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Many studies implied that [[testosterone]] level as one of the key factor in aggressive competitive behaviour in social situations.
Many studies implied that [[testosterone]] level as one of the key factor in aggressive competitive behaviour in social situations.
<ref name="Archer2006 p.322 ">{{cite journal|last1=Archer|first1=John|title=Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis|journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews|volume=30|issue=3|year=2006|pages=319–345|issn=01497634|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.007}}</ref><ref name="DabbsHargrove1996">{{cite journal|last1=Dabbs|first1=James M.|last2=Hargrove|first2=Marian F.|last3=Heusel|first3=Colleen|title=Testosterone differences among college fraternities: well-behaved vs rambunctious|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=20|issue=2|year=1996|pages=157–161|issn=01918869|doi=10.1016/0191-8869(95)00190-5}}</ref> When [[testosterone]] is produced in the brain and gonads in both genders, the androgen receptors in neural and peripheral tissues are being possessed and trigger behavioural and physiological responses to [[testosterone]].The role of androgenic steroids is to activate or facilitate aggressive behaviour.<ref name="FrenchMustoe2013">{{cite journal|last1=French|first1=J. A.|last2=Mustoe|first2=A. C.|last3=Cavanaugh|first3=J.|last4=Birnie|first4=A. K.|title=The influence of androgenic steroid hormones on female aggression in 'atypical' mammals|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=368|issue=1631|year=2013|pages=20130084–20130084|issn=0962-8436|doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0084}}</ref> High levels of [[oestrogen]] were shown to affect on women's derogation on potential competitors (E.g rating other female faces as less attractive.) but there is no effect on ratings of male attractiveness.<ref name="Fisher2004"/>
<ref name="Archer2006 p.322 ">{{cite journal|last1=Archer|first1=John|title=Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis|journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews|volume=30|issue=3|year=2006|pages=319–345|issn=01497634|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.007}}</ref><ref name="DabbsHargrove1996">{{cite journal|last1=Dabbs|first1=James M.|last2=Hargrove|first2=Marian F.|last3=Heusel|first3=Colleen|title=Testosterone differences among college fraternities: well-behaved vs rambunctious|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=20|issue=2|year=1996|pages=157–161|issn=01918869|doi=10.1016/0191-8869(95)00190-5}}</ref> When [[testosterone]] is produced in the brain and gonads in both genders, the androgen receptors in neural and peripheral tissues are being possessed and trigger behavioural and physiological responses to [[testosterone]].The role of [[androgenic steroid|androgenic steroids]] is to activate or facilitate aggressive behaviour.<ref name="FrenchMustoe2013">{{cite journal|last1=French|first1=J. A.|last2=Mustoe|first2=A. C.|last3=Cavanaugh|first3=J.|last4=Birnie|first4=A. K.|title=The influence of androgenic steroid hormones on female aggression in 'atypical' mammals|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=368|issue=1631|year=2013|pages=20130084–20130084|issn=0962-8436|doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0084}}</ref> High levels of [[oestrogen]] were shown to affect on women's [[derogation]] on potential competitors (E.g rating other female faces as less attractive.) but there is no effect on ratings of male attractiveness.<ref name="Fisher2004"/>


