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Sustainable food for all

Food justice is a term and concept closely connected to food sovereignty, which goes beyond the older simplistic paradigm of "feeding the world" and includes concerns of equitable distribution and access to food and unequal power relations in food consumption and production.[1]

The food justice movement gained support in the 1990s, drawing inspiration from the racial justice framework of the civil rights and environmental justice movements in the U.S.[2] In addition, the disproportionate impacts of diet-related illness on low-income communities of color and the simultaneous food sovereignty global peasant movement La Via Campesina gave increasing attention to food justice.[3][2]

History of Food Justice in the United States

The industrial revolution and in the mid-18th century and subsequent urbanization shifted food production from individual farms, gardens, and local butchers to distant, large conglomerate farms, marking a historic shift from people producing their own food to having little knowledge of their food's processing and origins.[4][5] Although the term 'food justice' was not yet invented, the movement for public knowledge of their food's production originated after Upton Sinclair published The Jungle in 1906, bringing widespread attention to unhygienic practices in the meat industry.[6] The green revolution, from the 1930s to the late 1960s, exacerbated the environmental impacts of food production due to the advent of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. However, supporters of the green revolution maintain that it allowed for much greater crop yields and agricultural efficiency, and thus allowed for population growth, improved health outcomes due to more adequate nutrition, and lower food prices.[7] The shift from local to industrial food production also gave people more time to pursue other tasks or professions, contributing to economic growth.

In 1969, the Black Panther Party established the Free Breakfast for Children program in Oakland, California, illustrating how the ability to secure healthy food intersected with race and class.[8] The program provided free breakfast to 20,000 schoolchildren in predominantly low income Black communities whose families struggled to afford food, which had affected their academic performance and contributed to the cycle of poverty.[9]

In the 1990s, the 5 cents for Fairness campaign was enacted by the United Farm Workers to encourage improved conditions for farm workers with a just 5 cent price increase on produce.[10] Conceptualization of food justice as a specific movement emerged in the 1990s from the broader anti-racist and environmental justice movements.[11]

Global Food Justice

US Huey helicopter spraying Agent Orange in Vietnam

Food justice is also an issue in other regions of the world. Developing countries may grow food for export, yet struggle to feed their populations. Additionally, food sources may be contaminated by outside military forces, such as in the cases of Agent Orange in Vietnam, in which large quantities of an herbicide were sprayed on villages and farmlands with intergenerational adverse health effects. Another example is radioactive fallout from nuclear tests in the Bikini Atoll of the Marshall Islands where nuclear bomb tests conducted by the United States military contaminated the local food supply with radiation, leading to food insecurity and health issues.[12][13] Global food system activists such as Vandana Shiva have worked to improve food access and sustainable agriculture in the developing world.[14] Global instances of food injustice generally reflect wider power relations and the North-South Divide.

History of Race in Relation to Food

Black Panthers Free Breakfast Program

Delano Grape Strike

Farm Workers Movements

Food and the Body

Disabled Bodies and Food

Medicalization of Food

Genetically Modified Organisms

Food Deserts

A food desert is a region or community with limited access to healthy and nutritious food; this deficiency can be due to a variety of factors, including cost and distance to grocery stores.[15] A large portion of the food justice movement is concerned with how food deserts are distributed and the correlations between lack of access to food and both race and income.

A 2010 review of food deserts literature found both socioeconomic implications and racial disparities connected to food disparity in areas with lower access to food. In low income communities, high crime rates lead to a cycle of theft and increased food prices; as a result of this, citizens who are unable to travel outside of their immediate neighborhoods sacrifice quality for convenience.[16]

The US Census Bureau report on median income by race in the United States from 1967 to 2008.

