Wikipedia:WikiProject Chemicals/Chembox validation/VerifiedDataSandbox and Carbon disulfide: Difference between pages

{{Short description|1=Neurotoxic compound with formula S=C=S}}

| Watchedfields = changed

| verifiedrevid = 476998332

| Name = Carbon disulfide

| ImageFile_Ref = {{chemboximage|correct|??}}

| ImageFile = Carbon-disulfide-2D-dimensions.png

| ImageSize = 150px

| ImageFile1 = Carbon-disulfide-3D-vdW.png

| ImageSize1 = 150px

| ImageName = Carbon disulfide

| IUPACName = Carbon disulfide

| OtherNames = Carbon bisulfide<br/>Dithiocarbonic anhydride<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dithiocarbonic|url=https://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C75150&Mask=80:~:text=Dithiocarbonic Anhydride|access-date=August 24, 2022|publisher=[[PubChem]]}}</ref>

| SystematicName = Methanedithione

| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers

| CASNo = 75-15-0

| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}

| Beilstein = 1098293

| ChEMBL = 1365180

| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}

| KEGG = C19033

| PubChem = 6348

| EINECS = 200-843-6

| RTECS = FF6650000

| UNNumber = 1131

| SMILES = S=C=S

| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties

| C=1 | S=2

| Appearance = Colorless liquid<br />Impure: light-yellow

| Odor = Pleasant, [[diethyl ether|ether]]- or [[chloroform]]-like<br />Commercial: Foul, like rotten [[radish]]

| Density = 1.539 g/cm³ (−186°C)<br />1.2927 g/cm³ (0 °C)<br />1.266 g/cm³ (25 °C)<ref name="chemister" />

| MeltingPtC = −111.61

| MeltingPt_notes =

| BoilingPtC = 46.24

| Solubility = 2.58 g/L (0 °C)<br />2.39 g/L (10 °C)<br />2.17 g/L (20 °C)<ref name="sioc">{{cite book |last1=Seidell |first1=Atherton |last2=Linke |first2=William F. |year=1952 |title=Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Compounds |publisher=Van Nostrand }}</ref><br /> 0.14 g/L (50 °C)<ref name="chemister" />

| RefractIndex = 1.627<ref name="sigma" />

| Viscosity = 0.436 [[Poise (unit)|cP]] (0 °C)<br /> 0.363 cP (20 °C)

| SolubleOther = Soluble in [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]], [[benzene]], [[oil]], [[chloroform|CHCl₃]], [[carbon tetrachloride|CCl₄]]

| Solubility1 = 4.66 g/100 g<ref name="chemister" />

| Solvent1 = formic acid

| Solubility2 = 45 g/100 g (20.3 °C)<ref name="chemister" />

| Solvent2 = dimethyl sulfoxide

| VaporPressure = 48.1 kPa (25 °C)<br /> 82.4 kPa (40 °C)<ref name="nist">{{nist |name=Carbon disulfide |id=C75150 |accessdate=2014-05-27 |mask=FFFF |units=SI }}.</ref>

| MagSus = −42.2·10⁻⁶ cm³/mol

}}

| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure

| Dipole = 0 D (20 °C)<ref name="chemister" />

}}

| Section5 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry

| DeltaHf = 88.7 kJ/mol<ref name="chemister">{{cite web |url=http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=1955 |website=chemister.ru |title=Properties of substance: carbon disulfide}}</ref>

| DeltaGf = 64.4 kJ/mol<ref name="chemister" />

| Entropy = 151 J/(mol·K)<ref name="chemister" />

| HeatCapacity = 75.73 J/(mol·K)<ref name="chemister" />

| DeltaHc = 1687.2 kJ/mol<ref name="nist" />

| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards

| ExternalSDS =

| GHSPictograms = {{GHS02}} {{GHS06}} {{GHS08}}

| GHS_ref = <ref name="sigma">[[Sigma-Aldrich|Sigma-Aldrich Co.]], [http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sial/335266 Carbon disulfide]. Retrieved on 2014-05-27.</ref>

| GHSSignalWord = Danger

| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|225|315|319|361|372}}

| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|210|281|305+351+338|314}}<br/>[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc00/icsc0022.htm ICSC 0022]

