Electroshock weapon

"TASER" and "Taser" redirect here. For the company, see TASER International.

An electroshock weapon is an incapacitant weapon used for subduing a person by administering electric shock that may disrupt superficial muscle functions. An electroshock gun or taser fires projectiles that administer an electric shock. Stun guns (despite their name), stun batons, and electroshock belts administer an electric shock by direct contact.

A computer-generated image (CGI) of a soldier holding an electric shock baton

Commercially available varieties

Electric shock prods

This type is similar to basic design to an electric cattle prod. It has a metal end split into two parts electrically insulated from each other, or two thin projecting metal electrodes about an inch apart, at an end of a shaft containing the batteries and mechanism. At the other end of the shaft are a handle and a switch. Both electrodes must touch the subject. In some types the sides of the baton can be electrified to stop the subject from grasping the baton above the electrodes. They are often carried in a sheath slung on a belt. Some such devices are available disguised as other objects, such as umbrellas or cell-phones or pens. Sometimes they have an option to make a noisy visible electric arc between the electrodes, to warn suspects.

Some models are built into long flashlights also designed to administer an electric shock with its lit end's metal surround (which is split into halves insulated from each other).

In the beginning police used electric cattle prods for this purpose.

TASER

The M-26 TASER, the United States military version of a commercial TASER.

The name Taser is an acronym: "Thomas A. Swift's Electric Rifle". Arizona inventor Jack Cover designed it in 1969; naming it for the science fiction teenage inventor and adventurer character Tom Swift.

Modern taser-type weapons fire small dart-like electrodes with attached metal wires that connect to the gun, propelled by small gas charges similar to some air rifle propellants. The maximum range is up to 10 meters (30 feet). Earlier models of Taser needed the dart-like electrodes to embed in the skin and superficial muscle tissues layers; newer versions of the projectiles use a shaped pulse / arc of electricity which disrupt nerve and muscle function without needing the metal prongs on the projectile to penetrate the skin. Early models had difficulty in penetrating thick clothing, but the 'pulse' models are designed to bring down a subject wearing up to a Level III body armor vest.

Tasers are currently in use by a number of police forces worldwide to try to reduce firearms-related deaths. The Phoenix Police Department reported that officer shootings had dropped as a result from the use of TASER technology as an alternative to deadly force. Uses of a TASER device in this department increased from 71 in the year 2002 to 164 in the year 2003. Additionally, the number of officer-involved shootings decreased by 7 during this time period.

While they are not technically considered lethal, some authorities and non-governmental organizations question both the degree of safety presented by the weapon and the ethical implications of using a weapon that some, such as Amnesty International, allege is inhumane. As a result, a number of civil liberties groups would like to see tasers banned. Amnesty International has documented over 150 deaths that occurred after the use of tasers. The fact that a death occurred following use of a taser does not necessarily indicate the taser was the cause of death or even a contributing factor, as many of the deaths occurred in people with serious medical conditions and/or severe drug intoxication, often to the point of excited delirium. Tasers are often used as an alternative to attacking the suspect with a baton or shooting him with firearms both of which have a much higher chance of serious injury and death than the taser, even using the highest estimates of possible taser-related deaths. The term "less-lethal" is being used more frequently when referring to weapons such as tasers because many experts feel that no device meant to subdue a person can be completely safe. The less lethal category also includes devices such as pepper spray, tear gas, and batons. The US National Institute of Justice has begun a two-year study into taser-related deaths in custody.

On Tuesday, 5 July, 2005 Michael Todd, Chief Constable of Manchester, England, let himself be shot in the back with a taser, to demonstrate his confidence that tasers can be used safely. This was videoed, and the video was released to the BBC on 17 May 2007. He was wearing a shirt and no jacket. When tasered he fell forward on his chest on the ground, and (he said afterwards) the shock made him helpless; but soon after he recovered completely. [1] [2] Video

Drive Stun

Some TASER devices, particularly those employed by police departments, also offer a "Drive Stun" capability, which does not involve firing barbs and is intended to cause pain without incapacitating the target. TASER defines "Drive Stun" as "the process of using the EMD as a pain compliance technique. This is done by activating the EMD and placing it against an individual’s body. This can be done without an air cartridge in place or after an air cartridge has been deployed." (Here, "EMD" means the taser – "Electro-Muscular Disruption weapon".)

"The Drive Stun causes significant localized pain in the area touched by the TASER but does not have a significant effect on the central nervous system. The Drive Stun does not incapacitate a subject but may assist in taking a subject into custody."

