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The Hide Trade proved to gain momentum and come to its ultimate fruition as a result of Mexican Independence, when individual ranches replaced missions during Mexico’s “secularization” era in the 1820s.{{sfn|Bean|1968|pp=70-71}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|pp=167,178-179}} The number of large ranches increased exponentially by 1840, with cattle numbering over one million in the region.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=70}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=167}}{{sfn|Rolle|1969|p=115}} Though many nations including Russia and the United Kingdom came and traded along the California coastline at major ports, contributing to this economic growth, the United States became the most influential.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=74}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=178}} American trade initially began with sailors from New England, who found an interest in the California otter and seal skins industry which diminished in prominence rapidly after the beginning of the nineteenth century.{{sfn|Bean|1968|pp=74-75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=178}}{{sfn|Gibson|1992|p=259}} As hides and tallow replaced seals and otters as the primary products of commerce, corporations such as John Begg and Company of the United Kingdom{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=178}} and Bryant and Sturgis, William Appleton and Company, and Marshall and Wildes of Boston began to demonstrate a vested interest in the hide trade.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=179}}{{sfn|Gibson|1992|pp=259-260}}{{sfn|Rolle|1969|p=135}} The John Begg and Company representatives Hugh McCullough and William Hartnell were able to ensure British influence in the trade for three years beginning in 1822, the de facto first year of the enterprise.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=179}}{{sfn|Rolle|1969|p=135}} Competition between the two powers escalated over dominance in the trade, with the United States eventually gaining the upper hand.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=179}} The flourishing corporation of Bryant and Sturgis itself grew to become the most influential private business venture, facilitated by its associate William Gale,{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=179}} taking in four fifths of all hides gotten in California.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=179}}{{sfn|Rolle|1969|p=135}} The influence of Bryant and Sturgis proved so pervasive that locals equated the company’s city of headquarters, Boston, with the entire United States.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}} Thus, American influence in the region can be traced back as far as the 1820s.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}
The Hide Trade proved to gain momentum and come to its ultimate fruition as a result of Mexican Independence, when individual ranches replaced missions during Mexico’s “secularization” era in the 1820s.{{sfn|Bean|1968|pp=70-71}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|pp=167,178-179}} The number of large ranches increased exponentially by 1840, with cattle numbering over one million in the region.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=70}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=167}}{{sfn|Rolle|1969|p=115}} Though many nations including Russia and the United Kingdom came and traded along the California coastline at major ports, contributing to this economic growth, the United States became the most influential.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=74}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=178}} American trade initially began with sailors from New England, who found an interest in the California otter and seal skins industry which diminished in prominence rapidly after the beginning of the nineteenth century.{{sfn|Bean|1968|pp=74-75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=178}}{{sfn|Gibson|1992|p=259}} As hides and tallow replaced seals and otters as the primary products of commerce, corporations such as John Begg and Company of the United Kingdom{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=178}} and Bryant and Sturgis, William Appleton and Company, and Marshall and Wildes of Boston began to demonstrate a vested interest in the hide trade.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=179}}{{sfn|Gibson|1992|pp=259-260}}{{sfn|Rolle|1969|p=135}} The John Begg and Company representatives Hugh McCullough and William Hartnell were able to ensure British influence in the trade for three years beginning in 1822, the de facto first year of the enterprise.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=179}}{{sfn|Rolle|1969|p=135}} Competition between the two powers escalated over dominance in the trade, with the United States eventually gaining the upper hand.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=179}} The flourishing corporation of Bryant and Sturgis itself grew to become the most influential private business venture, facilitated by its associate William Gale,{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=179}} taking in four fifths of all hides gotten in California.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=179}}{{sfn|Rolle|1969|p=135}} The influence of Bryant and Sturgis proved so pervasive that locals equated the company’s city of headquarters, Boston, with the entire United States.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}} Thus, American influence in the region can be traced back as far as the 1820s.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=75}}


