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|field = [[psychology]], [[psychophysiology]], [[temperament]], individual differences, [[psychometrics]]
|field = [[psychology]], [[psychophysiology]], [[temperament]], individual differences, [[psychometrics]]
|work_institution = Institute of Psychology, [[Russian Academy of Sciences]]
|work_institution = Institute of Psychology, [[Russian Academy of Sciences]]
|alma_mater = {{Moscow University|1963}}
|alma_mater = [[Lomonosov Moscow State University]]
|doctoral_advisors = [[Alexander Luria]], [[Vladimir Nebylitsyn]]
|doctoral_advisors = [[Alexander Luria]], [[Vladimir Nebylitsyn]]
|known_for = [[Structure of Temperament Questionnaire]]
|known_for = [[Structure of Temperament Questionnaire]]
}}
}}
'''Vladimir Mikhaylovich Rusalov''' (born 5 October 1939) - Russian psychologist and anthropologist who was first to develop a [[temperament]] model within the [[Activity-specific approach]]. He is best known for his work in psychology of [[personality]], temperament and differential psychophysiology. His initial and extended versions of [[Structure of Temperament Questionnaire]]<ref name=Rusal89>{{cite journal|year=1989|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|title=Motor and communicative aspects of human temperament: a new questionnaire of the structure of temperament. |journal=Personality and Individual Differences| volume=10| pages=817–827|doi=10.1016/0191-8869(89)90017-2}}</ref><ref name=Rusal97>{{cite book|year=1997|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|title=Oprosnik formal’no-dynamicheskih svoystv individual’nosti. [Questionnaire of formal-dynamical properties of individual. Manual. Moscow: IPRAN}}</ref> became the most widely used <ref name=Manual>{{cite book | year=2007|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM |last2= Trofimova | first2=IN|title=Structure of Temperament and Its Measurement. Toronto, Canada: Psychological Services Press.}}</ref>
'''Vladimir Mikhaylovich Rusalov''' (born 5 October 1939) - Russian psychologist and anthropologist who was first to develop a [[temperament]] model within the [[Activity-specific approach]]. He is best known for his work in psychology of [[personality]], [[temperament]] <ref>{{cite journal|author=Rusalov VM|title=On nature of temperament and its place in structure of human individual differences [О природе темперамента и его месте в структуре индивидуальных свойств человека]|journal=Questions of Psychology [Voprosi Psychologii]|volume=1|year=1985|pages=19-32}}</ref><ref name=Rusal97>{{cite book|year=1997|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|title=Oprosnik formal’no-dynamicheskih svoystv individual’nosti. [Questionnaire of formal-dynamical properties of individual. Manual. Moscow: IPRAN}}</ref><ref name=Rusl2004>{{cite book|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|year=2004|title=Formal`no-dynamicheskiye svoystva individual`nosti (temperament) [Formal-dynamical properties of individual (temperament)]. Russian Academy of Sciences, IPAN Press: Moscow}}</ref> <ref name=Manual>{{cite book|year=2007|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|last2= Trofimova|first2=IN|title=Structure of Temperament and Its Measurement. Toronto, Canada: Psychological Services Press.}}</ref> and differential [[psychophysiology]]<ref name=Rusal1979>{{cite book|author=Rusalov VM|year=1979|title=Biologicheskiye osnovi individual’no-psichologicheskih razlichiy [Biological basis of individual psychological differences] Moscow: Nauka Russia}}</ref><ref name=Rus2012>{{cite book|author=Rusalov VM|title=Temperament within the structure of human individuality: studies in differential psychophysiology and psychology [Темперамент в структуре индивидуальности человека: дифференциально-психофизиологические и психологические исследования]|publisher=Moscow: Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences|year=2012}}</ref>.
<ref>Бурлачук Л.Ф. (2006) Психодиагностика. Санкт-Петербург: Питер.</ref><ref>Карелин А. (2007) Большая энциклопедия психологических тестов. Издательство: Москва, Эксмо.</ref><ref>Посохова, С.Т. Соловьева, С.Л. (2008) Настольная книга практического психолога. - Москва: АСТ; Санкт-Петербурк: Сова</ref><ref>Романова Е.С. (2005) Психодиагностика: Учебное пособие. Санкт-Петербург: Питер.</ref> test in the Russian-speaking countries in the practice of personnel selection, personality studies, educational psychology and clinical psychology in the past 20 years.


==Biography==
==Biography==

Rusalov was born in [[Kizlyar]] ([[Dagestan]], [[Russia]]). In 1963 he graduated from the Department of Biology (specialty of Anthropology) [[Lomonosov Moscow State University]]. In 1963-1972 he was working as a junior and then [[senior researcher]] in Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Pedagogical Sciences under the supervision of [[Boris Teplov]] and [[Vladimir Nebylitsyn]]. His background in anthropology and interest in individual differences attracted attention of neuropsychologist [[Alexander Luria]] who became Rusalov's Ph.D. supervisor. The title of his Ph.D. was “Human constitution and absolute thresholds within the nervous system”, a degree was received in 1967 from this Institute of Psychology. During his Ph.D. program he met and collaborated with [[Jan Strelau]], who was also a Ph.D. student in [[Vladimir Nebylitsyn]] laboratory at that time.
Rusalov was born in [[Kizlyar]] ([[Dagestan]], [[Russia]]). In 1963 he graduated from the Department of Biology (specialty of Anthropology) [[Lomonosov Moscow State University]]. In 1963-1972 he was working as a junior and then [[senior researcher]] in Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Pedagogical Sciences under the supervision of [[Boris Teplov]] and [[Vladimir Nebylitsyn]]. His background in anthropology and interest in individual differences attracted attention of neuropsychologist [[Alexander Luria]] who became Rusalov's Ph.D. supervisor. The title of his Ph.D. was “Human constitution and absolute thresholds within the nervous system”, a degree was received in 1967 from this Institute of Psychology. During his Ph.D. program he met and collaborated with [[Jan Strelau]], who was also a Ph.D. student in [[Vladimir Nebylitsyn]] laboratory at that time.