| FlashPtC = −43

| FlashPt_ref = <ref name="chemister" />

| AutoignitionPtC = 102

| AutoignitionPt_ref = <ref name="chemister" />

| ExploLimits = 1.3–50%<ref name="PGCH" />

| LD50 = 3188 mg/kg (rat, oral)

| EyeHazard = Irritant

| SkinHazard = Irritant

| InhalationHazard = Irritant; neurotoxic

| PEL = TWA 20 ppm C 30 ppm 100 ppm (30-minute maximum peak)<ref name="PGCH">{{PGCH|0104}}</ref>

| REL = TWA 1 ppm (3 mg/m³) ST 10 ppm (30 mg/m³) [skin]<ref name="PGCH" />

| IDLH = 500 ppm<ref name="PGCH" />

| LC50 = >1670 ppm (rat, 1&nbsp;h)<br />15500 ppm (rat, 1&nbsp;h)<br />3000 ppm (rat, 4&nbsp;h)<br />3500 ppm (rat, 4&nbsp;h)<br />7911 ppm (rat, 2&nbsp;h)<br />3165 ppm (mouse, 2&nbsp;h)<ref name="IDLH">{{IDLH|75150|Carbon disulfide}}</ref>

| LCLo = 4000 ppm (human, 30&nbsp;min)<ref name="IDLH" />

| Section8 = {{Chembox Related

| OtherCompounds = [[Carbon dioxide]]<br />[[Carbonyl sulfide]]<br />[[Carbon diselenide]]

'''Carbon disulfide''' (also spelled as '''carbon disulphide''') is an [[inorganic compound]] with the [[chemical formula]] {{chem2|CS2}} and [[Chemical structure|structure]] {{chem2|S\dC\dS}}. It is also considered as the anhydride of [[thiocarbonic acid]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Informatics |first=NIST Office of Data and |title=Carbon disulfide |url=https://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C75150&Mask=80 |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=webbook.nist.gov |language=en}}</ref> It is a colorless, flammable, [[Neurotoxicity|neurotoxic]] liquid that is used as a building block in organic synthesis. Pure carbon disulfide has a pleasant, [[diethyl ether|ether]]- or [[chloroform]]-like odor, but commercial samples are usually yellowish and are typically contaminated with foul-smelling impurities.<ref name="Holleman">{{Holleman&Wiberg}}.</ref>

== History ==

In 1796, the German chemist [[Wilhelm August Lampadius]] (1772–1842) first prepared carbon disulfide by heating [[pyrite]] with moist charcoal. He called it "liquid sulfur" (''flüssig Schwefel'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lampadius |title=Etwas über flüssigen Schwefel, und Schwefel-Leberluft |journal=Chemische Annalen für die Freunde der Naturlehre, Arzneygelährtheit, Haushaltungskunst und Manufacturen (Chemical Annals for the Friends of Science, Medicine, Economics, and Manufactures)|date=1796 |issue=2 |pages=136–137 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqk5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA136 |trans-title=Something about liquid sulfur and liver-of-sulfur gas (i.e., hydrogen sulfide) |language=de}}</ref> The composition of carbon disulfide was finally determined in 1813 by the team of the Swedish chemist [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]] (1779–1848) and the Swiss-British chemist [[Alexander Marcet]] (1770–1822).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berzelius |first1=J. |last2=Marcet |first2=Alexander |title=Experiments on the alcohol of sulphur, or sulphuret of carbon |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |date=1813 |volume=103 |pages=171–199 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1813.0026 |s2cid=94745906 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Their analysis was consistent with an [[empirical formula]] of CS₂.<ref>(Berzelius and Marcet, 1813), p. 187.</ref>

==Occurrence, manufacture, properties==

Small amounts of carbon disulfide are released by [[volcano|volcanic]] eruptions and [[marsh]]es. CS₂ once was manufactured by combining [[carbon]] (or [[Coke (fuel)|coke]]) and [[sulfur]] at 800–1000&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Warnecke | first=Friedrich | title=Die gewerbliche Schwefelkohlenstoffvergiftung | journal=Archiv für Gewerbepathologie und Gewerbehygiene | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=11 | issue=2 | year=1941 | issn=0340-0131 | doi=10.1007/bf02122927 | pages=198–248 | bibcode=1941IAOEH..11..198W | s2cid=72106188 | language=de}}</ref>

:C + 2S → CS₂

A lower-temperature reaction, requiring only 600&nbsp;°C, utilizes [[natural gas]] as the carbon source in the presence of [[silica gel]] or [[alumina]] [[catalyst]]s:<ref name="Holleman" />

:2 CH₄ + S₈ → 2 CS₂ + 4 H₂S

The reaction is analogous to the combustion of [[methane]].