Biosocial status hypothesis <ref name="MillerManer2012">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Saul L.|last2=Maner|first2=Jon K.|last3=McNulty|first3=James K.|title=Adaptive attunement to the sex of individuals at a competition: the ratio of opposite- to same-sex individuals correlates with changes in competitors' testosterone levels|journal=Evolution and Human Behavior|volume=33|issue=1|year=2012|pages=57–63|issn=10905138|doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.05.006}}</ref>indicated that to win in female competition, it is thought to enhance in testosterone production thus facilitating violent, prevailing behaviours and exhibitation of high status. Whereas, losing in female competition lowers level of testosterone which weakens the tendency of competing. <ref name="BoothShelley1989">{{cite journal|last1=Booth|first1=Alan|last2=Shelley|first2=Greg|last3=Mazur|first3=Allan|last4=Tharp|first4=Gerry|last5=Kittok|first5=Roger|title=Testosterone, and winning and losing in human competition|journal=Hormones and Behavior|volume=23|issue=4|year=1989|pages=556–571|issn=0018506X|doi=10.1016/0018-506X(89)90042-1}}</ref><ref name="Mccaul1992">{{cite journal|last1=Mccaul|first1=K|title=Winning, losing, mood, and testosterone|journal=Hormones and Behavior|volume=26|issue=4|year=1992|pages=486–504|issn=0018506X|doi=10.1016/0018-506X(92)90016-O}}</ref>
Biosocial status hypothesis <ref name="MillerManer2012">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Saul L.|last2=Maner|first2=Jon K.|last3=McNulty|first3=James K.|title=Adaptive attunement to the sex of individuals at a competition: the ratio of opposite- to same-sex individuals correlates with changes in competitors' testosterone levels|journal=Evolution and Human Behavior|volume=33|issue=1|year=2012|pages=57–63|issn=10905138|doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.05.006}}</ref>indicated that to win in female competition, it is thought to enhance in testosterone production thus facilitating violent, prevailing behaviours and exhibitation of high status. Whereas, losing in female competition lowers level of testosterone which weakens the tendency of competing. <ref name="BoothShelley1989">{{cite journal|last1=Booth|first1=Alan|last2=Shelley|first2=Greg|last3=Mazur|first3=Allan|last4=Tharp|first4=Gerry|last5=Kittok|first5=Roger|title=Testosterone, and winning and losing in human competition|journal=Hormones and Behavior|volume=23|issue=4|year=1989|pages=556–571|issn=0018506X|doi=10.1016/0018-506X(89)90042-1}}</ref><ref name="Mccaul1992">{{cite journal|last1=Mccaul|first1=K|title=Winning, losing, mood, and testosterone|journal=Hormones and Behavior|volume=26|issue=4|year=1992|pages=486–504|issn=0018506X|doi=10.1016/0018-506X(92)90016-O}}</ref>

Revision as of 21:07, 30 March 2016

There are two modes of sexual selection: intersexual selection and intrasexual selection. Intersexual selection is where members of a competitive sex appear to show off desirable characteristics in order to get the attention of a potential mate, increasing their chances of being selected as a mate. Intrasexual selection is when members of the same sex compete with each other over a potential mate. Intrasexual competition between women is the behaviour that females engage in to secure a potential mate. Such behaviour might include self-promotion tactics and indirect aggression toward other females.

Self Promotion Tactics

Luxury Consumption

Self-promotion tactics refers to the different strategies that women might utilise to make themselves look better compared to other competing women. For example, women are interested in luxury items that enhance their attractiveness.[1] Luxury items can indicate attractiveness by emphasising a higher status, which is a factor that potential mates will take into consideration.

Cosmetic Surgery

Research has shown that the waist-hip ratio (WHR) of a female is a good indicator of their health, and that males tend to have a preference for females with a low WHR.[2] Therefore, by using cosmetic surgery, females can change various aspects of their body to make themselves more attractive by displaying a more desirable waist-hip ratio. This can lead to competition with other females who may be considered less attractive in comparison.

Indirect Aggression

There are a number of competitive strategies that females may use in a bid to appear the most attractive to mates compared to other females. Female derogation is a form of indirect aggression where females attempt to reduce the perceived value of another female 'rival'. Fisher (2004)[3] studied female derogation and the effects of estrogen levels on this form of competition. Females disclosed their ovulation status and rated the attractiveness of male and female faces. Competitor derogation (giving low ratings) towards same-sex rivals occurred frequently when women were at their most fertile stages. In contrast, women gave same-sex rivals higher ratings during the least fertile stages of their ovulation. This indirect form of competition appears exclusive toward females as findings also showed that women, irrespective of ovulation status (high or low), showed no difference in the rating of male faces. Supporting research has also found that younger women who are considered as having high fertility, gossip about other women more than older women, who are no longer at their most fertile stage.[4]

Indeed, indirect aggression appears more prevalent amongst (or exclusive to) females than males who are said to engage in more direct forms of competition.[5] Research studying the relationship between indicators of attractiveness, such as physical attractiveness and indirect victimisation, showed that the likelihood of experiencing indirect victimisation increased by 35% for females who perceived themselves as physically attractive.[6] In contrast, being a male who is physically attractive decreased the chances of experiencing such indirect victimisation. This also highlights the role of physical attractiveness of female rivals as being a trigger for indirect aggression.