From 1972 to the present time he works as a scientist in the Institute of Psychology under [[Russian Academy of Sciences]]. In 1972-2004 he was a Head of the Laboratory of Differential Psychophysiology (renamed later as Nebylitsyn laboratory of individuality). In 1982 he received his a full Doctorate degree for his work “Biological basis of psychological individual differences”. This work included a comparison of the EEG recordings and performance on various tasks of individuals with different endurance, tempo, plasticity and emotionality. In 2004-2009 he was working as a Leading Researcher in Nebylitsyn’s Laboratory of Individuality. From 2009 to present he works as a Leading Researcher in Drujinin Laboratory of Abilities and Mental Resources, Institute of Psychology under [[Russian Academy of Sciences]].<ref>http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n80108568/</ref>
From 1972 to the present time he works as a scientist in the Institute of Psychology under [[Russian Academy of Sciences]]. In 1972-2004 he was a Head of the Laboratory of Differential Psychophysiology (renamed later as Nebylitsyn laboratory of individuality). In 1982 he received his a full Doctorate degree for his work “Biological basis of psychological individual differences”. This work included a comparison of the EEG recordings and performance on various tasks of individuals with different endurance, tempo, plasticity and emotionality <ref name=Rusal1979/><ref>{{cite book|author=Rusalov VM|title=Psychological individual differences and bio-electric activity of the brain (Ed.) [Индивидуально-психологические различия и биоэлектрическая активность мозга]|year=1988|publisher=Moscow: Nauka}}</ref><ref name=Kalash88>{{cite journal|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|last2=Kalashnikov|first2=SV.|year=1988|title=On the correlation of psychic plasticity with the integral factors of human brain bioelectrical activity|journal=Rusalov, V. M. (Ed.) Individual`no -psikhologicheskie razlichiya i bioelektricheskaya aktivnost` mozga cheloveka [Individual Psychological Differences and Human Brain Bioelectrical Activity]Moscow: Nauka|volume=1|pages=5-55}}</ref><ref name=Kalash92>{{cite journal|vauthors=Rusalov VM, Kalashnikova IG|year=1992|title=Psychological testing of temperament|journal=Journal of Higher Nervous Activity[Zhurnal Vysshey Nervnoy Deyatelnosti]|volume=42|issue=1|pages=44}}</ref><ref name=Strel93>{{cite journal|vauthors=Rusalov VM, Rusalova MN, Kalashnikova IG, Stepanov VG, Strelnikova, TN|year=1993|title=Bioelectrical activity of the brain in subjects with different types of temperament|journal=Journal of Higher Nervous Activity[Zhurnal Vysshey Nervnoy Deyatelnosti]|volume=43|issue=3|pages=530-542}}</ref>. In 2004-2009 he was working as a Leading Researcher in Nebylitsyn’s Laboratory of Individuality. From 2009 to present he works as a Leading Researcher in Drujinin Laboratory of Abilities and Mental Resources, Institute of Psychology under [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] <ref>http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n80108568/</ref>. He also carries a status of Professor teaching psychology in Moscow universities and colleges since 1992. He was also an invited professor in several American Universities.
He also carries a status of Professor teaching psychology in Moscow universities and colleges since 1992. He was also an invited professor in several American Universities.


==Scientific contribution: first activity-specific model of temperament==
==Scientific contribution: first activity-specific model of temperament==


Rusalov works in the field of [[psychophysiology]], psycho diagnostics, [[personality psychology]] and differential psychology for over 40 years. His Ph.D. program was based on [[Alexander Luria|Luria]]'s interest in neurophysiological bases of individual differences and on the experimental approach of [[Teplov]] and [[Vladimir Nebylitsyn]] who continued [[Ivan Pavlov|Pavlov]]’s studies of the typology of nervous systems
Rusalov works in the field of [[psychophysiology]], psycho diagnostics, [[personality psychology]] and differential psychology for over 40 years. His Ph.D. program was based on [[Alexander Luria|Luria]]'s interest in neurophysiological bases of individual differences and on the experimental approach of [[Teplov]] and [[Vladimir Nebylitsyn]] who continued [[Ivan Pavlov|Pavlov]]’s studies of the typology of nervous systems <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Teplov|first1=B.M.|last2=Nebylitsyn|first2=VD|year = 1963|title = Experimental study of properties of the nervous system in man|url=|journal=Journal of Highest Nervous Activity|volume=13|issue=|pages=789–797}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nebylitsyn, V.D.|year=1972|title=Fundamental properties of the human nervous system. NY: Plenum</ref>.
.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Teplov | first1 = B.M. | last2 = Nebylitsyn | first2 = V.D. | year = 1963 | title = Experimental study of properties of the nervous system in man | url = | journal = Journal of Highest Nervous Activity | volume = 13 | issue = | pages = 789–797 }}</ref><ref>Nebylitsyn, V. D. (1972) Fundamental properties of the human nervous system. NY: Plenum.</ref>


In his own studies Rusalov recorded [[EEG]]s and measured evoked potentials, absolute thresholds in visual, auditory, and tactile modalities, strength of excitation in auditory and visual modalities, mobility in auditory and visual modalities, problem solving in [[deterministic]] and [[probabilistic]] conditions, the speed of problem solving using a variety of tests on [[intelligence]], time spent attempting unsolvable problems and the number of times that a subject gave up while attempting to solve a task.<ref>Rusalov, V. M. 1979. Biologicheskiye osnovi individual’no-psichologicheskih razlichiy. (Biological basis of individual psychological differences) Moscow. Russia.</ref>
In his own studies Rusalov recorded [[EEG]]s and measured evoked potentials, absolute thresholds in visual, auditory, and tactile modalities, strength of excitation in auditory and visual modalities, mobility in auditory and visual modalities, problem-solving in [[deterministic]] and [[probabilistic]] conditions, the speed of problem solving using a variety of tests on [[intelligence]], time spent attempting unsolvable problems and the number of times that a subject gave up while attempting to solve a task <ref name=Rusal1979/><ref name=Kalash88/><ref name=Kalash92/><ref name=Strel93/>.


From these experiments Rusalov concluded that temperamental traits are activity-specific: the energetic level or tempo of performance might be different for the same individual in physical, social or intellectual activities, therefore, the aspects of the performance of these activities should be assessed and analyzed separately. Rusalov suggested that temperament traits be assessed using four scales:
From these experiments Rusalov concluded that temperamental traits are activity-specific: the energetic level or tempo of performance might be different for the same individual in physical, social or intellectual activities, therefore, the aspects of the performance of these activities should be assessed and analyzed separately. Rusalov suggested that temperament traits be assessed using four scales:
<ref name=Rusal89 /><ref name=Rusal97 /><ref name=Manual/>
<ref name=Rusal89 /><ref name=Rusal97/><ref name=Manual/><ref name=Rus2012/>
* (1) ergonicity (endurance, ability for prolonged work),
* (1) ergonicity (endurance, ability for prolonged work),
* (2) plasticity,
* (2) plasticity,
* (3) tempo of activity, and
* (3) tempo of activity, and
* (4) emotionality,
* (4) emotionality,
each evaluated separately in three areas of activity: social, physical and intellectual <ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Rusalov VM, Rusalova MN, Strelnikova EV|year=2000|title=Temperament cheloveka i osobennosti vibora mejdu veroyatnostyu dostijeniya tseli i ee tzennostyu [Temperament of man and peculiarities of choice between the probability of goal achievement and its value]|journal=Zhurnal Vysshey Nervnoy Deyatelnosti [Journal of Higher Nervous Activity]|volume=50|issue=3|pages=388}}</ref>. Mental (intellectual) activities are considered to be those which involve the greatest degree of probabilistic behavior and which require conscious attention <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rusalov|first1=V.M.|last2=Parilis|first2=S.E.|year=1991|title=Temperament and particularities of cognitive system of personality. |journal=Psychological Journal [Psichologicheskii Zjurnal]|volume=12 (1)|pages=118-123}}</ref><ref name=RusNaum>{{cite journal|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|last2=Naumova|first2=ER|year=1999|title=On the relationship between general abilities and "intellectual" scales of temperament.|journal=Psikhologicheskiy Zhurnal [Psychological Journal]|volume=20|issue=1|pages=70-77}} </ref><ref name=RusDudin> {{cite journal|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|last2=Dudin|first2=SI|year=1995|title=Temperament i intellect: obchie b specificheskiye factori rasvitiya [Temperament and Intelligence: general and specific factors of development]|journal=Psikhologicheskiy Zhurnal [Psychological Journal]|volume=16|issue=5|pages=12-23}} </ref>.
⚫
This 4 (traits) x 3 (types of activities) model of temperament was the first model within the [[activity-specific approach]]<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rusalov VM|title=Interaction of temperament and character in the structure of individuality [Взаимосвязь характера и темперамента в структуре индивидуальности]|journal=Psychological Journal [Psichologicheskii Zjurnal]|volume=3|year=2005|pages=65-73}}</ref><ref name=Rusal2018>{{cite journal|year=2018|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|title=Functional systems and activity-specific approaches to taxonomy of psychological individual differences|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biology|volume=383(1744)|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0166}}</ref>.