The intersectionality of race and socioeconomic status is important to consider in examining cases of food injustices. The United States Census Bureau has consistently reported Black and Hispanic Americans as having lower median household incomes than White Americans.[17] Among communities in Detroit, Michigan, impoverished black communities are farther from the closest supermarkets than analogous impoverished white communities, and on average, have less supermarkets within a three mile radius than impoverished white communities.[18]

Structural Causes of Food Deserts

One proposed cause of food deserts is legislation that disproportionately affects people of color and socioeconomic minorities. Components of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal contained racial implications that affect living patterns today.[19] The Fair Housing Administration's 1939 manual stated that “if a neighborhood is to retain stability, it is necessary that properties shall continue to be occupied by the same social and racial classes.”[20] Because of this policy, some home loan benefits were unavailable to minorities.[21] Additionally, urban zoning policies of the 1950s may have contributed to segregated living patterns.[22]

One effect of restrictive zoning policies is the pattern coined “white flight”.[23] As middle-income white Americans began moving to government subsidized suburbs, grocery stores and food retailers followed.[20] The opportunity to purchase inexpensive suburb land led to the rise of massive supermarkets in which multiple varieties of products were sold in one store.[24] As a result, many urban markets, which were more expensive to maintain than their suburban counterparts, were abandoned.[25]

Effects on Low-income Communities and Communities of Color

The US Department of Agriculture estimates that the number of people living in low-income communities with low access to supermarkets is 23.5 million, around 8 percent of the US population.[26]

Health Effects

Food deserts have many health implications, including being correlated with increased BMI[27] and increased risk of cardiovascular disease.[26] A US study conducted between 1999 and 2004 found that obesity rates among African Americans and Hispanics were 15 and 6.8 percent higher, respectively, than that of white Americans.[28]

Diet quality tends to improve with increases in income. Data from the US Department of Agriculture indicate that low income households spend less money on food than households in other income brackets; the USDA data also show that the foods most commonly purchased by low-income households are often those containing fat, oils, sugar, potatoes, and refined grains.[29]

Academic Consequences

Food deserts may affect academic achievement in affected regions. The National Food Service Management Institute states that poor nutrition leads to students’ increased susceptibility to illness, and that undernourishment results in decreased cognitive functioning.[30] Additionally, there is evidence that high blood lead levels can negatively affect academic performance and social behavior in children.[31] Diets with high calcium and iron intake help reduce the absorption and toxicity of lead for exposed children.[32][33]

Economic Impact

Employment opportunities associated with food businesses are often absent in food desert communities; for example, retail jobs associated with supermarkets may be absent.[19] Grocery stores can create up to 200 jobs each[34] and act as anchors for nearby businesses.[35]

Case Study: South Los Angeles

A case study by the Community Health Council on food deserts in South Los Angeles suggests developing small corner stores in especially deprived regions.[36] The council notes that because access to full sized markets is often limited in low-income areas, it is important to create incentives for store owners to sell healthy products and to ensure stores are able to accept SNAP and WIC benefits. The goal of this initiative is to allow people to make healthy choices without changing their shopping habits.[36] The study looks to New York City’s 2008 Healthy Bodega program, which aimed to increase the variety, availability, and quality of healthy food sold at NYC bodegas[37] as a key example of success of this kind of initiative.

Food Assistance Programs

Food assistance programs can be important for food justice because they help struggling groups of people get the healthy food that they need to sustain and nourish their bodies. Food programs are heavily depended on by low-income people or families who are unable to afford food on their own as well as have access to healthy food options. The Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) administers the federal food and nutrition assistance programs that enables families access to food, and promotes healthy eating through nutrition educational programs.[38] FNS was established August 8, 1969 but many of the food programs existed long before this agency became its own agency.[38] There are many types of programs that are mostly geared to certain groups like students, seniors, women and many others. Some examples include Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) that was formerly known as the Food Stamp Program, National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and Senior Farmers' Market Nutrition Program (SFMNP).

Food Distribution Programs

Food distribution programs strengthen food security through high quality, 100% American-grown USDA commodity distribution and food assistance to low-income groups.

Commodity Supplemental Food Program (CSFP)

Commodity Supplemental Food Program is geared towards improving the health of low-income elderly persons at least 60 years of age by offering supplemental food.[39][40] In addition to seniors who are eligible for this program, women, infants, and children currently receiving these benefits who were certified to receive help on or before February 6, 2014 are also eligible to continue to receive assistance under the program rules in effect on that date, in accordance with the Agricultural Act of 2014.[41] Women, infants, and children who apply to participate in CSFP on or after February 7, 2014 cannot be certified to participate in the program.[41]

Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations (FDPIR)

Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations provides USDA Foods to income-eligible Native Americans families and households living on or near Indian reservations, and in the State of Oklahoma.[42]

The Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP)

TEFAP helps supplement the diets of low-income Americans from different age groups by providing them with emergency food assistance like food banks at no cost at all.[43]

Child Nutrition Programs

Child Nutrition Programs provide healthy, nutritious meals and snacks to American children.