California, during the tenure of the successful hide trade, represented a significant crossroads of various cultures, a frontier shaped by diverse peoples from around the world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Caughey|first=John Walton|title=California|year=1953|publisher=Prentice-Hall|location=New York|page=167}}</ref> Native Americans including the [[Tlingit]], [[Chinook people|Chinook]], [[Kodiak Archipelago|Kodiak]], [[Haida people|Haida]], [[Aleut]] and [[Tsimshian]] groups as well as others often interacted with white traders, at times giving way to positive and negative experiences.<ref>{{cite book|last=Malloy|first=Mary|title="Boston Men" on the Northwest Coast: The American Maritime Fur Trade 1788-1844|year=1998|publisher=The Limestone Press|location=Kingston, Ontario; Fairbanks, Alaska|pages=42,43,82,91}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gibson|first=James R.|title=Otter Skins, Boston Ships, and China Goods: The Maritime Fur Trade of the Northwest Coast, 1785-1841|year=1992|publisher=University of Washington Press, McGill-Queen's University Press|location=Seattle, Montreal|page=259}}</ref> Often seeking areas where their trade was less prominent, otter-hunting Tlingit Native Americans would board the ships of foreign captains to travel from Alaska elsewhere.<ref>{{cite book|last=Malloy|first=Mary|title="Boston Men" on the Northwest Coast: The American Maritime Fur Trade 1788-1844|year=1998|publisher=The Limestone Press|location=Kingston, Ontario; Fairbanks, Alaska|pages=80,88,96,124,177}}</ref> Undoubtedly, Tlingits benefited from commercial trade as well, obtaining objects like copper, porcelain, buttons, and dishes that they may not have come upon otherwise.<ref>{{cite book|last=Malloy|first=Mary|title="Boston Men" on the Northwest Coast: The American Maritime Fur Trade 1788-1844|year=1998|publisher=The Limestone Press|location=Kingston, Ontario; Fairbanks, Alaska|pages=12,19}}</ref> Oftentimes, American or British traders and sailors from the east would stay in California, becoming some of the first Americans to settle in the region, living and intermarrying with Spanish families as a result of Mexico’s relaxed and welcoming laws regarding resident aliens.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rolle|first=Andrew F.|title=California: A History|year=1969|publisher=Thomas Y. Crowell Company|location=New York|pages=136-137}}</ref> Eventually, by the 1840s, the originally booming hide and tallow trade began to diminish in significance, the cause proving to be the overabundance of hides now in the eastern markets of Boston created by the trade itself.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gibson|first=James R.|title=Otter Skins, Boston Ships, and China Goods: The Maritime Fur Trade of the Northwest Coast, 1785-1841|year=1992|publisher=University of Washington Press, McGill-Queen's University Press|location=Seattle, Montreal|page=260}}</ref> Stories and accounts of the region such as [[Richard Henry Dana, Jr.]]’s ''[[Two Years Before the Mast]]''<ref>{{cite book|last=Bean|first=Walton|title=California: An Interpretive History|year=1968|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|page=76}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Caughey|first=John Walton|title=California|year=1953|publisher=Prentice-Hall|location=New York|page=181}}</ref> and [[Alfred Robinson]]’s ''Life in California'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Caughey|first=John Walton|title=California|year=1953|publisher=Prentice-Hall|location=New York|pages=180-181}}</ref> seen through the eyes of sailors and voyagers, gave rise to a great fascination and recognition of the California region.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bean|first=Walton|title=California: An Interpretive History|year=1968|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|pages=75-76}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Caughey|first=John Walton|title=California|year=1953|publisher=Prentice-Hall|location=New York|pages=180-181}}</ref> Setting an important historical antecedent, the California Hide Trade contributed to a dream of Western promise and success in the minds of Americans back East which helped inspire droves of immigrants during the Gold Rush, according to the historian John Caughey, who states, “The hide and tallow trade had made California an outpost of New England”.<ref>{{cite book|last=Caughey|first=John Walton|title=California|year=1953|publisher=Prentice-Hall|location=New York|page=181}}</ref> Ultimately, the California Hide Trade set an important precedent which would impact the way the people looked at the West for decades to come.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bean|first=Walton|title=California: An Interpretive History|year=1968|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|page=76}}</ref> For those interested in further information, The [[Peabody Essex Museum]] located in [[Salem, Massachusetts]] provides one of many, unique places where one can learn firsthand about the California Hide Trade.<ref>{{cite book|last=Malloy|first=Mary|title="Boston Men" on the Northwest Coast: The American Maritime Fur Trade 1788-1844|year=1998|publisher=The Limestone Press|location=Kingston, Ontario; Fairbanks, Alaska|pages=227-228}}</ref>
California, during the tenure of the successful hide trade, represented a significant crossroads of various cultures, a frontier shaped by diverse peoples from around the world.{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=167}} Native Americans including the [[Tlingit]], [[Chinook people|Chinook]], [[Kodiak Archipelago|Kodiak]], [[Haida people|Haida]], [[Aleut]] and [[Tsimshian]] groups as well as others often interacted with white traders, at times giving way to positive and negative experiences.{{sfn|Malloy|1998|pp=42-43,82,91}}{{sfn|Gibson|1992|p=259}} Often seeking areas where their trade was less prominent, otter-hunting Tlingit Native Americans would board the ships of foreign captains to travel from Alaska elsewhere.{{sfn|1998|pp=80,88,96,124,177}} Undoubtedly, Tlingits benefited from commercial trade as well, obtaining objects like copper, porcelain, buttons, and dishes that they may not have come upon otherwise.{{sfn|Malloy|1998|pp=12,19}} Oftentimes, American or British traders and sailors from the east would stay in California, becoming some of the first Americans to settle in the region, living and intermarrying with Spanish families as a result of Mexico’s relaxed and welcoming laws regarding resident aliens.{{sfn|Rolle|1969|pp=136-137}} Eventually, by the 1840s, the originally booming hide and tallow trade began to diminish in significance, the cause proving to be the overabundance of hides now in the eastern markets of Boston created by the trade itself.{{sfn|Gibson|1992|p=260}}