Global production/consumption of carbon disulfide is approximately one million tonnes, with China consuming 49%, followed by India at 13%, mostly for the production of rayon fiber.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ihs.com/products/chemical/planning/ceh/carbon-disulfide.aspx |title=Carbon Disulfide report from IHS Chemical |access-date= June 15, 2013 }}</ref> United States production in 2007 was 56,000 tonnes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icis.com/Articles/2008/09/08/9154319/chemical-profile-carbon-disulfide.html |title=Chemical profile: carbon disulfide from ICIS.com |access-date= June 15, 2013 }}</ref>

===Solvent===

Carbon disulfide can dissolve a variety of [[Chemical polarity#Nonpolar molecules|nonpolar]] chemicals including [[phosphorus]], sulfur, [[selenium]], [[bromine]], [[iodine]], [[fat]]s, [[resin]]s, [[rubber]], and [[Bitumen|asphalt]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.akzonobel.com/sulfurderivatives/products/carbon_disulfide/ |title=Carbon Disulfide |publisher=Akzo Nobel |access-date=2010-12-16 |archive-date=2017-09-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903211829/https://www.akzonobel.com/sulfurderivatives/products/carbon_disulfide/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Extraterrestrial ===

In March 2024, traces of CS₂ were likely detected in the atmosphere of the temperate [[mini-Neptune]] planet [[TOI-270|TOI-270 d]] by the [[James Webb Space Telescope]].<ref >{{Citation |last1=Benneke |first1=Björn |title=JWST Reveals CH$_4$, CO$_2$, and H$_2$O in a Metal-rich Miscible Atmosphere on a Two-Earth-Radius Exoplanet |date=2024-03-05 |last2=Roy |first2=Pierre-Alexis |last3=Coulombe |first3=Louis-Philippe |last4=Radica |first4=Michael |last5=Piaulet |first5=Caroline |last6=Ahrer |first6=Eva-Maria |last7=Pierrehumbert |first7=Raymond |last8=Krissansen-Totton |first8=Joshua |last9=Schlichting |first9=Hilke E.|arxiv=2403.03325 }}</ref>

==Reactions==

Combustion of CS₂ affords [[sulfur dioxide]] according to this ideal stoichiometry:

:CS₂ + 3{{nbsp}}O₂ → CO₂ + 2{{nbsp}}SO₂

===With nucleophiles===

For example, amines afford [[dithiocarbamate]]s:<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last1=Yokoyama | first1=Masataka | last2=Imamoto | first2=Tsuneo | title=Organic Reactions of Carbon Disulfide | journal=Synthesis | publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag KG | volume=1984 | issue=10 | year=1984 | issn=0039-7881 | doi=10.1055/s-1984-30978 | pages=797–824}}</ref>

:2{{nbsp}}R₂NH + CS₂ → [R₂NH₂⁺][R₂NCS₂⁻]

[[Xanthate]]s form similarly from [[alkoxide]]s:<ref name=":0"/>

:RONa + CS₂ → [Na⁺][ROCS₂⁻]

This reaction is the basis of the manufacture of regenerated [[cellulose]], the main ingredient of [[viscose]], [[rayon]], and [[cellophane]]. Both xanthates and the related [[thioxanthate]]s (derived from treatment of CS₂ with sodium [[thiolate]]s) are used as [[Froth flotation|flotation agents]] in mineral processing.

Upon treatment with [[sodium sulfide]], carbon disulfide affords [[trithiocarbonate]]:<ref name=":0"/>

:Na₂S + CS₂ → [Na⁺]₂[CS₃²⁻]

Carbon disulfide does not hydrolyze readily, although the process is catalyzed by an [[enzyme]] [[carbon disulfide hydrolase]].