Also known as "Dry taseing" or "Drive taseing".

Wireless long-range electric shock weapon

This weapon fires a projectile which administers an electric shock without needing a connecting wire. See TASER International.

Stun belts

A stun belt is a belt that is fastened around the subject's waist or leg or arm which carries a battery and control pack and contains features to stop the subject from unfastening or removing it. A remote control signal is sent to tell the battery pack to give the subject an electric shock. Some models are activated by the subject's movement.

The United States uses these devices to control prisoners. One type is the REACT belt. Some stun belts can restrain the subject's hands and have a strap going under the subject's crotch to stop him from rotating the belt around the subject's waist trying to deactivate it. Stun belts are not generally available to the public.

Prototype designs

Due to increased interest in developing less-lethal weapons, mainly from the US military, a number of new types of electroshock weapon are being researched. They are designed to provide a "ranged" non-lethal weapon.

Weapons that administer electric shock through a stream of fluid

Prototype electroshock guns exist which replace the solid wire with a stream of conductive liquid (essentially salty water) which offers the range of a Taser (or better) and the possibility of multiple shots. See Electrified water cannon. Difficulties associated with this experimental design include:

• “Non-continuous” discharge onto subject: liquid stream needs over 30 feet and over 5 second discharge.
• “Pooling” of conductive liquid at base of subject, making apprehension of subject difficult by observing officers.
• Need to carry a large tank of the liquid used, and a propellant canister, like a “water gun”, to administer consecutive bursts of liquid over distances.

Another design, announced by Rheinmetall W&M as a prototype in 2003, uses an aerosol as the conductive medium. The manufacturers called it a “Plasma Taser”; however this is only a marketing name, and the weapon does not use plasma. Problems associated with this design include:

• Poor electrical conductivity.
• Range of concept design is nominal (a gas cannot be propelled greater than 10 feet effectively).
• The “gassing effect”: all subjects in enclosed spaces are subjected to same effects (if any, as electrical conductivity can be poor).

Electrolaser

Other known or rumored variants include the electrolaser, which uses blooming of a laser beam to create a conductive channel of ionised air (plasma) to carry the electric shock.

Principles of operation

Electroshock weapon technology uses a temporary high-voltage low-current electrical discharge to override the body's superficial muscle-triggering mechanisms. The recipient is immobilized via two metal probes (darts) connected via metal wires from the electroshock gun usually penetrating the human skin, and superficial muscle. The recipient that is 'connected' to an electroshock gun feels great pain and can be momentarily paralyzed (only so long as there is an electrical current being applied) because his muscles are receiving electrical 'shock'. The (relatively) low electric current must be pushed by (relatively) high voltage to overcome the electrical resistance of the human body. The resultant 'shock' is caused by muscles twitching uncontrollably, appearing as muscle spasms. However, because the amount of current is relatively low, there is considered to be a 'margin' of safety by a number of medical experts. Experts generally agree that this margin is highly dependent on the overall health of the person subjected to the shock.

In current electroshock weapon models, the current is relatively low (2.1 mA to 3.6 mA) which is based in part on the electrical supply, (for example M-26 Taser models use eight AA batteries). Electrical current above 10 mA at 60Hz AC is considered to be potentially lethal to humans, though not all electroshock weapons pulse the current at 60 Hz.

The internal circuits of most electroshock weapons are fairly simple, either based on an oscillator, resonant circuit and step-up transformer or diode-capacitor voltage multipliers to achieve the continuous, direct or alternating high-voltage discharge may be powered by one or more 9 V battery depending on manufacturer, and model. The output voltages without external "load" (which would be the target's body) are claimed to be in the range of 50 kV up to 900 kV, with the most common being in the 200 to 300 kV range. However since air has a dielectric breakdown (Emax) of 3000000 V/m, it is clear that the spacing of the electrodes will not permit the upper range of claimed voltages (900kV representing a minimum electrode spacing of about 30cm). The output current upon contact with the target will depend on various factors such as target's resistance, skin type, moisture, bodily salinity, clothing, the electroshock weapon's internal circuitry and battery conditions.

According to the many sources, a shock of half a second duration will cause intense pain and muscle contractions startling most people greatly. Two to three seconds will often cause the subject to become dazed and drop to the ground, and over three seconds will usually completely disorient and drop an attacker for at least several seconds and possibly for up to fifteen minutes.