Based on this model, Rusalov developed the [[Structure of Temperament Questionnaire]] (STQ)<ref name=Rusal97/><ref name=Rusl2004/><ref name=Manual/><ref name=Rus2012/><ref name=Rusal89>{{cite journal|year=1989|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|title=Motor and communicative aspects of human temperament: a new questionnaire of the structure of temperament|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=10|pages=817–827|doi=10.1016/0191-8869(89)90017-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Rusalov VM|title=Theoretical problems of construction of special theory of human individuality [Теоретические проблемы построения специальной теории индивидуальности человека]|journal=Psychological Journal [Psichologicheskii Zjurnal]|volume=4|year=1986|pages=23-35}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Rusalov VM|title= Natural precursors of individual behaviour as factors of human individuality [Природные предпосылки индивидуального поведения как фактор становления индивидуальности человека]|journal=Journal of Higher Nervous Activity|volume=3||year=1989|pages=403-424}}</ref>. The first version of the English version of the STQ came out in 1989 <ref name=Rusal89/> and had in total 8 scales: four scales Ergonicity (endurance, the ability to keep intensive work), Plasticity (or flexibility, the ability to effectively switch between tasks or to change the way of performance), Tempo, and Emotionality assessed in two types of aspects of activity, physical-motor (Motor) and social-verbal (such as reading, writing, speaking, communication). Then an Extended version of the STQ was offered (1997) that included a third set of four scales to measure aspects of intellectual activity<ref name=Rusal97 /><ref name=Manual/>. His initial and extended versions of [[Structure of Temperament Questionnaire]]<ref name=Rusal89/><ref name=Rusal97/><ref name=Rusl2004/> became the most widely used in Russian Psychology <ref name=Manual/><ref>Бурлачук Л.Ф. (2006) Психодиагностика. Санкт-Петербург: Питер.</ref><ref>Карелин А. (2007) Большая энциклопедия психологических тестов. Издательство: Москва, Эксмо.</ref><ref>Посохова, С.Т. Соловьева, С.Л. (2008) Настольная книга практического психолога. - Москва: АСТ; Санкт-Петербург: Сова</ref><ref>Романова Е.С. (2005) Психодиагностика: Учебное пособие. Санкт-Петербург: Питер.</ref> in the practice of personnel selection, personality studies, educational psychology and clinical psychology in the past 20 years.
each evaluated separately in three areas of activity: social, physical and intellectual. Mental (intellectual) activities are considered to be those which involve the greatest degree of probabilistic behavior and which require conscious attention.
⚫
This 4 (traits) x 3 (types of activities) model of temperament was the first model within the [[activity-specific approach]].<ref name=Rusal2018>{{cite journal|year=2018| last1=Rusalov| first1=VM|title=Functional systems and activity-specific approaches to taxonomy of psychological individual differences. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biology | volume=383 | issue=1744|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0166| pmc=5832690}}</ref>

Based on this model, Rusalov developed the [[Structure of Temperament Questionnaire]] (STQ).<ref name=Rusal89 /><ref name=Rusal97 /><ref name=Manual /> The first version of the English version of the STQ came out in 1989 <ref name=Rusal89 /> and had in total 8 scales: four scales Ergonicity (endurance, the ability to keep intensive work), Plasticity (or flexibility, the ability to effectively switch between tasks or to change the way of performance), Tempo, and Emotionality assessed in two types of aspects of activity, physical-motor (Motor) and social-verbal (such as reading, writing, speaking, communication). Then an Extended version of the STQ was offered (1997) that included a third set of four scales to measure aspects of intellectual activity.<ref name=Rusal97 /><ref name=Manual />
⚫
The benefits of the [[activity-specific approach]] developed by Rusalov were that it offered a differentiation between traits that was missed in previous models of temperament and personality. This approach, i.e. differentiation between physical, verbal and mental aspects of activities was used in the neurochemical model of [[Functional Ensemble of Temperament]] developed in 2007-2014.<ref name=Rusal2018/>

'''Activity-specific approach in temperament research in temperament research''' is the theory related to a structure of temperament, i.e. how temperament traits can be classified and organized. This approach suggests:

* 1) a separation of the traits related to three aspects of activities: social-verbal, motor-physical and mental aspects of behaviour. In contrast to that, all other models of a structure of temperament describing an energetic dimension (for example, traits of Activity or Extraversion) do not differentiate between the traits regulating physical, social-verbal or mental activities. Yet, someone who enjoys performing prolonged and/or intense physical work might tire of social conversations very quickly. Likewise, a fast-talking person might not necessarily be able to manipulate objects swiftly or perform rapid mental calculations.

⚫
* 2) an integration of the principle of habit formation in behavioural regulation into the structure of psychological individual differences (the principle was studied experimentally since the pioneering work of [[Nikolai Bernstein]] <ref>{{cite book|author=Bernstein NA|year=1967|title=The coordination and regulation of movements|publisher=Oxford: Pergamon Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Latash ML (Ed.)|title=Progress in Motor Control: Bernstein's Traditions in Movement Studies|volume=1|publisher=Human Kinetics, Pennsylvania State University}}</ref>Bernstein's studies in kinesiology and then subsequent studies in neuroscience demonstrated that there is a transfer of control over construction of behaviour between several areas of the brain, depending on novelty and complexity of the tasks. Neurophysiological (cortical) systems regulating probabilistic aspects of actions gradually pass control to the "habit" systems (in [[basal ganglia]] when an individual learns the action or already has sufficient familiarity with the program of actions. The activity-specific approach differentiates between temperament traits related to several levels of complexity of behaviour Other models of personality and temperament did not differentiate between traits related to probabilistic and deterministic aspects of behavioural regulation. Meanwhile, it is well-known in neuroscience that behaviour in complex, probabilistic and novel situations is regulated by different ([[neocortex]]) systems than behaviour in well-learned or in simple situations (regulated more by [[basal ganglia]]). Rusalov demonstrated that this distinction is applicable to the structure of temperament. For example, when it comes to Endurance, Intellectual Endurance relates to capacities for prolonged mental activities whereas Physical (Motor) Endurance in his model relates to capacities for stereotypical, well-learned physical work. Similarly, the trait of Plasticity in Rusalov's model relates to activation of the [[frontal cortex]] controlling the ease of integration of new programs of actions whereas the trait of Tempo relates to the speed of integration of previously learned or simple actions.

== History ==

This approach was developed within experimental psychophysiology in studies on adults only and therefore was not used in developmental psychology (in studies and practical applications of children's temperament).

First known expression of this idea was in the work of [[Dodge]],<ref>{{cite journal|year=1917|last1=Dodge|first1=R|title= The laws of relative fatigue.|journal= Psychological Review|volume=24|pages=89–113|doi=10.1037/h0075549}}</ref> who studied mental fatigue. Dodge suggested that physical and mental efforts are regulated by different nervous processes.

