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Food deserts in the United States

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Causes section draft to add to "Food Deserts"

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Food deserts have primarily been studied in Western countries due to limitations around applying the retail access definition to different communities with varying cultures, food sourcing strategies, and environments around the world[1].

A USDA study observed that low access to supermarkets in the U.S. are affected by various characteristics of neighborhoods and the geography of a community[2]. The study cited income gaps, segregation by race, socioeconomic status, transport availability and infrastructure, rurality, segregation by income, and percentages of vacant homes in a community as variable factors that determined the degree of communities' access to supermarkets[2].

Within the United States, academic scholars have proposed several different causes behind the formation of food deserts. One proposed theory behind the emergence of food deserts (defined as areas with low supermarket access) is the expansion of large chain supermarkets that displaced smaller food stores from neighborhoods. Scholars cite the greater appeal of large chain supermarkets to individuals because of the wider variety and better values of food they offer as well as longer business hours compared to smaller, independently or family-owned grocery stores, leading to decreased demand and support for smaller food stores[3]. The expansion of large chain supermarkets and loss of smaller food stores can create certain areas where only individuals with transportation can access, creating areas of disproportionate retail access that some scholars characterize as a food desert. Another proposed theory behind the formation of food deserts in the US is the shift in inner-city demographics in the 1970s-1980s. During this time period, many higher-income households moved from urban to suburban areas, lowering the median income in inner-city areas and causing supermarkets to close in these regions as a result[3]. In three of the biggest inner-city areas in the U.S, over half of the supermarkets were reported to have closed due to this shift in demographics[3].

Supermarket redlining has also been proposed as a cause of lower access to supermarkets that is characteristic of some scholarly definitions of food deserts. The concept describes how large chain supermarkets tend to relocate out of or refrain from opening stores in inner-city areas or impoverished neighborhoods due to perceived urban and economic obstacles, decreasing certain communities' access to supermarkets [4]. Businesses' perceived urban obstacles include decreased demand compared to suburban neighborhoods; higher land, wage, and utility costs; and increased crime in urban areas [4]. Economic factors such as supply and demand that businesses take into consideration are affected by a complex web of interconnected factors (eg. demand for fresh produce is affected by people's socioeconomic status and cultural upbringing). In addition, as several studies have shown the discrepancies in the number of supermarkets in predominately black neighborhoods compared to predominately white neighborhoods, the characteristics of a neighborhood population are suggested to be motivations behind some business' reluctance to open in certain neighborhoods[4]. The decreased availability of supermarkets in certain communities increases the distance people have to travel to get food, and further limiting food access for for people without access to reliable transportation.

References

[2][3][4][5][1]

  1. ^ a b Davies, Gemma; Frausin, Gina; Parry, Luke (2017-07-04). "Are There Food Deserts in Rainforest Cities?". Annals of the American Association of Geographers. 107 (4): 794–811. doi:10.1080/24694452.2016.1271307. ISSN 2469-4452.
  2. ^ a b c Ver Ploeg, Michele; Breneman, Vince; Farrigan, Tracey; Hamrick, Karen; Hopkins, David; Kaufman, Phillip; Lin, Biing-Hwan; Nord, Mark; Smith, Travis A.; Williams, Ryan; Kinnison, Kelly; Olander, Carol; Singh, Anita; Tuckermanty, Elizabeth; Ver Ploeg, Michele (2009). "Access to Affordable and Nutritious Food: Measuring and Understanding Food Deserts and Their Consequences: Report to Congress". doi:10.22004/AG.ECON.292130. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ^ a b c d Walker, Renee E.; Keane, Christopher R.; Burke, Jessica G. (September 2010). "Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature". Health and Place. 16 (5): 876–884. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013.
  4. ^ a b c d Zhang, Mengyao; Ghosh, Debarchana (February 2016). "Spatial Supermarket Redlining and Neighborhood Vulnerability: A Case Study of Hartford, Connecticut". Transactions in GIS. 20 (1): 79–100. doi:10.1111/tgis.12142. ISSN 1361-1682.
  5. ^ Iwama, Nobuyuki; Asakawa, Tatsuto; Tanaka, Koichi; Sasaki, Midori; Komaki, Nobuhiko; Ikeda, Masashi (2021). Urban Food Deserts in Japan. International Perspectives in Geography. Vol. 15. Singapore: Springer Singapore. ISBN 978-981-16-0892-6.