Variables That Influence Female Competition

Females often compete using low-risk strategies compared to males as females have to provide primary care and protections to their offsprings.[7] Fisher(2015) suggested that attractiveness is the single route by which women compete and men have shown a preference for attractive women. [8]

Other factors that influence womens' intrasexual competition are:

High genetic quality of the males

Females will promote themselves more often when males demonstrate various abilities to provide secure resources, protection for offspring, or when the costs of competing is inferior to the benefits gained.[9] They choose males with highest possible qualities that can maximise reproductive success. Attractiveness and gene quality are both believed to be highly correlated. However, research provide insights that male attractiveness is biased by female’s phenotypic quality, male attractiveness does not necessarily correspond to their gene quality.[10] This lead to the state-dependent choice theory which suggest females with lower qualities prefer low-quality males than high-quality males. [11] [12] [13]

Ovarian hormones and hormonal variations

The ovarian cycle phase is an emerging concern in exploring issues related to female intrasexual competitive behaviour. It has been found that when fertility rate was maximised during ovarian phase, women gave significantly lower ratings of attractiveness to other females. Ovarian hormones affect how females view their potential competitors and causes them to behave more competitively.[14][15]

Many studies implied that testosterone level as one of the key factor in aggressive competitive behaviour in social situations. [16][17] When testosterone is produced in the brain and gonads in both genders, the androgen receptors in neural and peripheral tissues are being possessed and trigger behavioural and physiological responses to testosterone.The role of androgenic steroids is to activate or facilitate aggressive behaviour.[18] High levels of oestrogen were shown to affect on women's derogation on potential competitors (E.g rating other female faces as less attractive.) but there is no effect on ratings of male attractiveness.[14]

Biosocial status hypothesis [19]indicated that to win in female competition, it is thought to enhance in testosterone production thus facilitating violent, prevailing behaviours and exhibitation of high status. Whereas, losing in female competition lowers level of testosterone which weakens the tendency of competing. [20][21]

Interpersonal dynamics

Females often compete with own sex to gain attention of the potential and high genetic quality males in order to induce reproductive success.[19][22] Miller et al (2011)’s study revealed that presence of another sex individual leads to testosterone enhancement. [23] Ratio of females to males in the course of competition might alter salivary testosterone levels in both genders which leads to competition.[24] Nonequivalent ratio of men with "good genes" to a large number of accessible females also leads to female intrasexual competition. Testosterone levels correspond to various factor such as form of competition,[16]characteristics of opponent,[25] psychological state and baseline hormone levels of the person competing.