Compared to the [[Isoelectronicity|isoelectronic]] [[carbon dioxide]], CS₂ is a weaker [[electrophile]]. While, however, reactions of [[nucleophile]]s with CO₂ are highly reversible and products are only isolated with very strong nucleophiles, the reactions with CS₂ are thermodynamically more favored allowing the formation of products with less reactive nucleophiles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Zhen|last2=Mayer|first2=Robert J.|last3=Ofial|first3=Armin R.| last4=Mayr|first4=Herbert|date=2020-04-27|title= From Carbodiimides to Carbon Dioxide: Quantification of the Electrophilic Reactivities of Heteroallenes|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=142|issue=18|pages=8383–8402|doi=10.1021/jacs.0c01960|pmid=32338511|s2cid=216557447}}</ref>

===Reduction===

Reduction of carbon disulfide with [[sodium]] affords [[sodium 1,3-dithiole-2-thione-4,5-dithiolate]] together with sodium [[trithiocarbonate]]:<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Org. Synth.|year=1996|volume=73|page=270|doi=10.15227/orgsyn.073.0270|title=4,5-Dibenzoyl-1,3-dithiole-1-thione}}</ref>

: 4{{nbsp}}Na + 4{{nbsp}}CS₂ → Na₂C₃S₅ + Na₂CS₃

===Chlorination===

[[Chlorination reaction|Chlorination]] of CS₂ provides a route to [[carbon tetrachloride]]:<ref name="Holleman" />

:CS₂ + 3 [[chlorine|Cl₂]] → CCl₄ + [[disulfur dichloride|S₂Cl₂]]

This conversion proceeds via the intermediacy of [[thiophosgene]], CSCl₂.

===Coordination chemistry===

CS₂ is a ligand for many metal complexes, forming pi complexes. One example is [[Cyclopentadienyl complex|Cp]]Co([[hapticity|η²]]-CS₂)(P[[Methyl group|Me]]₃).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Werner |first=Helmut |title=Novel Coordination Compounds formed from CS₂ and Heteroallenes |journal=Coordination Chemistry Reviews |year=1982 |volume=43 |pages=165–185 |doi=10.1016/S0010-8545(00)82095-0 }}</ref>

==Polymerization==

CS₂ polymerizes upon photolysis or under high pressure to give an insoluble material called car-sul or "Bridgman's black", named after the discoverer of the polymer, [[Percy Williams Bridgman]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bridgman |first1=P.W. |title=Explorations toward the limit of utilizable pressures |journal=Journal of Applied Physics |date=1941 |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=461–469|doi=10.1063/1.1712926 |bibcode=1941JAP....12..461B }}</ref> Trithiocarbonate (-S-C(S)-S-) linkages comprise, in part, the backbone of the polymer, which is a [[semiconductor]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Carbon dioxide and carbon disulfide as resources for functional polymers |first1=Bungo |last1=Ochiai |first2=Takeshi |last2=Endo |journal=Progress in Polymer Science |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=183–215 |doi=10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2005.01.005 |year=2005 }}</ref>

==Uses==

The principal industrial uses of carbon disulfide, consuming 75% of the annual production, are the manufacture of [[viscose rayon]] and [[cellophane]] film.<ref name="Ullmann" />

It is also a valued intermediate in chemical synthesis of [[carbon tetrachloride]]. It is widely used in the synthesis of [[Organosulfur chemistry|organosulfur compounds]] such as [[xanthate]]s, which are used in [[froth flotation]], a method for extracting metals from their ores. Carbon disulfide is also a precursor to [[dithiocarbamates]], which are used as drugs (e.g. [[Metam sodium]]) and [[rubber chemistry]].

===Niche uses===

[[File:Carbon disulfide insecticide ad, 1896 - The American elevator and grain trade (IA CAT31053470064) (page 3 crop).jpg|left|thumb|Carbon disulfide insecticide ad from the 1896 issue of ''The American Elevator and Grain Trade'' magazine]]

It can be used in [[fumigation]] of airtight storage warehouses, airtight flat storage, bins, [[Grain elevator|grain elevators]], railroad [[Boxcar|box cars]], ship holds, [[Barge|barges]], and cereal mills.<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=}}</ref> Carbon disulfide is also used as an [[insecticide]] for the fumigation of grains, nursery stock, in fresh fruit conservation, and as a [[soil disinfectant]] against insects and [[nematodes]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Worthing |first1=Charles R. |last2=Hance |first2=Raymond J. |title=The Pesticide Manual, A World Compendium |publisher=British Crop Protection Council |year=1991 |edition=9th |isbn=9780948404429 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/pesticidemanualw0000unse }}</ref>

It can also be used for the [[Barking dog reaction]].