This idea was verbalized again by [[Vladimir Nebylitsyn]],<ref>{{cite book|year=1976|last1= Nebylitsyn|first1=VD|title= Psycho-physiologicheskie issledovania individual’niy raslichiy [Psycho-physiological studies of individual differences].|journal= Collection of papers in memory of V. Nebylitsyn. Moscow, Russia: Nauka.}}</ref> then further developed in differential psychology and psychophysiology experiments from the late 1970s by [[Rusalov]], who was working in Nebylitsyn's laboratory and inherited this laboratory after a sudden tragic death of Nebylitsyn <ref name=Rusal89>{{cite journal|year=1989|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|title=Motor and communicative aspects of human temperament: a new questionnaire of the structure of temperament.|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=10|pages=817–827|doi=10.1016/0191-8869(89)90017-2}}</ref><ref name=Rusal97>{{cite book|year=1997|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|title=Oprosnik formal’no-dynamicheskih svoystv individual’nosti. [Questionnaire of formal-dynamical properties of individual. Manual. Moscow: IPRAN}}</ref><ref name=Manual>{{cite book|year=2007|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|last2= Trofimova|first2=IN|title=Structure of Temperament and Its Measurement. Toronto, Canada: Psychological Services Press.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Trofimova|first1 = |year = 2009|title = Exploration of the benefits of an activity-specific test of temperament|url =|journal = Psychological Reports|volume = 105|issue =|pages = 643–658|doi=10.2466/pr0.105.2.643-658}}</ref>). [[Rusalov]] proposed activity-specific theory of temperament,<ref name=Rusal2018>{{cite journal|year=2018|last1=Rusalov|first1=VM|title=Functional systems and activity-specific approaches to taxonomy of psychological individual differences. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biology|volume=383|issue=1744|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0166}}</ref> which was further developed by his graduate student Trofimova in her Compact version of the [[Structure of Temperament Questionnaire]] <ref name=Manual /><ref name=TroOpen>{{cite journal|year=2010|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|title=Questioning the "general arousal" models|journal=Open Behavioral Science and Psychology|volume=4|pages=1–8|doi=10.2174/1874230001004010001}}</ref><ref name=TroAmP>{{cite journal|year=2010|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|title=An investigation into differences between the structure of temperament and the structure of personality|journal=American Journal of Psychology|volume=123|issue = 4|pages=467–480|doi=10.5406/amerjpsyc.123.4.0467}}</ref><ref name=TroSul11>{{cite journal|year=2011|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|last2=Sulis|first2=W|title=Is temperament activity-specific? Validation of the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire – Compact (STQ-77)|url=https://www.ijpsy.com/volumen11/num3/306.html|journal= International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy|volume=11|issue = 3|pages=389–400}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2018|vauthors=Uher J, Trofimova I, Sulis W, Netter P, Pessoa L, Posner M, Rothbart M, Rusalov V, Petersen I, Schmidt L|title=Diversity in action: Exchange of perspectives and reflections on taxonomies of individual differences|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0172|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biology|volume=373|issue=1744|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0172}}</ref>.

The idea of the structure of temperament separating the traits related to social-verbal, motor-physical and mental aspects of behavior was incorporated by Trofimova in the neurochemical model [[Functional Ensemble of Temperament]] that links the relationships between [[monoamine]] [[neurotransmitters]], [[neuropeptides]] and [[hormonal]] systems to the 12 temperament traits.<ref name=FET>{{cite journal|year=2016|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|title=The interlocking between functional aspects of activities and a neurochemical model of adult temperament.|journal= In: Arnold, M.C. (Ed.) Temperaments: Individual Differences, Social and Environmental Influences and Impact on Quality of Life. New York: [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|pages=77–147}}</ref>

== Models of temperament within the activity-specific approach==

===Rusalov`s (STQ-150) (electro-physiological) model===

Vladimir [[Rusalov]], who continued the line in research in the Laboratory of Differential Psychophysiology (Institute of Psychology of [[Russian Academy of Sciences]]) started by Nebylitsyn and [[Teplov]], recorded [[EEG]]s and measured [[evoked potential]], [[absolute threshold]] in visual, auditory, and tactile modalities, strength of excitation and mobility in auditory and visual modalities, problem solving in deterministic and probabilistic conditions, [[endurance]] in solving the tasks, and the speed of solving a variety of tests. [[Rusalov]] concluded that temperament traits are activity-specific, i.e. traits regulating physical, social-verbal and intellectual aspects of behaviour are based on different neurophysiological systems. He showed that an energetic level or tempo of performance might differ for the same individual when he/she is solving three different types of tasks (physical, verbal <ref name=Rusal89 /> or intellectual.<ref name=Rusal97 /> Rusalov suggested, therefore, that individual differences in these three types of activities should be assessed and analyzed using separate scales <ref name=Rusal2018/>.

[[File: RusalovSTQ.JPG|thumb|500px|right||image-width=600|Rusalov's activity-specific model of the structure of temperament]]

Rusalov's model suggests that the structure of temperament can be presented as 12 traits: 4 aspects of behaviour (ergonicity ([[endurance]]), plasticity, tempo and emotionality), which are grouped by three aspects of behavior: motor-physical, social-verbal and intellectual. This model was incorporated in the extended [[Structure of Temperament Questionnaire]]. The factor analysis of the data received on Russian, Australian, American, Canadian, Urdu-Canadian, Polish-Canadian and Chinese samples confirmed a separation between the factors related to these three aspects of behavior.<ref name=Rusal97/><ref name=Manual /><ref>{{cite journal|year=2010|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|title= Exploration of the activity-specific model of temperament in four languages|url=https://www.ijpsy.com/volumen10/num1/251.html|journal= International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy.|volume=10/1|pages=79–95}}</ref><ref name= Dumenci96 >{{cite journal|year=1996|last1= Dumenci|first1= L.|title= Factorial validity of scores on the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire.|journal= Educational and Psychological Measurement Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.|volume=56|pages=487–493|doi=10.1177/0013164496056003010}}</ref><ref name = Bishop93 >{{cite journal|year=1993|last1=Bishop|first1= D.|display-authors=et al|title=Structure of Temperament Questionnaire (STQ): Results from a US sample|journal= Personality and Individual Differences|volume=14|pages=485–487|doi=10.1016/0191-8869(93)90318-w}}</ref><ref name = Bishop2004>{{cite journal|year=2004|last1= Bishop|first1= D.|last2 = Hertenstrein|first2 = M.|title= A confirmatory factor analysis of the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire|journal= Educational and Psychological Measurement|volume=64|pages=1019–1029|doi=10.1177/0013164404264843}}</ref>

===Compact STQ-77 (neuro-chemical) model===

Trofimova, who was doing her PhD in Rusalov's lab in the early 1990s suggested that the trait of [[impulsivity]] reflects the speed of initiation of immature (emotionality-based) behavioural response, whereas Tempo and Plasticity relate to the speed of more integrated behavioural response. She suggested therefore that all three traits relate to the speed of an integration of an action. Her alternative activity-specific model of temperament included Empathy and Sensation seeking as orientation-related traits and also suggested a re-arrangement of Emotionality traits.<ref name=Manual /><ref name=TroOpen/><ref name=TroSul11/> The STQ-77 model is therefore based on Rusalov's model and also on [[Alexander Luria|Luria]]’s theory related to three neuroanatomic systems (sensory-informational, programming and energetic) regulating human behavior. This model first appeared as an architecture of the Compact version of the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire (STQ-77) in 2007.<ref name=Manual/> The factor analysis of the STQ-77 data received on Russian and Canadian samples confirmed a separation between the factors related to motor-physical, social-verbal and mental aspects of behaviour.<ref name=Manual /><ref name=TroAmP />