Alternative frameworks to food deserts section draft to add to "Food Deserts"

Several studies have pointed out potential limitations of the applying the concept of food deserts to addressing issues of food disparity and unhealthy food consumption, particularly in non-Western countries.

As food deserts is a concept that originated in the U.K. and is primarily studied in Anglo-Saxon countries, several scholars have questioned the applicability of food deserts to countries in the Global South. Scholars point out that food deserts are typically defined as a lack of access to supermarkets (spatial focus) and that its framework operates with the assumption that increased supermarkets means increased availability of healthy foods[1]. Some scholars argue that this current framework for identifying food deserts fails to consider additional spatial and non-spatial factors that contribute to household's food access and incorrectly assumes an increase in the number of retail food options will directly mitigate issues of food access and food insecurity within all local food systems[2][1]. While the traditional framework assumes homogeneity between people's experiences in their local food system, scholars cite additional factors such as travel time, crime, food acquisition outside an individuals' home neighborhood, employment, income, and other household-specific behaviors that influence people's access to food[2]. In addition, several studies have highlighted alternative food sources that deem supermarket access less relevant in transitioning countries such as Africa and rainforest cities such as Brazil[3]. For example, studies highlight that alternative food acquisition sources such as food vendors, small shops, open-air markets, urban agriculture, and food transfer between households are more frequently visited than retail food options in Africa's cities[1][2]. Likewise, a study in Brazil highlights the critical role of non-retail sources such as fishing, farming, and home gardens in people's food security and access[3]. Due to the overlapping, context-specific factors unique to different local food economies that influence household food access and food security, some scholars emphasize the need to adjust the definition and framework of food deserts to specific contexts in order to effectively and holistically address food insecurity, nutrition disparities, and food access issues in developing countries[3].

Several scholars have also proposed shortcomings in the current definition and framework of food deserts in the U.S. when working to lessen unhealthy food consumption, diet disparities between different communities, and food insecurity. Some researchers criticize the primary focus of current food desert frameworks - lack of retail access - as a one-dimensional over-simplification of food security and access issues that fail to address structural issues to reduce unhealthy food consumption and diet disparities[4]. Likewise, some scholars argue that the current definition frames food access as a binary problem (either you are in a food desert or not), which overstates the problem of space when food access is a complex, multi-dimensional problem involving other critical factors such as transportation infrastructure, income, time, and consumer behavior[5]. Several researchers have also cited longitudinal studies that do not observe a connection between food access and health outcomes and highlight data that suggests increased retail access does not necessarily improve the dietary choices and subsequent health outcomes of a community[6]. Alternatively, scholars propose a model that addresses the complex intersection of individual behavior and food choice with social and political forces to solve issues of hunger, food security, and food access issues[4]. Some scholars suggest empowering citizens to co-create local food systems, improved school nutrition programs, and reforms to food assistance programs as potential alternative methods to addressing diet disparities and food insecurity issues[6][4].

References

[6][4][7][5][1][2][3]

  1. ^ a b c d Battersby, Jane; Crush, Jonathan (June 2014). "Africa's Urban Food Deserts". Urban Forum. 25 (2): 143–151. doi:10.1007/s12132-014-9225-5. ISSN 1015-3802.
  2. ^ a b c d Battersby, Jane (June 2012). "Beyond the food desert: finding ways to speak about urban food security in south africa". Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography. 94 (2): 141–159. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0467.2012.00401.x. ISSN 0435-3684.
  3. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ a b c d Sadler, Richard Casey; Gilliland, Jason Andrew; Arku, Godwin (June 2016). "Theoretical issues in the 'food desert' debate and ways forward". GeoJournal. 81 (3): 443–455. doi:10.1007/s10708-015-9634-6. ISSN 0343-2521.
  5. ^ a b Widener, Michael J. (September 2018). "Spatial access to food: Retiring the food desert metaphor". Physiology & Behavior. 193: 257–260. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.02.032.
  6. ^ a b c Block, Jason P.; Subramanian, S. V. (2015-12-08). "Moving Beyond "Food Deserts": Reorienting United States Policies to Reduce Disparities in Diet Quality". PLOS Medicine. 12 (12): e1001914. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001914. ISSN 1549-1676.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  7. ^ Bitler, Marianne; Haider, Steven J. (2010-11-02). "An economic view of food deserts in the united states". Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. 30 (1): 153–176. doi:10.1002/pam.20550. ISSN 0276-8739.