References

  1. ^ [1]
  2. ^ [2]
  3. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1810076/pdf/15503995.pdf
  4. ^ Massar, Karlijn; Buunk, Abraham P.; Rempt, Sanna (2012-01-01). "Age differences in women's tendency to gossip are mediated by their mate value". Personality and Individual Differences. 52 (1): 106–109. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.09.013.
  5. ^ Campbell, A. (2004). Female competition: Causes, constraints, content, and contexts. Journal of sex research, 41(1), 16-26.
  6. ^ Leenaars, Lindsey S.; Dane, Andrew V.; Marini, Zopito A. (2008-07-01). "Evolutionary perspective on indirect victimization in adolescence: the role of attractiveness, dating and sexual behavior". Aggressive Behavior. 34 (4): 404–415. doi:10.1002/ab.20252. ISSN 1098-2337.
  7. ^ Fisher, M. (2015). "Women's competition for mates: Experimental findings leading to ethological studies" (PDF). Human Ethology Bulletin. 30: 53–70.
  8. ^ Buss, David M. "Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 12 (01). doi:10.1017/s0140525x00023992.
  9. ^ Palombit, R.A.; Cheney, D.L.; Seyfarth, R.M. (2001). "Female–female competition for male 'friends' in wild chacma baboons (Papio cynocephalus ursinus)". Animal Behaviour. 61 (6): 1159–1171. doi:10.1006/anbe.2000.1690. ISSN 0003-3472.
  10. ^ Riebel K, Holveck MJ, Verhulst S, Fawcett TW (2010). "Are high-quality mates always attractive?: State-dependent mate preferences in birds and humans". Commun Integr Biol. 3 (3): 271–3. PMC 2918774. PMID 20714411.
  11. ^ Buston, P. M.; Emlen, S. T. (2003). "Cognitive processes underlying human mate choice: The relationship between self-perception and mate preference in Western society". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (15): 8805–8810. doi:10.1073/pnas.1533220100. ISSN 0027-8424.
  12. ^ Todd, P. M.; Penke, L.; Fasolo, B.; Lenton, A. P. (2007). "Different cognitive processes underlie human mate choices and mate preferences". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (38): 15011–15016. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705290104. ISSN 0027-8424.
  13. ^ Little, A. C.; Burt, D. M.; Penton-Voak, I. S.; Perrett, D. I. (2001). "Self-perceived attractiveness influences human female preferences for sexual dimorphism and symmetry in male faces". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 268 (1462): 39–44. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1327. ISSN 0962-8452.
  14. ^ a b Fisher, M. L. (2004). "Female intrasexual competition decreases female facial attractiveness". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 271 (Suppl_5): S283–S285. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0160. ISSN 0962-8452.
  15. ^ Stockley, Paula; Bro-Jørgensen, Jakob (2011). "Female competition and its evolutionary consequences in mammals". Biological Reviews. 86 (2): 341–366. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00149.x. ISSN 1464-7931.
  16. ^ a b Archer, John (2006). "Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 30 (3): 319–345. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.007. ISSN 0149-7634.
  17. ^ Dabbs, James M.; Hargrove, Marian F.; Heusel, Colleen (1996). "Testosterone differences among college fraternities: well-behaved vs rambunctious". Personality and Individual Differences. 20 (2): 157–161. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00190-5. ISSN 0191-8869.
  18. ^ French, J. A.; Mustoe, A. C.; Cavanaugh, J.; Birnie, A. K. (2013). "The influence of androgenic steroid hormones on female aggression in 'atypical' mammals". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 368 (1631): 20130084–20130084. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0084. ISSN 0962-8436.
  19. ^ a b Miller, Saul L.; Maner, Jon K.; McNulty, James K. (2012). "Adaptive attunement to the sex of individuals at a competition: the ratio of opposite- to same-sex individuals correlates with changes in competitors' testosterone levels". Evolution and Human Behavior. 33 (1): 57–63. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.05.006. ISSN 1090-5138.
  20. ^ Booth, Alan; Shelley, Greg; Mazur, Allan; Tharp, Gerry; Kittok, Roger (1989). "Testosterone, and winning and losing in human competition". Hormones and Behavior. 23 (4): 556–571. doi:10.1016/0018-506X(89)90042-1. ISSN 0018-506X.
  21. ^ Mccaul, K (1992). "Winning, losing, mood, and testosterone". Hormones and Behavior. 26 (4): 486–504. doi:10.1016/0018-506X(92)90016-O. ISSN 0018-506X.
  22. ^ Buss, David M. (1988). "The evolution of human intrasexual competition: Tactics of mate attraction". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 54 (4): 616–628. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.4.616. ISSN 0022-3514.
  23. ^ López, Hassan H.; Hay, Aleena C.; Conklin, Phoebe H. (2009). "Attractive men induce testosterone and cortisol release in women". Hormones and Behavior. 56 (1): 84–92. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.004. ISSN 0018-506X.
  24. ^ Miller, Saul L.; Maner, Jon K.; McNulty, James K. (2012). "Adaptive attunement to the sex of individuals at a competition: the ratio of opposite- to same-sex individuals correlates with changes in competitors' testosterone levels". Evolution and Human Behavior. 33 (1): 57–63. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.05.006. ISSN 1090-5138.
  25. ^ van der Meij, Leander; Buunk, Abraham P.; Almela, Mercedes; Salvador, Alicia (2010). "Testosterone responses to competition: The opponent's psychological state makes it challenging". Biological Psychology. 84 (2): 330–335. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.03.017. ISSN 0301-0511.
  • Huddergs, L., De Backer, C., Fisher, M., & Vyncke, P. (2014). The Rival Wears Prada: Luxury Consumption as a Female Competition Strategy. Evolutionary
  • Singh, D., & Singh, D. (2011). Shape and Significance of Feminine Beauty: An Evolutionary Perspective. Sex Roles, 64, 723-731.
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