Subsequently Trofimova reviewed studies in neurophysiology, neurochemistry, clinical psychology and kinesiology and linked functionality of neurotransmitters to the 12 traits of the STQ-77 model in a framework of a neurochemical model [[Functional Ensemble of Temperament]] <ref name=Rusal2018/><ref name=FET/><ref name=TroRob>{{cite journal|year=2016|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|last2=Robbins|first2=TW|title=Temperament and arousal systems: a new synthesis of differential psychology and functional neurochemistry|journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews|volume=64|pages=382–402|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.008}}</ref><ref name=Tro2018>{{cite journal|year=2018|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|title=Functionality vs dimensionality in psychological taxonomies, and a puzzle of emotional valence|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B|volume=373|issue=1744|pages=20170167|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0167|pmid=29483351|pmc=5832691}}</ref>

[[File: TrofimSTQ.JPG|thumb|500px|right||image-width=600|Trofimova’s model of the structure of temperament (“[[Functional Ensemble of Temperament]]")]]

The differences between Rusalov's and Trofimova's models are:
* the choice of a grouping of temperament traits by dynamical aspects (endurance, speed of integration and orientation), presented as three columns in the Figure;
* a presence of orientation-related traits in Trofimova's model which were not included in Rusalov's model. These traits describe the behavioural orientation of a person with preferences to specific types of reinforcers: sensations (Sensation Seeking), other people's state ([[Empathy]]) or knowledge about causes of natural processes (a trait named as Sensitivity to Probabilities).
* a different structure of the traits related to emotionality. FET considers emotionality traits as systems amplifying three dynamical aspects of behaviour presented in the three columns of the model. Amplification of orientation aspects emerges in the trait of [[Neuroticism]]; amplification of speed of integration (i.e. immature integration) emerges as [[Impulsivity]] and amplification of subjective feeling of energetic capacities emerges in the trait of Self-confidence.

Both models differentiate between physical and verbal-social aspects of well-determined activities (2 middle rows, 6 traits), and consider the traits related to the mental, intellectual aspects of activities (3 top traits of the FET model) as traits regulating behaviour in probabilistic, complex situations. Such differentiation is in line with the neuroanatomic localization of control over motor coordination (via parietal cortex), verbal functions (via left temporal cortex) and mental functions (via frontal cortex).

==Comparison to other models of temperament ==

Previous models of a structure of temperament did not distinguish among the traits regulating behaviour in different areas of activity. They consider, for example, energetic capacities in motor and social activities ([[extraversion]] or Strength of the nervous system) as based on a nonspecific general arousal of the nervous system. Many models of temperament and [[personality]] follow a so-called "general arousal" approach, considering only one general trait related to the energetic component of behaviour: "strength of excitation" ([[Ivan Pavlov|Pavlov]], [[Jan Strelau]]) "liveliness", “vigilance” ([[Raymond Cattell|Cattell]]), [[extraversion]] ([[Eysenck]], Five-Factor model in personality), "activity" ([[Heymans]], Buss & Plomin, 1984; Rothbart, et al., 2000), approach behavioural system ([[Gray]]), drive persistence (Telegen, 1985) or just "arousal""(Mehrabian, 1996). However, it appears "obvious" that a person who, for example, exhibits ability for long and intense communication is not necessarily able to sustain long and intense physical or mental work.

Moreover, early temperament models (offered by [[Ivan Pavlov|Pavlov]], [[Eysenck]], [[Gray]]) were originally developed through animal studies under relatively deterministic conditions using insensitive statistical methods that could not explain individual differences in complex probabilistic human behavior. These models therefore missed the social and mental specifics of human activities. The activity-specific approach suggested that the separate regulation of mental and physical activities within the nervous system should be reflected in a separation of traits related to different aspects of behaviour. This meant that animal models of temperament should be upgraded with the traits related to specifics of human activities.

Yet, here is an overlap of the temperament traits described within the Activity-specific and alternative models of temperament:

* Temperament traits of the FET model reflecting three formal-dynamical aspects of behaviour (energetic, dynamic/speed of integration, and orientational) are in line with the separation between energetic and mobility traits of temperament in experiments of the Pavlovian tradition ([[Ivan Pavlov|Pavlov]], [[Teplov]] & [[Vladimir Nebylitsyn|Nebylitsyn]], [[Rusalov]], [[Jan Strelau|Strelau]]).

* Regulatory traits of directionality/orientation described by the FET model are line with Jung's theory of Introversion and Extraversion. This theory describes first type as sensitivity, behavioural orientation to internal thinking (an analog of FET trait of Sensitivity to Probabilities) whereas the second Jungian type describes orientation to socialization with other people, or social type of sensitivity. FET model borrowed the idea about a biologically-based trait of Sensation seeking from [[Zuckerman]]`s concept of [[Sensation seeking]] (1994). The analogs of the temperament traits of [[Empathy]] and Sensation Seeking within the STQ-77/FET model were described by Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) as "toughmindedness" and "non-conformity" (facets of the Psychoticism factor); Cloninger (et al., 1994) ("novelty seeking"); S. Eysenck (1985) ("venturesomeness" and "empathy"), Taylor and Morrison (1992) ("sympathetic-indifferent", "responsive-inhibited", "subjective-objective"), Rothbart, Ahadi, and Evans (2000) ("orienting sensitivity"), and Baron-Cohen (2003) ("systemizing" and "empathizing").

* Similar to the FET model, several other temperament models included traits related to social activities that were separated from those related to physical (general) activities. The second version of [[Eysenck]]’s Extraversion scale of the EPI separated Sociability (as the energetic component of social activities) and [[Impulsivity]] items. In 1985, Eysenck and Eysenck upgraded their 2-factor model ([[extraversion]] and [[neuroticism]]), adding Psychoticism as a temperamental trait describing issues of compliance with social expectations. This model was again upgraded to the Eysenck Personality Profiler (EPP), which had 21 sub-traits grouped into the 3 initial [[Eysenck]] factors (1995). Buss and Plomin’s temperament study with infants was based on the EAS model, which included Activity and Sociability as separate factors (Buss & Plomin, 1984), and the same separation was offered in Zuckerman (2002) 5-factor model. Mehrabian (1996) offered a three-dimensional temperament model, which in addition to the two basic dimensions of "Arousal" and "Pleasure-Displeasure" (emotionality) had a dimension describing social behaviour as "Dominance-Submissiveness". Similar dimensions (Social activity and Dominance-Submissiveness) were used by Taylor and Morrison (1992).

* temperament traits regulating behaviour at two levels of situational emergency, associated with different degree of emotional response are classically described as two groups: Emotionality and Activity/Energy. Combination of two extremes in these two basic dimensions were used to explain [[Hippocrates]]-[[Galen]]' four classic temperament types since the end of the 18th century, in the work of [[Kant]], [[Heymans]], [[Wundt]], [[William Stern (psychologist)|Stern]], [[Ivan Pavlov|Pavlov]], [[Adler]], Stranger, Lasursky, [[Kretschmer]] and [[William Herbert Sheldon|Sheldon]]. After the functions of the ARAS and limbic systems were linked to physical and emotional arousal, [[Eysenck]] named this golden pair as 'Extraversion' and 'Neuroticism', followed by Thayer, Watson and Tellegen and the [[Big Five model]] of personality. Two emotional dispositions, [[Neuroticism]] and Self-Confidence were described from the 1970-80s in a number of Approach/Withdrawal (A/W) models (Akiskal, [[Gray]], Simonov, Thomas & Chess, Windle & Lerner).