Edits to the "Nutrition" section of the "Food Deserts" article

A key element of a food desert is its lack of healthy and nutritious foods. As food deserts are typically defined by household's decreased access to supermarkets and healthy food acquisition sources, areas defined as food deserts tend to have a greater number of fast food restaurants and convenient stores that are often more accessible and affordable for households[1]. Convenient/corner stores and fast food restaurants frequently carry more processed foods than fresh, unprocessed foods. The widespread availability of processed foods in food deserts poses increased health risks to residents: a high dietary intake of ultra-processed foods, which contains higher contents of sodium, salts, sugars, and additives than fresh foods, has been consistently linked to higher risks of negative health and metabolic outcomes [2][3].

Corner stores often only carry processed food, which eliminates the choice of eating fresh food. Processed food encompasses any type of food that has been modified from its original state from washing, cooking, or adding preservative or other additives. Because it is such a general category, processed foods can be broken down into four more specific groups: "unprocessed or minimally processed foods, processed culinary ingredients, processed foods (PFs), and ultra-processed foods and drinks (UPFDs)."

The original motivation for processing foods was to preserve them so that there would be less food waste and enough food to feed the population. By canning or drying fruits and vegetables to try to preserve them, some of the nutrients are lost and oftentimes sugar is added, which makes the product less healthy than when it was fresh. Similarly, with meats that are dried, salt is added to help in preservation, but that results in the meat has a higher sodium content. The ultra-processed foods were made not to be nutrient-rich but rather to satisfy cravings with high amounts of salts or sugars, which results in people eating more than they should of food that has no nutritional value. On the other hand, processed foods may be artificially enriched with food additives to include nutrients that many people are lacking in their diets, which may, in some cases, make up to some extent for a lack of fresh food. Some nutritionists may recommend eliminating processed foods from diets, but others see it as a way to reduce food scarcity and malnutrition. In 1990, the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act required nutrition facts labelson food so that people could see what and how much of something they were consuming. With that labeling, some companies listed things that were not added on the front, but they rarely added information about nutrients they added. Some scientists and nutritionists are looking into ways to create affordable processed foods that are high in essential nutrients and vitamins and also taste good so that the consumer is inclined to buy them.

Impacts to community health section draft

The concept of deprivation amplification has been proposed as an explanation of how food deserts can perpetuate poor health outcomes for a community: scholars suggest that residents of low-income neighborhoods' exposure to inadequate and unhealthy food environments can increase their individual risk factors for disease and poor health[4].

In addition, past literature has suggested that lower retail access to supermarkets is linked to select cardiovascular health outcomes, and some studies have shown that increased access to supermarkets lowers individuals' risk of obesity with opposite outcomes for convenience stores[4][5]. However, many scholars have highlighted the limitations of these studies due to their localization, short time frame, focus on a singular health outcome (people's health are assessed through multiple measures of health, not just one factor), and inability to account for all the social determinants of individuals' health outcomes[4][5].

