray h edit.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A [[full moon]] and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, [[power plant]] in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right.]]
Each year, scientists from 27 different nations conduct [[experiment]]s not reproducible in any other place in the world but the Antarctic. In the summer more than 4000 scientists operate [[research station]]s; this number decreases to nearly 1000 in the winter.<ref name="cia" /> The [[McMurdo Station]] is capable of housing more than 1000 scientists, visitors, and tourists.

Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. [[Geologist]]s tend to study plate tectonics in the Arctic region, meteorites from the [[outer space]], and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent [[Gondwanaland]]. [[Glaciologist]]s in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating [[ice]], [[snow|seasonal snow]], [[glacier]]s, and [[ice sheet]]s. [[Biologist]]s, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. [[Astrophysicist]]s in [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] are able to study the celestial dome and [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] because of the ozone hole and the location's dry, cold environment. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures.<ref>Antarctic Connection [http://www.antarcticconnection.com/antarctic/science/index.shtml Science in Antarctica] Retrieved February 4, 2006.</ref>

Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the [[ozone layer]] in the [[atmosphere]] above Antarctica. In 1998 [[NASA]] satellite data showed that the Antarctic [[ozone hole]] was the largest on record, covering 27&nbsp;million square kilometers. In 2002 significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming.<ref name="cia" />

[[Image:ALH84001.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Antarctic meteorite, named [[ALH84001]], from [[Mars]].]]

[[Meteorite]]s from Antarctica are a relatively recent resource for study of the material formed early in the [[solar system]]; most are thought to come from [[asteroid]]s, but some may have originated on larger [[planet]]s. The first meteorites found in Antarctica were in 1912. In 1969 the Japanese discovered nine meteorites in Antarctica. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the [[ice sheet]] in the last million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are relatively well preserved.<ref name="meteorite">NASA [http://www-curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/index.cfm Meteorites from Antarctica] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref>

This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these meteorites are pieces blasted off the moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, particularly [[ALH84001]] discovered by [[ANSMET]], are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.<ref name="meteorite" />

==See also==
* [[List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands]]
* [[List of research stations in Antarctica]]
* [[List of places with fewer than ten residents]] (Note: refers to permanent residents)
* [[Antarctica ecozone]]
* [[Antarctic Stamps]]
* [[Argentine Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Brazil Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Chile Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Communications in Antarctica]]
* [[Extreme points of Antarctica]]
* [[Flags of Antarctica]]
* ''[[Life in the Freezer]]'', a [[BBC]] natural history [[television]] series on life on and around Antarctica
* [[Transportation in Antarctica]]

==Footnotes==
<!--This article uses the Cite.php citation mechanism. If you would like more information on how to add references to this article, please see http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cite/Cite.php -->
<div style="font-size:92%;"><references /></div>

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Antarctica}}
* [http://www.ats.aq Antarctic Treaty Secretariat]
* [http://www.anetstation.com ANetStation] - radio station in Antarctica
* [http://www.add.scar.org The Antarctic Digital Database - a source of digital topographic map data for Antarctica]
*[http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/ ''The Antarctic Sun''] - newspaper of the US McMurdo Station
* [http://www.aad.gov.au/ Australian Antarctic Division]
* [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk British Antarctic Survey]
* [http://www.planetavivo.org/english/ResearchPrograms/Antarctica/SlideShows/ArdleyIsland/ArdleyIsland1.html Biodiversity at Ardley Island, South Shetland archipelago, Antarctica]
* [http://www.comnap.aq/ Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP)], official homepage.
* [http://www.awi-bremerhaven.de/Polar/index.html German Antarctic Ships and Stations]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/frd/antarctica/antarctica.html Portals on the World - Antarctica] from the [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://www.polarmuseum.sp.ru/Eng/ The Russian State Museum of Arctic and Antarctic]
* [http://www.scar.org The Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research - coordinating body for Antarctic Science]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html The World Factbook &ndash; Antarctica] from the U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]
* [http://www.70south.com Latest Antarctic news and information by 70South]
* [http://www.iaato.org International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO)]
* [http://www.usap.gov/ The United States Antartic Program]
* [http://apc.mfa.government.bg Antarctic Place-names Commission of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.geocities.com/peyre1347/ One of many journals by a tourist to Antarctica]
;Commercial
*[http://www.antarcticconnection.com/antarctic/info-index.shtml Antarctic Connection (information section)]

{{Continent}}
{{Region}}

[[Category:Antarctica| ]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Lists of coordinates]]
[[Category:Outposts of Antarctica| ]]
[[Category:Special territories]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
{{Link FA|sl}}

[[af:Antarktika]]
[[an:Antartida]]
[[ar:أنتارتيكا]]
[[ast:Antártida]]
[[ba:Антарктика]]
[[be:Антарктыда]]
[[bg:Антарктида]]
[[bn:এন্টার্কটিকা]]
[[bs:Antarktik]]
[[ca:Antàrtida]]
[[cs:Antarktida]]
[[cy:Antarctica]]
[[da:Antarktis]]
[[de:Antarktis]]
[[el:Ανταρκτική]]
[[eo:Antarkto]]
[[es:Antártida]]
[[eu:Antartika]]
[[fa:جنوبگان]]
[[fi:Etelämanner]]
[[fo:Antarktis]]
[[fr:Antarctique]]
[[ga:Antartaice]]
[[gl:Antártida]]
[[gu:ઍન્ટાર્કટિકા]]
[[he:אנטארקטיקה]]
[[hr:Antarktika]]
[[hu:Antarktisz]]
[[ia:Antarctica]]
[[id:Antartika]]
[[io:Antarktika]]
[[is:Suðurskautslandið]]
[[it:Antartide]]
[[ja:南極大陸]]
[[ko:남극]]
[[la:Antarctica]]
[[li:Antarctica]]
[[lt:Antarktida]]
[[lv:Antarktīda]]
[[mr:अंटार्क्टिका]]
[[ms:Antartika]]
[[nds:Antarktis]]
[[nl:Antarctica]]
[[nn:Antarktis]]
[[no:Antarktika]]
[[pl:Antarktyda]]
[[pt:Antártica]]
[[ro:Antarctica]]
[[ru:Антарктида]]
[[scn:Antartidi]]
[[se:Antárktis]]
[[simple:Antarctica]]
[[sl:Antarktika]]
[[sr:Антарктик]]
[[sv:Antarktis]]
[[ta:அண்டார்டிக்கா]]
[[th:ทวีปแอนตาร์กติกา]]
[[tl:Antartika]]
[[tr:Antarktika]]
[[uk:Антарктида]]
[[vi:Châu Nam Cực]]
[[wa:Antartike]]
[[yi:אַנטאַרקטיקע]]
[[zh:南极洲]]
[[zh-min-nan:Lâm-ke̍k-tāi-lio̍k]]
[[zh-yue:南極洲]]

Revision as of 18:04, 9 April 2006

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