Examples of Child Nutrition Programs include:

  1. Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP)
  2. National School Lunch Program (NSLP)
  3. School Breakfast Program (SBP)
  4. Summer Food Service Program (SFSP)[44]
USDA is working hard to expand access to farmers’ markets for those participating in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)

SNAP, formerly known as the Food Stamp Program, provides nutrition assistance to millions of eligible, low-income individuals and families and provides economic benefits to communities.[45] SNAP is the cornerstone of food programs and initiated the creation of various other programs. The pilot food stamp program happened during 1961-1964, and President Kennedy's called on an executive order for an expanded food distribution. Shortly after, he announced that the food stamps be purchased.[46]

Women, Infants & Children (WIC)

Women, Infants and Children is a federally-funded health and nutrition program for low-income pregnant and postpartum women, infants and children under 5 years old.[47] WIC provides nutritous food, nutrition and breastfeeding education, and assists families with access to relevant healtcare services.[48] Examples of WIC include:

  1. Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program (FMNP)
  2. Senior Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program (SFMNP)

Food Justice Policy Efforts

Local Efforts

One local solution to improving food accessibility is through the proliferation of local and community farms. Food First, an independent organization based in Oakland, CA, aims to connect and promote the economic growth of East Bay Area urban farmers by supporting regular farmer's markets.[49] As mentioned earlier, expanding bodegas and small corner stores in areas with limited access to full-sized commercial markets may help disadvantaged peoples purchase healthier and higher quality foods.[37]

The Agricultural Justice Project (AJP), founded in 1999, offers farms the opportunity to gain Food Justice Certification (FJC).[50] The principles of the certification are that "all workers have the right to safe working conditions, just treatment, and fair compensation and all farmers have the right to fair, equitable, transparent agreements and pricing."[51] The AJP aims to encourage participation at every step in agricultural food production and sales, from food to table.[51]

Future of Food Justice

Food justice advocates have expressed concern regarding the Trump Administration and its potential impact on communities being able to obtain healthy, affordable food.[52]

Global Trade Agreements

NAFTA created a trilateral trade agreement between Canada, Mexico, and the United States in 1994. Trump has stated that he intends to renegotiate the terms of NAFTA for purposes of domestic protection and raising prices on Mexican imports. This would affect Mexican farmers, as well as the 6 million U.S. jobs that depend on free trade with Mexico.[53] The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) is a trade deal that greatly expanded the rights of corporations over workers, consumers, food producers, and the environment.[54] U.S. President Donald Trump has withdrawn the United States from the TPP.[55] This trade deal attempted to bring 40% of the world’s economy into one trading region, and the U.S. would have been the largest partner.[56] Trump's proposed alternative is a bilateral trade agreement that will continue to threaten small farmers.[54]

Environmental Protection Agency

Environmental Justice office

Mustafa Ali, the head of the Environmental Protection Agency’s office on Environmental Justice, has resigned as a result of the Trump Administration’s proposal to decrease funding for programs that help poor and minority communities.[57] The EPA Environmental Justice office is under threat to be completely dismantled.[58]

Federal Funding

The 2018 preliminary budget proposal has been released. Trump plans to decrease EPA funding by 31 percent and eliminate a fifth of its employees.[59] Funding for drinking water infrastructure would remain, but scientific research is under threat of being cut. Over 50 programs would be gone altogether, such as grants to help states stop air pollution,  infrastructure assistance to Alaskan native villages along the  Mexican border, Energy Star, and more.[59]

Affordable Care Act

The Affordable Care Act is threatened to be terminated under the Trump Administration.[60] This means that social services addressing food security are at risk of losing funding or disappearing.[61]

Food Policy

The Child Nutrition Act is up for reauthorization. The reauthorization happens every five years and includes Congressional review and reauthorization of all child nutrition programs, including SNAP, WIC, and the school lunch program.[62] The Farm Bill will also be up for renewal during the administration.