==Health effects==

Carbon disulfide has been linked to both [[Acute (medicine)|acute]] and chronic forms of [[poisoning]], with a diverse range of symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=472&tid=84#bookmark05|title=ATSDR - Public Health Statement: Carbon Disulfide|website=www.atsdr.cdc.gov|access-date=2020-01-17}}</ref>

Concentrations of 500–3000&nbsp;mg/m³ cause acute and subacute poisoning. These include a set of mostly neurological and psychiatric symptoms, called encephalopathia sulfocarbonica. Symptoms include acute [[psychosis]] (manic [[delirium]], [[hallucinations]]), [[paranoia|paranoic]] ideas, loss of appetite, gastrointestinal and sexual disorders, [[polyneuritis]], [[myopathy]], and mood changes (including irritability and anger). Effects observed at lower concentrations include neurological problems ([[encephalopathy]], psychomotor and psychological disturbances, [[polyneuritis]], abnormalities in nerve conduction), [[Hearing loss|hearing]] problems, vision problems (burning eyes, abnormal light reactions, increased [[intraocular pressure|ophthalmic pressure]]<!--blurred vision{{cn}}-->), heart problems (increased deaths for heart disease, [[angina pectoris]], [[hypertension|high blood pressure]]), reproductive problems (increased [[miscarriages]], [[Asthenozoospermia|immobile]] or [[Teratospermia|deformed]] sperm), and decreased immune response.<ref name="WHO">{{cite book |title=Air Quality Guidelines |date=2000 |publisher=WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark |edition=2 |url=https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/123058/AQG2ndEd_5_4carbodisulfide.PDF |access-date=31 July 2021 |chapter=Chapter 5.4 : Carbon disulfide |archive-date=18 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018194943/https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/123058/AQG2ndEd_5_4carbodisulfide.PDF |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2018-124/ |title=Preventing hearing loss caused by chemical (ototoxicity) and noise exposure. |date=2018-03-01 |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health |doi=10.26616/nioshpub2018124 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref><!--cramps, muscle weakness, pain, [[Neurophysiology|neurophysiological]] impairment, [[priapism]], [[erectile dysfunction]], [[psychosis]], [[keratitis]], and death by [[respiratory failure]]{{cn}}<ref name="Ullmann">Lay, Manchiu D. S.; Sauerhoff, Mitchell W.; Saunders, Donald R.; "Carbon Disulfide", in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2000 {{DOI| 10.1002/14356007.a05_185}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Golden Thread: How Fabric Changed History|last=St. Clair|first=Kassia|publisher=John Murray|year=2018|isbn=978-1-4736-5903-2|location=London|pages=213–215|oclc=1057250632}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blanc, M.D. |first1=Paul David |title=Fake Silk / The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon |date=15 November 2016 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300204667 |page=79 |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300204667/fake-silk |access-date=17 December 2020 |quote=in 1915,...[of 16] carbon disulfide poisoning cases....one worker had been briefly committed to an asylum and several others had experienced nervous system complaints...}}</ref>-->

[[Chemical hazard|Occupational exposure]] to carbon disulfide is also associated with [[cardiovascular disease]], particularly [[stroke]].<ref name="SBU2017">{{cite web |url=http://www.sbu.se/en/publications/sbu-assesses/occupational-health-and-safety--chemical-exposure/ |title=Occupational health and safety – chemical exposure |publisher=[[Swedish Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services]] (SBU) |website=www.sbu.se |language=en |access-date=2017-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606093333/http://www.sbu.se/en/publications/sbu-assesses/occupational-health-and-safety--chemical-exposure/ |archive-date=2017-06-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2000, the WHO believed that health harms were unlikely at levels below 100 μg/m³, and set this as a guideline level.{{needs update|date=November 2023}} Carbon disulfide can be smelled at levels above 200 μg/m³, and the WHO recommended a sensory guideline of below 20 μg/m³. Exposure to carbon disulfide is well-established to be harmful to health in concentrations at or above 30&nbsp;mg/m³. Changes in the function of the central nervous system have been observed at concentrations of 20–25&nbsp;mg/m³. There are also reports of harms to health at 10&nbsp;mg/m³, for exposures of 10–15 years, but the lack of good data on past exposure levels make the association of these harms with concentrations of 10&nbsp;mg/m³ findings uncertain. The measured concentration of 10&nbsp;mg/m³ may be equivalent to a concentration in the general environment of 1&nbsp;mg/m³.<ref name="WHO"/>