Controversies

See also: UCLA Taser incident

Deaths and injury associated with electroshock weapon use

Supporters say that electroshock guns are a safer alternative to devices such as firearms. Taser uses the term "non-lethal" as defined by the US Department of Defence - which does not mean the weapon cannot cause death, but that it is not intended to be fatal. Non-lethal weapons are defined as "weapons that are explicitly designed and primarily employed so as to incapacitate personnel or material, while minimizing fatalities, permanent injury to personnel, and undesired damage to property and the environment."

It is possible that tasers, or any other high voltage device could cause cardiac arrhythmic disorders in a susceptible minority of people, possibly leading to heart attack or death in minutes by ventricular fibrillation (which leads to cardiac arrest and if not treated immediately to sudden death). People susceptible to this outcome are sometimes healthy and unaware of their susceptibility.

Between September 1999 and October 2004, there were 73 cases of deaths of subjects soon after having been shocked using Tasers. Of these cases:

• In 8 cases, medical examiners said Tasers were a cause or a contributing factor or could not be ruled out as a cause of death.
• In 18 cases coroners and other officials stated that Tasers were not a factor.
• In most of the 73 cases, drugs including cocaine, methamphetamine, and PCP were concluded to be the major factor leading to death.
• In many cases pre-existing cardiovascular conditions or other medical conditions were stated to be a contributing factor, but the taser was the direct cause.
• Several deaths occurred as a result of injuries sustained in struggles. In a few of these cases head injury due to falling after being shocked contributed to later death.

These incidents form a very small percentage of many tens of thousands of operational uses of tasers.

Various lawsuits against the manufacturers and users of electroshock weapons are pending, but many court judgements have dismissed lawsuits by finding evidence of preexisting conditions, ranging from excited delirium (caused by a subject's interaction with high levels of drug-use) which may be a factor before cardiac arrest, and preexisting osteoporosis which would make bone fracture more likely when the device is used on the subject.

Police officers in at least five states have filed lawsuits against Taser International claiming they suffered serious injuries after being shocked with the device during training classes.

Critics argue that although the medical conditions or illegal drug-taking of some of these casualties, may have been the proximate cause, the use of the taser may have significantly heightened the risk of death for those suspects in an at-risk category. Therefore, they argue, this suggests that tasers and other electroshock weapons may be too dangerous to use on people with certain medical conditions. Furthermore, since police officers will typically not know about a person's medical conditions or the contents of his/her bloodstream, this entails a risk of death with virtually any suspect.

Supporters say that electroshock weapons and tasers are more effective than any other means including pepper-spray (an eye irritant/breathing irritant), batons (and other conventional ways of inflicting pain), hand-to-hand combat (i.e. wrestling a subject to the ground), or even hand guns, at bringing a subject down to the ground with a minimum physical exertion, and with a minimum of potential for injury. Electroshock weapons have a direct link to reduced injury from use of physical force, and are attributed to saving human lives by use as an alternative to the use of firearms to subdue violent or out-of-control subjects. However, critics charge that police officers who are risk-averse will also resort to tasers in situations where previously they would have used more conventional, less "extreme" techniques, such as trying to reason with a cornered suspect.

Taser International has admitted in a training bulletin that repeated blasts of a Taser can "impair breathing and respiration." Also on Taser's website it is stated that, for a subject in a state known as "excited delirium", repeated or prolonged stuns with the Taser can contribute to "significant and potentially fatal health risks." In a state of excited delirium, restraint by the police and exertion by the subject are also considered likely to result in death or other complications.

Legal restrictions

Electroshock guns are generally used for self-defense, or by law enforcement to subdue, for example, an out-of-control prisoner. They are illegal or subject to legal restrictions on their availability and use in many jurisdictions. Reports of the devices being used for torture or as interrogation tools have led the United States to place restrictions on export of the devices.

Fire risk

Tasers come with express instructions not to use them where flammable liquids or fumes may be present, such as filling stations or by police raiding methamphetamine labs, as tasers, like other electric devices, have been found to ignite flammable materials.

An evaluative study carried out by the British Home Office investigated the potential for tasers to ignite CS gas. Seven trials were conducted, in which CS gas canisters containing methyl isobutyl ketone (a solvent used in all CS sprays utilized by the United Kingdom police) were sprayed over mannequins wearing street clothing. The tasers were then fired at the mannequins. In two of the seven trials, "the flames produced were severe and engulfed the top half of the mannequin, including the head". This poses a particular problem for law enforcement, as normal police doctrine needs use of CS before the use of a taser.

In another case, a man's shirt caught on fire after one of the taser spikes hit a cigarette lighter in his pocket. He suffered minor burns, but was also treated for two self-inflicted knife wounds, the original reason why the taser had been used.