Corporations have historically dominated federal policies in the U.S., and consumers and small growers have little voice in the process of deciding policies.[63] Low-income people, particularly people of color, have even less power, and lack the choice in determining their own food and nutritional decisions. Black and hispanic low-income neighborhoods are often food deserts, meaning they lack grocery stores and accessible real food.[63] Therefore, millions are dependent on government funded programs like SNAP and WIC.[63]

If President Trump signs the drafted executive order titled: “Protecting Taxpayer Resources By Ensuring Our Immigration Law Promote Accountability and Responsibility", it would deny first-generation immigrants and their second-generation citizen children access to these programs.[64] According to a recent analysis by the National Academies of Sciences, 45.3% of all immigrant-headed households with children use a food assistance program.[65] 88% of all children living with immigrant parents are U.S. citizens.[65] This does not account for the millions of undocumented immigrants that currently do not receive SNAP or WIC benefits.[64]

References

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  31. ^ Chandramouli, K.; Steer, C. D.; Ellis, M.; Emond, A. M. (2009-11-01). "Effects of early childhood lead exposure on academic performance and behaviour of school age children". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 94 (11): 844–848. doi:10.1136/adc.2008.149955. ISSN 0003-9888. PMID 19770197.
  32. ^ Mahaffey, K. R.; Gartside, P. S.; Glueck, C. J. (1986-08-01). "Blood lead levels and dietary calcium intake in 1- to 11-year-old children: the Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1976 to 1980". Pediatrics. 78 (2): 257–262. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 3488536.
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  35. ^ Treuhaft, Sarah (2009). "Healthy Food For All: Building Equitable and Sustainable Food Systems in Detroit and Oakland" (PDF). Fair Food Foundation. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)
  36. ^ a b Bassford, Nicky (2010). "Food Desert to Food Oasis: Promoting Grocery Store Development in South Los Angeles" (PDF). Community Health Council. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)
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  39. ^ "Commodity Supplemental Food Program (CSFP) | Food and Nutrition Service". www.fns.usda.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
  40. ^ "Commodity Supplemental Food Program (CSFP)". Feeding America. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
  41. ^ a b "Eligibility & How to Apply | Food and Nutrition Service". www.fns.usda.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
  42. ^ "Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations | Food and Nutrition Service". www.fns.usda.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
  43. ^ "The Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP) | Benefits.gov". www.benefits.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
  44. ^ "Federal Food Assistance Programs". Feeding America. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
  45. ^ "Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) | Food and Nutrition Service". www.fns.usda.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-17.
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  47. ^ "Women, Infants & Children (WIC) :: Public Health :: Contra Costa Health Services". cchealth.org. Retrieved 2017-03-17.
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  49. ^ "About Us : Food First". foodfirst.org. Retrieved 2017-03-22.
  50. ^ "Agricultural Justice Project". www.agriculturaljusticeproject.org. Retrieved 2017-03-22.
  51. ^ a b "Introduction to Farmer Practices" (PDF). Agricultural Justice Project. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)
  52. ^ "An Overview Of Trump's Relationship To Diet And Food Policy". GOOD Magazine. 2017-01-31. Retrieved 2017-03-15.
  53. ^ "If NAFTA gets the ax under Trump, American workers and consumers would get hurt too". Business Insider. Retrieved 2017-04-09.
  54. ^ a b "The Trans-Pacific Partnership: A threat to democracy and food sovereignty : Food First". foodfirst.org. Retrieved 2017-03-15.
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  56. ^ "The TPP is Dead: Time to Transform the Food System : Food First". foodfirst.org. Retrieved 2017-03-15.
  57. ^ The Associated Press (2017-03-09). "EPA's Environmental Justice Head Resigns Amid Budget Cuts". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-03-15.
  58. ^ "Chief environmental justice official at EPA resigns, with plea to Pruitt to protect vulnerable communities". Retrieved 2017-03-15.
  59. ^ a b "What's getting cut in Trump's budget". Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-03-17.
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  63. ^ a b c "Food Justice: What's Race Got to Do with It? on JSTOR". doi:10.2979/racethmulglocon.5.1.103. JSTOR 10.2979/racethmulglocon.5.1.103. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  64. ^ a b "Trump's draft plan to cut off food stamps for immigrants could cause some U.S. citizens to go hungry". Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-03-15. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)
  65. ^ a b Immigration, Panel on the Economic and Fiscal Consequences of; Statistics, Committee on National; Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and; Sciences, National Academies of; Engineering; Medicine, and. 3 Socioeconomic Outcomes of Immigrants | The Economic and Fiscal Consequences of Immigration | The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/23550.
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