===Environmental sources===

The primary source of carbon disulfide in the environment is [[rayon]] factories.<ref name="WHO"/> Most global carbon disulfide emissions come from rayon production, as of 2008.<ref name=dir/> Other sources include the production of [[cellophane]], [[carbon tetrachloride]],<ref name=dir>{{cite web |url=https://www.dir.ca.gov/dosh/DoshReg/CarbonDisulfide5155-4-08.doc|type=DOC|title=Carbon Disulfide Health Effects Assessment for HEAC Discussion April 2008|date=April 2008|website=Division of Occupational Safety and Health|publisher=State of California Department of Industrial Relations|access-date=24 March 2023}}</ref> [[carbon black]], and sulfur recovery. Carbon disulfide production also emits hydrogen sulfide.<ref name=large-scale/>

{{as of|2004}}, about 250 g of carbon disulfide is emitted per kilogram of rayon produced. About 30 g of carbon disulfide is emitted per kilogram of carbon black produced. About 0.341 g of carbon disulfide is emitted per kilogram of sulfur recovered.<ref name=large-scale/>

Japan has reduced carbon disulfide emissions per kilogram of rayon produced, but in other rayon-producing countries, including China, emissions are assumed to be uncontrolled (based on global modelling and large-scale free-air concentration measurements). Rayon production is steady or decreasing except in China, where it is increasing, {{as of|lc=yes|2004}}.<ref name=large-scale>{{cite journal |last1=Blake |first1=Nicola J. |title=Carbonyl sulfide and carbon disulfide: Large-scale distributions over the western Pacific and emissions from Asia during TRACE-P |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |date=2004 |volume=109 |issue=D15 |pages=D15S05 |doi=10.1029/2003JD004259|bibcode=2004JGRD..10915S05B |s2cid=43793469 |url=https://scholars.unh.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1072&context=earthsci_facpub |doi-access=free }}</ref> Carbon black production in Japan and Korea uses incinerators to destroy about 99% of the carbon disulfide that would otherwise be emitted.<ref name=large-scale/> When used as a [[solvent]], Japanese emissions are about 40% of the carbon disulfide used; elsewhere, the average is about 80%.<ref name=large-scale/>

Most rayon production uses carbon sulfide.<ref name=SwanBlanc>{{cite news |last1=Swan |first1=Norman |last2=Blanc |first2=Paul |title=The health burden of viscose rayon |url=http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/healthreport/the-health-burden-of-viscose-rayon/8286870 |work=ABC Radio National |date=20 February 2017 |language=en|access-date=24 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="scientificamerican.com">{{cite magazine|title=Bamboo Boom: Is This Material for You?|author=Nijhuis, Michelle |magazine=Scientific American Special Editions|volume=19|issue=2|pages=60–65|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bamboo-boom/|access-date=24 March 2023|year=2009|bibcode=2009SciAm..19f..60N}}</ref> One exception is rayon made using the [[lyocell]] process, which uses a different solvent; {{as of|lc=yes|2018}} the lyocell process is not widely used, because it is more expensive than the viscose process.<ref name=brief>{{cite journal |title=Regenerated cellulose by the Lyocell process, a brief review of the process and properties :: BioResources |journal=BioRes |url=https://bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu/resources/regenerated-cellulose-by-the-lyocell-process-a-brief-review-of-the-process-and-properties/ |date=2018}}</ref><ref name=thesis>{{cite thesis |last1=Tierney |first1=John William |title=Kinetics of Cellulose Dissolution in N-MethylMorpholine-N-Oxide and Evaporative Processes of Similar Solutions |date=2005 |url=https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=3796&context=utk_gradthes}}</ref> [[Cuprammonium rayon]] also does not use carbon disulfide.