Similarly to this approach, other models also described at least three levels of control. For example, Ortony, Norman, and Revelle differentiated between “reactive” (by analogy with Emotionality traits), “routine” (by analogy with “deterministic”, or well-learned traits) and “reflective” (by analogy with “contextual”, or “probabilistic” traits) levels of behavioural regulation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Ortony|first1=A.|display-authors=et al|year=2005|title= Affect and proto-affect in effective functioning|journal = J. M. Fellous & M. A. Arbib (Eds.) Who needs emotions? The brain meets the machine. New York: Oxford University Press|pages= 95–199}}</ref>

==Critiques and upgrades==

The benefits of activity-specific approach of Rusalov's model of temperament do not mean, however, that this model is complete.
Several factor analytic studies of the STQ consistently showed that the three Emotionality scales of the STQ (Motor Emotionality, Social Emotionality and Intellectual Emotionality) were not as activity-specific as the Ergonicity (endurance), Plasticity and Tempo scales and basically constituted one factor <ref name=Rusal97 /><ref name=Manual /><ref name= Dumenci96 /><ref name = Bishop93 /><ref name = Bishop2004 /><ref>Dumenci, L. (1995) The relation between the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire and other personality domains. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55, 850-857. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage</ref>

Trofimova suggested that Rusalov's 12-trait temperament model can be re-worked into another 12-trait temperament model that unifies the former Rusalov's three traits of Emotionality in one dimension of [[neuroticism]]. Moreover, Trofimova pointed out that intellectual activity uses analytic differentiation of contextual information whereas a tempo of activity uses more explicit, readily available and well-defined behavioural elements. For this reason, the scale of Intellectual Tempo within Rusalov's model might reflect a tempo of pre-learned cognitive elements but not an analytic activity. Trofimova suggested that only the scales of only Motor and Social-verbal Tempo (but Intellectual Tempo) should stay in the model whereas the speed of generation of less-defined behavioural integration should be called Plasticity. By the same logic, Motor and Social Plasticity represent manipulation of well-defined behavioural elements and these traits describe therefore tempo- and not plasticity-related aspects. For this reason Trofimova suggested to consider only one and not three types of Plasticity and two types of Tempo.<ref name=Manual /><ref name=TroOpen /><ref name=TroAmP /><ref name=FET /> Rusalov's model was also missing the scales of Impulsivity, Self-Confidence, [[sensation seeking]], and [[empathy]] – but these scales were added in the STQ-77 and the Functional Ensemble of Temperament model.

==Applications ==

Activity-specific approach in temperament was employed in:


⚫
The benefits and novelty of the [[activity-specific approach]] developed by Rusalov were that it offered a differentiation between traits that was missed in previous models of [[temperament]] and [[personality]]. This approach, i.e. differentiation between physical, verbal and mental aspects of activities was used in the neurochemical model of [[Functional Ensemble of Temperament]] developed in 2007-2014 <ref name=Rusal2018/><ref name=RusTro11>{{cite journal|vauthors=Rusalov VM, Trofimova IN|year=2011|title=O predstavlennosti tipov psichicheskoy deatelnosti v raslichnih modelyah temperamenta [On representation of psychological types in several models of temperament]|journal=Psychological Journal [Psichologicheskii Zjurnal]|volume=32|issue=3|pages=74-84}}</ref>.
* organizational psychology in vocational assessments related to recommended placement of staff and fitness for various jobs.<ref name=Manual />
⚫
Another benefits and novelty of the [[activity-specific approach]] was that it integrated the principle of habit formation in behavioural regulation into the structure of psychological individual differences <ref>{{cite journal|year=2018|vauthors=Uher J, Trofimova I, Sulis W, Netter P, Pessoa L, Posner M, Rothbart M, Rusalov V, Petersen I, Schmidt L|title=Diversity in action: Exchange of perspectives and reflections on taxonomies of individual differences|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0172|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biology|volume=373|issue=1744|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0172}}</ref>. Other models of personality and temperament did not differentiate between traits related to probabilistic and deterministic aspects of behavioural regulation. Meanwhile, it is well-known in neuroscience that behaviour in complex, probabilistic and novel situations is regulated by different ([[neocortex]]) systems than behaviour in learned or simple situations (regulated more by [[basal ganglia]]). Rusalov demonstrated that this distinction is applicable to the structure of temperament. For example, when it comes to Endurance, Intellectual Endurance relates to capacities for prolonged mental activities whereas Physical (Motor) Endurance in his model relates to capacities for stereotypical, well-learned physical work. Similarly, the trait of Plasticity in Rusalov's model relates to activation of the [[frontal cortex]] controlling the ease of integration of new programs of actions whereas the trait of Tempo relates to the speed of integration of previously learned or simple actions.


Neurophysiological (cortical) systems regulating probabilistic aspects of actions gradually pass control to the "habit" systems (in [[basal ganglia]] when an individual learns the action or already has sufficient familiarity with the program of actions.
* clinical psychology as a framework for new versions of [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]] or [[ICD]]. Clinical studies conducted the FET/STQ-77 models showed that the activity-specific model of temperament matches the structure of symptoms of mental disorders described in main classifications much better than other temperament models, and is capable of differentiating between anxiety and depression<ref>{{cite journal|year=2016|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|last2=Sulis|first2=W|title= Benefits of distinguishing between physical and social-verbal aspects of behaviour: an example of generalized anxiety|journal= Frontiers in Psychology|volume=7|pages=338|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00338}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2016|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|last2=Sulis|first2=W|title= A study of the coupling of FET temperament traits with major depression.|journal= Frontiers in Psychology|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01848}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2016|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|last2=Christiansen|first2=J.|title= Coupling of temperament traits with mental illness in four age groups|journal= Psychological Reports|volume=118|issue = 2|pages=387–412|PMID=27154370|doi=10.1177/0033294116639430}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2018|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|last2=Sulis|first2=W|title=There is more to mental illness than negative affect: comprehensive temperament profiles in depression and generalized anxiety|journal=BMC Psychiatry|volume=18:125|issue=1|pages=125|doi=10.1186/s12888-018-1695-x|pmid=29747614|pmc=5946468}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2018|author=Sulis W|title=Assessing the continuum between temperament and affective illness: psychiatric and mathematical perspectives|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0168|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biology|volume=373|issue=1744|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0168}}</ref>


Traits identified by the STQ were found to have strong genetic component <ref>{{cite journal|author=Biryukov SD|year=1992|title=Psychogenetic study of plasticity as a temperamental trait|journal=Psychological Journal (Psikhologicheskii Zjurnal)|volume=13|issue=5|pages=64–71}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Kornienko DS|year=2006|title=Characteristics of integral individuality from the perspective of psychogenetic approach|journal=Psychology of Individuality. High Economic School/series Psychology. Moscow}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vorobieva|first1=EV|year=2004|title=Modern psychogenetic studies of intelligence and theory of motivation for achievements|url=|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=3|issue=|pages=53–59 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Rusalov VM, Galimov RA|year=2002|title=On heredity of formal-dynamical properties of individuality|journal=Proceedings of the Second International Luria Memorial Conference. Moscow}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vorobyeva|first1=E.V.|display-authors=etal|year=2015|title=The relationships between the achievement motivations and temperaments of psychology students with different lateral organization profiles|journal=Psychology in Russia: State of Art|volume=8|pages=32|doi=10.11621/pir.2015.0104}}</ref>. Specific temperament profile as measured by Rusalov's model was also linked to creativity <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rusalov|first1=V.M.|last2=Poltavtzeva|first2=L. I.|year=1997|title=Temperament as a prerequisite of creative abilities|journal=Pavlov Journal of Higher Nervous Activity|volume=47|issue=3|pages=451–460}}</ref> and psychiatric disorders <ref>{{cite journal|year=2018|last1=Trofimova|first1=IN|last2=Sulis|first2=W|title=There is more to mental illness than negative affect: comprehensive temperament profiles in depression and generalized anxiety|journal=BMC Psychiatry|volume=18:125|issue=1|pages=125|doi=10.1186/s12888-018-1695-x|pmid=29747614|pmc=5946468}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2018|author=Sulis, W.|title=Assessing the continuum between temperament and affective illness: psychiatric and mathematical perspectives|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0168|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biology|volume=373|issue=1744|doi=10.1098/rstb.2017.0168}}</ref>.
* differential psychology and general psychological assessment of most consistent, biologically based traits.<ref name=Manual/>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{reflist}}