Scholars have asserted that while these studies can give insight into how food accessibility can contribute to health outcomes, because of the intersecting social determinants of health that contribute to individual health outcomes, the results cannot be interpreted as a casual relationship between food deserts and poor health outcomes[5]. Food deserts are just one aspect of people's individual food environments: food environments are comprised of the intersecting spheres of community food options (supermarkets, small stores, etc.); work/school/home food options (school food, home purchases); and individual food intake, all of which determine an individual's health outcome[6]. Likewise, individual characteristics (demographics, socioeconomic status, etc), physical environment (retail access, transportation, etc), and households' social environments (cultural/social norms, etc) all impact diet, which is a determinant of health outcomes and a factor in certain diseases[4]. Furthermore, an individual's food environment is one of many social determinants of health that contribute to his/her health outcomes: social determinants of health such as transportation infrastructure, urban planning, the built environment, and local policies also contribute to a person's health outcome[4]. Due to the complex intersecting factors of social determinants of health, studies have suggested that a community and individual's socioeconomic status (resource and economic deprivation) are more associated with negative health outcomes, rather than a lack of food access that is characteristic of food deserts[5].

Food Deserts in the USA Lead Draft

Food deserts are generally defined as regions that lack access to supermarkets and affordable, healthy foods, particularly in low-income communities[7]. According to the USDA's most recent report on food access, as of 2017, approximately 39.5 million people - 12.9% of the US population - lived in low-income and low-food access[8].

In urban areas, higher levels of poverty have been associated with lower access to supermarkets[9]. In addition, food access has been shown to disproportionately affect Black communities: several studies have observed that neighborhoods with higher proportions of Black residents tend to have less supermarkets and farther retail access, disproportionately affecting food security levels within the community[9].

While food deserts have historically been assessed through geographical measures of food access, aspects of a region's food environment, built environment, and socioeconomic characteristics are becoming increasingly recognized in defining and identifying food deserts[10]. The USDA measures food access across different geographical regions by considering different indicators of food access such as proximity to a store, individual-level resources, and neighborhood-level structures that influence a household's access to food[11].




References

[1][2][3]

  1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ a b Chen, Xiaojia; Zhang, Zhang; Yang, Huijie; Qiu, Peishan; Wang, Haizhou; Wang, Fan; Zhao, Qiu; Fang, Jun; Nie, Jiayan (December 2020). "Consumption of ultra-processed foods and health outcomes: a systematic review of epidemiological studies". Nutrition Journal. 19 (1). doi:10.1186/s12937-020-00604-1. ISSN 1475-2891.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  3. ^ a b Walker, Renee E.; Keane, Christopher R.; Burke, Jessica G. (September 2010). "Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature". Health & Place. 16 (5): 876–884. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013.
  4. ^ a b c d e Ver Ploeg, Michele; Breneman, Vince; Farrigan, Tracey; Hamrick, Karen; Hopkins, David; Kaufman, Phillip; Lin, Biing-Hwan; Nord, Mark; Smith, Travis A.; Williams, Ryan; Kinnison, Kelly; Olander, Carol; Singh, Anita; Tuckermanty, Elizabeth; Ver Ploeg, Michele (2009). "Access to Affordable and Nutritious Food: Measuring and Understanding Food Deserts and Their Consequences: Report to Congress". doi:10.22004/AG.ECON.292130. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  5. ^ a b c d Testa, Alexander; Jackson, Dylan B; Semenza, Daniel C; Vaughn, Michael G (January 2021). "Food deserts and cardiovascular health among young adults". Public Health Nutrition. 24 (1): 117–124. doi:10.1017/S1368980020001536. ISSN 1368-9800.
  6. ^ The Public Health Effects of Food Deserts: Workshop Summary. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 2009-06-02. doi:10.17226/12623. ISBN 978-0-309-13728-7.
  7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Ver Ploeg, Michele; Dutko, Paula; Breneman, Vince (2014-11-17). "Measuring Food Access and Food Deserts for Policy Purposes†". Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy. 37 (2): 205–225. doi:10.1093/aepp/ppu035. ISSN 2040-5790.
  9. ^ a b Bower, Kelly M.; Thorpe, Roland J.; Rohde, Charles; Gaskin, Darrell J. (January 2014). "The intersection of neighborhood racial segregation, poverty, and urbanicity and its impact on food store availability in the United States". Preventive Medicine. 58: 33–39. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2013.10.010. PMC 3970577. PMID 24161713.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  10. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  11. ^ "USDA ERS - Documentation". www.ers.usda.gov. Retrieved 2023-10-17.
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