===Historic and current exposure===

Industrial workers working with carbon disulfide are at high risk. Emissions may also harm the health of people living near rayon plants.<ref name="WHO"/>

Concerns about carbon disulfide exposure have a long history.<ref name="Ullmann">Lay, Manchiu D. S.; Sauerhoff, Mitchell W.; Saunders, Donald R.; "Carbon Disulfide", in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2000 {{doi| 10.1002/14356007.a05_185}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Golden Thread: How Fabric Changed History|last=St. Clair|first=Kassia|publisher=John Murray|year=2018|isbn=978-1-4736-5903-2|location=London|pages=213–215|oclc=1057250632}}</ref><ref name="Blanc 2016">{{cite book |last1=Blanc, M.D. |first1=Paul David |title=Fake Silk / The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon |date=15 November 2016 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300204667 |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300204667/fake-silk |access-date=17 December 2020 |quote=in 1915,...[of 16] carbon disulfide poisoning cases....one worker had been briefly committed to an asylum and several others had experienced nervous system complaints...}}</ref>{{rp|79}} Around 1900, carbon disulfide came to be widely used in the production of [[vulcanized rubber]]. The [[psychosis]] produced by high exposures was immediately apparent (it has been reported with 6 months of exposure<ref name="WHO"/>). [[Sir Thomas Oliver]] told a story about a [[rubber factory]] that put bars on its windows so that the workers would not [[Suicide|jump out to their deaths]].<ref name="Blanc 2016"/>{{rp|17|\}} Carbon disulfide's use in the US as a heavier-than-air burrow poison for [[Richardson's ground squirrel]] also led to reports of psychosis. No systematic medical study of the issue was published, and knowledge was not transferred to the rayon industry.<ref name=SwanBlanc/>

The first large epidemiological study of rayon workers was done in the US in the late 1930s, and found fairly severe effects in 30% of the workers. Data on increased risks of heart attacks and strokes came out in the 1960s. [[Courtaulds]], a major [[rayon manufacturer]], worked hard to prevent publication of this data in the UK.<ref name=SwanBlanc/> Average concentrations in sampled rayon plants were reduced from about 250&nbsp;mg/m³ in 1955–1965 to about 20–30&nbsp;mg/m³ in the 1980s (US figures only?{{globalize inline|US|date=October 2021}}).<ref name="WHO"/> Rayon production has since largely moved to the developing world, especially China, Indonesia and India.<ref name="scientificamerican.com"/><ref name=SwanBlanc/>

Rates of [[disability]] in modern factories are unknown, {{as of|lc=yes|2016}}.<ref name="scientificamerican.com"/><ref name="Monosson">{{cite journal |doi= 10.1126/science.aak9834|pmid=27884997|title=Toxic textiles|year= 2016 |last1= Monosson |first1= Emily |journal= Science|volume= 354|issue= 6315 |page=977|bibcode= 2016Sci...354..977M|s2cid=45869497}}</ref> Current manufacturers using the [[viscose]] process do not provide any information on harm to their workers.<ref name=SwanBlanc/><ref name="scientificamerican.com"/>

==See also==

* [[Carbon monosulfide]]

* [[Ethenedithione]]

* [[Carbon subsulfide]]

* [[Carbon diselenide]]

* [[Carbon dioxide]]

* [[1949 Holland Tunnel fire]], accident with truck carrying carbon disulfide.

==References==

{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{Commons category|Carbon disulfide}}

{{EB1911 poster|Carbon Bisulphide}}

*[http://www.npi.gov.au/substances/carbon-disulfide/index.html Australian National Pollutant Inventory: Carbon disulfide]

*[https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0104.html CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Carbon Disulfide]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305094145/http://www.innomotionengg.com/ Inno Motion Engineering]

* Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry [https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=472&tid=84#bookmark05 Public Health Statement for Carbon Disulfide], 1996.

* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/carbon-disulfide/default.html Resources on Carbon Disulfide] by the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]]

* {{cite book |last1=Blanc |first1=Paul David |title=Fake silk : the lethal history of viscose rayon |date=2016 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=9780300204667 |pages=328 |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300204667/fake-silk}}

{{Carbon compounds}}

{{Sulfides}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Disulfide}}

[[Category:Sulfides]]

[[Category:Inorganic carbon compounds]]

[[Category:Inorganic sulfur compounds]]

[[Category:Inorganic solvents]]

[[Category:Hazardous air pollutants]]

[[Category:Neurotoxins]]

[[Category:Dichalcogenides]]

[[Category:Chemical hazards]]

[[Category:Foul-smelling chemicals]]

[[Category:IV-VI semiconductors]]