==External links==
==External links==
* [http://fhs.mcmaster.ca/cilab/PS/PS-STQ.htm / Structure of Temperament Questionnaire]
* [http://fhs.mcmaster.ca/cilab/PS/PS-STQ.htm Structure of Temperament Questionnaire]


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Revision as of 10:15, 28 October 2019

Vladimir Rusalov
Vladimir Rusalov 2007
Born
Vladimir Mikhaylovich Rusalov

(1939-10-05)5 October 1939
Kislyar, Dagestan, Russia
CitizenshipRussian
Alma materLomonosov Moscow State University
Known forStructure of Temperament Questionnaire
Scientific career
Fieldspsychology, psychophysiology, temperament, individual differences, psychometrics
InstitutionsInstitute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences
Doctoral advisorsAlexander Luria, Vladimir Nebylitsyn

Vladimir Mikhaylovich Rusalov (born 5 October 1939) - Russian psychologist and anthropologist who was first to develop a temperament model within the Activity-specific approach. He is best known for his work in psychology of personality, temperament [1][2][3] [4] and differential psychophysiology[5][6].

Biography

Rusalov was born in Kizlyar (Dagestan, Russia). In 1963 he graduated from the Department of Biology (specialty of Anthropology) Lomonosov Moscow State University. In 1963-1972 he was working as a junior and then senior researcher in Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Pedagogical Sciences under the supervision of Boris Teplov and Vladimir Nebylitsyn. His background in anthropology and interest in individual differences attracted attention of neuropsychologist Alexander Luria who became Rusalov's Ph.D. supervisor. The title of his Ph.D. was “Human constitution and absolute thresholds within the nervous system”, a degree was received in 1967 from this Institute of Psychology. During his Ph.D. program he met and collaborated with Jan Strelau, who was also a Ph.D. student in Vladimir Nebylitsyn laboratory at that time.

From 1972 to the present time he works as a scientist in the Institute of Psychology under Russian Academy of Sciences. In 1972-2004 he was a Head of the Laboratory of Differential Psychophysiology (renamed later as Nebylitsyn laboratory of individuality). In 1982 he received his a full Doctorate degree for his work “Biological basis of psychological individual differences”. This work included a comparison of the EEG recordings and performance on various tasks of individuals with different endurance, tempo, plasticity and emotionality [5][7][8][9][10]. In 2004-2009 he was working as a Leading Researcher in Nebylitsyn’s Laboratory of Individuality. From 2009 to present he works as a Leading Researcher in Drujinin Laboratory of Abilities and Mental Resources, Institute of Psychology under Russian Academy of Sciences [11]. He also carries a status of Professor teaching psychology in Moscow universities and colleges since 1992. He was also an invited professor in several American Universities.

Scientific contribution: first activity-specific model of temperament

Rusalov works in the field of psychophysiology, psycho diagnostics, personality psychology and differential psychology for over 40 years. His Ph.D. program was based on Luria's interest in neurophysiological bases of individual differences and on the experimental approach of Teplov and Vladimir Nebylitsyn who continued Pavlov’s studies of the typology of nervous systems [12][13].

In his own studies Rusalov recorded EEGs and measured evoked potentials, absolute thresholds in visual, auditory, and tactile modalities, strength of excitation in auditory and visual modalities, mobility in auditory and visual modalities, problem-solving in deterministic and probabilistic conditions, the speed of problem solving using a variety of tests on intelligence, time spent attempting unsolvable problems and the number of times that a subject gave up while attempting to solve a task [5][8][9][10].

From these experiments Rusalov concluded that temperamental traits are activity-specific: the energetic level or tempo of performance might be different for the same individual in physical, social or intellectual activities, therefore, the aspects of the performance of these activities should be assessed and analyzed separately. Rusalov suggested that temperament traits be assessed using four scales: [14][2][4][6]

  • (1) ergonicity (endurance, ability for prolonged work),
  • (2) plasticity,
  • (3) tempo of activity, and
  • (4) emotionality,

each evaluated separately in three areas of activity: social, physical and intellectual [15]. Mental (intellectual) activities are considered to be those which involve the greatest degree of probabilistic behavior and which require conscious attention [16][17][18]. This 4 (traits) x 3 (types of activities) model of temperament was the first model within the activity-specific approach[19][20].

Based on this model, Rusalov developed the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire (STQ)[2][3][4][6][14][21][22]. The first version of the English version of the STQ came out in 1989 [14] and had in total 8 scales: four scales Ergonicity (endurance, the ability to keep intensive work), Plasticity (or flexibility, the ability to effectively switch between tasks or to change the way of performance), Tempo, and Emotionality assessed in two types of aspects of activity, physical-motor (Motor) and social-verbal (such as reading, writing, speaking, communication). Then an Extended version of the STQ was offered (1997) that included a third set of four scales to measure aspects of intellectual activity[2][4]. His initial and extended versions of Structure of Temperament Questionnaire[14][2][3] became the most widely used in Russian Psychology [4][23][24][25][26] in the practice of personnel selection, personality studies, educational psychology and clinical psychology in the past 20 years.

The benefits and novelty of the activity-specific approach developed by Rusalov were that it offered a differentiation between traits that was missed in previous models of temperament and personality. This approach, i.e. differentiation between physical, verbal and mental aspects of activities was used in the neurochemical model of Functional Ensemble of Temperament developed in 2007-2014 [20][27]. Another benefits and novelty of the activity-specific approach was that it integrated the principle of habit formation in behavioural regulation into the structure of psychological individual differences [28]. Other models of personality and temperament did not differentiate between traits related to probabilistic and deterministic aspects of behavioural regulation. Meanwhile, it is well-known in neuroscience that behaviour in complex, probabilistic and novel situations is regulated by different (neocortex) systems than behaviour in learned or simple situations (regulated more by basal ganglia). Rusalov demonstrated that this distinction is applicable to the structure of temperament. For example, when it comes to Endurance, Intellectual Endurance relates to capacities for prolonged mental activities whereas Physical (Motor) Endurance in his model relates to capacities for stereotypical, well-learned physical work. Similarly, the trait of Plasticity in Rusalov's model relates to activation of the frontal cortex controlling the ease of integration of new programs of actions whereas the trait of Tempo relates to the speed of integration of previously learned or simple actions.

Neurophysiological (cortical) systems regulating probabilistic aspects of actions gradually pass control to the "habit" systems (in basal ganglia when an individual learns the action or already has sufficient familiarity with the program of actions.

Traits identified by the STQ were found to have strong genetic component [29][30][31][32][33]. Specific temperament profile as measured by Rusalov's model was also linked to creativity [34] and psychiatric disorders [35][36].