Use in schools and on minors

Police officers that patrol schools, including grade schools, in several US states (including Kansas, Minnesota, Kentucky, and Florida), currently carry tasers. In 2004, the parents of a 6-year old boy in Miami sued the police department for tasering their child. The police said the boy was threatening to injure his own leg with a shard of glass, and claimed that using the taser was the only option to stop the boy from injuring himself.

Supporters of taser use in schools argue that merely switching on the device, and threatening to use it, can be effective in frightening violent students into desisting from inappropriate behavior, if verbal reprimands have not succeeded. Critics counter that tasers may interact with preexisting medical complications such as medications, and may even contribute to someone's death as a result. Thus, critics say, they should either be prohibited altogether in schools, or classified as possibly lethal weapons and as a consequence, should be regulated very tightly. Critics also argue that using a taser on a minor, and especially a young child, is effectively cruel and abusive punishment, and therefore it should be banned on the same grounds that other, older forms of physical punishment such as canings have been banned from use in many schools.

Political suppression

Electroshock weapons have been used at political protests such as those by the anti-globalization movement. Members of this movement have argued that the technology, and other "non-lethal" weapons, are likely to become tools for suppressing legitimate protest.

Torture

The use of stun belts has been condemned by Amnesty International as torture, not only for the physical pain the devices cause, but also for their heightened abuse potential, due to their perceived "harmlessness" in terms of causing initial injuries like (e.g.) ordinary police batons do. Amnesty International has reported several alleged cases of excessive electroshock gun use, that possibly amount to torture, including the death of an individual after being struck 12 times with a Taser in Orange County, Florida. They have also raised extensive concerns about the use of other electro-shock devices by American police and in American prisons, as they can be (and according to Amnesty International, sometimes are) used to inflict cruel pain on individuals without leaving the telltale markings that a conventional beating might. The American Civil Liberties Union has also raised concerns about their use. There have been several well publicized instances in which stun belts were accidentally activated by careless court personnel and criminal defendants were shocked for no justifiable reason.

Electric shocks have been used as an instrument of torture in many countries around the world, because they can be applied over a prolonged period of time without severely injuring or killing.

Home-made electroshock weapons

As the mechanisms of tasers are not very advanced, some people with basic knowledge of electronics have been able to build homemade tasers or electric shock prods. There has been at least one case of students using improvised electric shock prods in a school. In March 2005, several high school students in Maine faced charges when another student reported that they had been playing with improvised electric shock prods and testing them on themselves and fellow students. The devices were made from disposable cameras with a 330-volt electric potential difference, which, while not strong enough to cause severe injury, could (some claim) be fatal to someone with a condition such as arrhythmia.

Doubts over their effectiveness as self-defense weapons

Although these devices are usually advertised as very effective "personal defense" weapons, many security operators and martial arts experts genuinely doubt their effectiveness against determined and physically strong aggressors in a real melee combat situation and their value as a defense weapon in general.

They claim that electroshock weapons need much more continuous and uninterrupted contact time with one's intended target than usually advertised, well above 5 seconds, to stop a determined assailant effectively, and that much time can be impossible to achieve against a physically superior or better trained opponent in close unarmed combat. They claim that in such an event, the likely outcome would probably be merely irritating the assailant and having the electroshock weapon broken, taken away, or used against oneself for retaliation, after giving its intended user a false sense of security and power.

Patents

• U.S. patent 8,843 - Electric whaling apparatus - Albert Sonnenburg and Philipp Rechten
• U.S. patent 2,805,067 - Electric weapon - Thomas D. Ryan

External links

• Electrical stun weapons: alternative to lethal force or a compliance tool?, University of Bradford, UK.
• University of Oklahoma Police Department article doubting the usefulness of (among other devices) electroshock weapons.
• Q&A with TASER International co-founder Tom Smith
• Police review policy after Tasers used on children
• Kansas Students Speak Out Against Tasers In Schools
• How Stuff Works - Stun Guns
• Louisville, Ky., police Taser incident database
• Taser kills a teenage boy
• Lorain, OH police use Taser on 12 year old child
• Cleveland Clinic study shows TASER does not affect short-term functionality of pace makers
• Excessive and lethal force? Amnesty International's concerns about deaths and ill-treatment involving police use of tasers
• Tasers Implicated in Excited Delirium Deaths - NPR
• The Physical Effects of Electroshock Weapons
• Video of a Taser being used on a subject

• TASER International homepage
• Results from testing the TASER on human subjects, shows that there are no short-term effects

• More UK Police to be equiped with TASERs