References

  1. ^ Rusalov VM (1985). "On nature of temperament and its place in structure of human individual differences [О природе темперамента и его месте в структуре индивидуальных свойств человека]". Questions of Psychology [Voprosi Psychologii]. 1: 19–32.
  2. ^ a b c d e Rusalov, VM (1997). Oprosnik formal’no-dynamicheskih svoystv individual’nosti. [Questionnaire of formal-dynamical properties of individual. Manual. Moscow: IPRAN.
  3. ^ a b c Rusalov, VM (2004). Formal`no-dynamicheskiye svoystva individual`nosti (temperament) [Formal-dynamical properties of individual (temperament)]. Russian Academy of Sciences, IPAN Press: Moscow.
  4. ^ a b c d e Rusalov, VM; Trofimova, IN (2007). Structure of Temperament and Its Measurement. Toronto, Canada: Psychological Services Press.
  5. ^ a b c Rusalov VM (1979). Biologicheskiye osnovi individual’no-psichologicheskih razlichiy [Biological basis of individual psychological differences] Moscow: Nauka Russia.
  6. ^ a b c Rusalov VM (2012). Temperament within the structure of human individuality: studies in differential psychophysiology and psychology [Темперамент в структуре индивидуальности человека: дифференциально-психофизиологические и психологические исследования]. Moscow: Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences.
  7. ^ Rusalov VM (1988). Psychological individual differences and bio-electric activity of the brain (Ed.) [Индивидуально-психологические различия и биоэлектрическая активность мозга]. Moscow: Nauka.
  8. ^ a b Rusalov, VM; Kalashnikov, SV. (1988). "On the correlation of psychic plasticity with the integral factors of human brain bioelectrical activity". Rusalov, V. M. (Ed.) Individual`no -psikhologicheskie razlichiya i bioelektricheskaya aktivnost` mozga cheloveka [Individual Psychological Differences and Human Brain Bioelectrical Activity]Moscow: Nauka. 1: 5–55.
  9. ^ a b Rusalov VM, Kalashnikova IG (1992). "Psychological testing of temperament". Journal of Higher Nervous Activity[Zhurnal Vysshey Nervnoy Deyatelnosti]. 42 (1): 44.
  10. ^ a b Rusalov VM, Rusalova MN, Kalashnikova IG, Stepanov VG, Strelnikova, TN (1993). "Bioelectrical activity of the brain in subjects with different types of temperament". Journal of Higher Nervous Activity[Zhurnal Vysshey Nervnoy Deyatelnosti]. 43 (3): 530–542.
  11. ^ http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n80108568/
  12. ^ Teplov, B.M.; Nebylitsyn, VD (1963). "Experimental study of properties of the nervous system in man". Journal of Highest Nervous Activity. 13: 789–797.
  13. ^ {{cite book|author=Nebylitsyn, V.D.|year=1972|title=Fundamental properties of the human nervous system. NY: Plenum
  14. ^ a b c d Rusalov, VM (1989). "Motor and communicative aspects of human temperament: a new questionnaire of the structure of temperament". Personality and Individual Differences. 10: 817–827. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(89)90017-2.
  15. ^ Rusalov VM, Rusalova MN, Strelnikova EV (2000). "Temperament cheloveka i osobennosti vibora mejdu veroyatnostyu dostijeniya tseli i ee tzennostyu [Temperament of man and peculiarities of choice between the probability of goal achievement and its value]". Zhurnal Vysshey Nervnoy Deyatelnosti [Journal of Higher Nervous Activity]. 50 (3): 388.
  16. ^ Rusalov, V.M.; Parilis, S.E. (1991). "Temperament and particularities of cognitive system of personality". Psychological Journal [Psichologicheskii Zjurnal]. 12 (1): 118–123.
  17. ^ Rusalov, VM; Naumova, ER (1999). "On the relationship between general abilities and "intellectual" scales of temperament". Psikhologicheskiy Zhurnal [Psychological Journal]. 20 (1): 70–77.
  18. ^ Rusalov, VM; Dudin, SI (1995). "Temperament i intellect: obchie b specificheskiye factori rasvitiya [Temperament and Intelligence: general and specific factors of development]". Psikhologicheskiy Zhurnal [Psychological Journal]. 16 (5): 12–23.
  19. ^ Rusalov VM (2005). "Interaction of temperament and character in the structure of individuality [Взаимосвязь характера и темперамента в структуре индивидуальности]". Psychological Journal [Psichologicheskii Zjurnal]. 3: 65–73.
  20. ^ a b Rusalov, VM (2018). "Functional systems and activity-specific approaches to taxonomy of psychological individual differences". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biology. 383(1744). doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0166.
  21. ^ Rusalov VM (1986). "Theoretical problems of construction of special theory of human individuality [Теоретические проблемы построения специальной теории индивидуальности человека]". Psychological Journal [Psichologicheskii Zjurnal]. 4: 23–35.
  22. ^ Rusalov VM (1989). "Natural precursors of individual behaviour as factors of human individuality [Природные предпосылки индивидуального поведения как фактор становления индивидуальности человека]". Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. 3: 403–424. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  23. ^ Бурлачук Л.Ф. (2006) Психодиагностика. Санкт-Петербург: Питер.
  24. ^ Карелин А. (2007) Большая энциклопедия психологических тестов. Издательство: Москва, Эксмо.
  25. ^ Посохова, С.Т. Соловьева, С.Л. (2008) Настольная книга практического психолога. - Москва: АСТ; Санкт-Петербург: Сова
  26. ^ Романова Е.С. (2005) Психодиагностика: Учебное пособие. Санкт-Петербург: Питер.
  27. ^ Rusalov VM, Trofimova IN (2011). "O predstavlennosti tipov psichicheskoy deatelnosti v raslichnih modelyah temperamenta [On representation of psychological types in several models of temperament]". Psychological Journal [Psichologicheskii Zjurnal]. 32 (3): 74–84.
  28. ^ Uher J, Trofimova I, Sulis W, Netter P, Pessoa L, Posner M, Rothbart M, Rusalov V, Petersen I, Schmidt L (2018). "Diversity in action: Exchange of perspectives and reflections on taxonomies of individual differences". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biology. 373 (1744). doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0172.
  29. ^ Biryukov SD (1992). "Psychogenetic study of plasticity as a temperamental trait". Psychological Journal (Psikhologicheskii Zjurnal). 13 (5): 64–71.
  30. ^ Kornienko DS (2006). "Characteristics of integral individuality from the perspective of psychogenetic approach". Psychology of Individuality. High Economic School/series Psychology. Moscow.
  31. ^ Vorobieva, EV (2004). "Modern psychogenetic studies of intelligence and theory of motivation for achievements". Journal of Applied Psychology. 3: 53–59.
  32. ^ Rusalov VM, Galimov RA (2002). "On heredity of formal-dynamical properties of individuality". Proceedings of the Second International Luria Memorial Conference. Moscow.
  33. ^ Vorobyeva, E.V.; et al. (2015). "The relationships between the achievement motivations and temperaments of psychology students with different lateral organization profiles". Psychology in Russia: State of Art. 8: 32. doi:10.11621/pir.2015.0104.
  34. ^ Rusalov, V.M.; Poltavtzeva, L. I. (1997). "Temperament as a prerequisite of creative abilities". Pavlov Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. 47 (3): 451–460.
  35. ^ Trofimova, IN; Sulis, W (2018). "There is more to mental illness than negative affect: comprehensive temperament profiles in depression and generalized anxiety". BMC Psychiatry. 18:125 (1): 125. doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1695-x. PMC 5946468. PMID 29747614.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  36. ^ Sulis, W. (2018). "Assessing the continuum between temperament and affective illness: psychiatric and mathematical perspectives". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biology. 373 (1744). doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0168.
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