Stories and accounts of the region such as [[Richard Henry Dana, Jr.]]’s ''[[Two Years Before the Mast]]''{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=76}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=181}} and [[Alfred Robinson]]’s ''Life in California'',{{sfn|Caughey|1953|pp=180-181}} seen through the eyes of sailors and voyagers, gave rise to a great fascination and recognition of the California region.{{sfn|Bean|1968|pp=75-76}}{{sfn|Caughey|1953|pp=180-181}} Setting an important historical antecedent, the California Hide Trade contributed to a dream of Western promise and success in the minds of Americans back East which helped inspire droves of immigrants during the Gold Rush, according to the historian John Caughey, who states, “The hide and tallow trade had made California an outpost of New England”.{{sfn|Caughey|1953|p=181}} Ultimately, the California Hide Trade set an important precedent which would impact the way the people looked at the West for decades to come.{{sfn|Bean|1968|p=76}} For those interested in further information, The [[Peabody Essex Museum]] located in [[Salem, Massachusetts]] provides one of many, unique places where one can learn firsthand about the California Hide Trade.{{sfn|Malloy|1998|pp=227-228}}


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 19:43, 16 May 2013

Illustration from the 1840 book Two Years Before the Mast

The California Hide Trade was a vast trading system of various products based in cities along the California coastline, operating from the early 1820s to the mid-1840s, in turn becoming the most essential constituent of that region’s contemporary economy.[1][2] The trade encompassed cities extending from Canton in China to Lima in Peru to Boston, involving a slew of nations such as Russia, Mexico, the United States, and the United Kingdom. In this process, sailors from around the globe often representing corporations swapped finished goods of all kinds from Boston and other cities in exchange for tens of thousands of hides[3] (dried animal skins) and tallow (melted animal fat) procured from cattle owned by California ranchers.

Process of trade

A Californian rancher takes in cattle, a duty that would begin the process of the California Hide Trade.

The vast reaching California Hide Trade began humbly with the making of its eponymous products, hide and tallow, during the early nineteenth century around 1810.[2] Rancheros, affluent cattle farmers, and their vaqueros cared for free-ranging livestock along the Californian seaboard with the help of a Native American workforce. The cattle was not only the source of their food and many common supplies, but also their economy and livelihood.[4][5][6] The often overabundant hides of the cattle were taken near the shore and the remaining fat from the cattle was liquefied and separated, thus creating tallow, collected in repositories crafted from hides known as botas.[7][8][9][10] Both goods would be stockpiled near hub ports like San Diego and Monterey to await sale to international trading vessels.[11][12] Hide skins would first need to be cured, cleaned, stretched, dried in the summer sun, whipped, salted, and folded, a long and tedious process completed by sailors themselves with the aid of Native Americans and the Hawaiian Kanaka peoples, together called ‘“droghers”’.[7][13][14][15] Then, the dried hides would be taken from the stocks, loaded painstakingly onto boats and rowed to a ship which might be three miles away.[16][12] The hides, after this process, would be shipped to the eastern United States on vessels bound for Boston and the Northeast, where they would be crafted for use into leather-based goods like shoes and boots.[1][2] Constituting the most widely traded good, the California hides were often known as ‘“California banknotes”’ due to their incredible prominence.[17] The tallow, on the other hand, would be taken on vessels to South American countries such as Peru and Chile was used to make candles and soap.[18][2] In order to take part in the exchange itself, the Mexican government which ruled California at this time, instituted an initial fee for foreign ships to pay upon entry into the coastal waters, a fee often manipulated and avoided by trading captains through subterfuge and bribery of collectors.[17][19] A tariff system charging up to 15,000 pesos enacted by the Mexican government would be paid at the coastal city of Monterey which allowed trading vessels to buy and sell goods up and down the California shore.[17][20] To be able to evade the tariff was considered the mark of a professional and a badge of honor by many captains of the day.[21][17] Predominantly American vessels, which negotiated high tariffs on their payloads via honest or dishonest means,[17][20] often saw returns three times the value of the cargo which they brought.[17][19] At the same time, Californions were able to purchase any number of manufactured products from trading ships, notably described by the traveler Richard Henry Dana as ‘“floating department stores”’.[16][20] Various products purchased by Californios proved to be diverse and significant, many being finished goods not fabricated in the region, including silk, wine, sugar, lace, cotton, hats, horses, clothes, tobacco, cutlery and tea from abroad.[16][22][20][19][14][23][24]

Hubs of influence

This map effectively illustrates some of the key trading ports which would send vessels to and from the California coast to participate in the trade.

By the mid-1820s, the Hide and Tallow Trade, facilitated by Spanish missions and their clergy and later replaced by private ranches,[25][26][27] represented the key profitable industry in California, taxes on their primary products propping up the regional economy and infrastructure.[28] Major cities such as San Diego, Santa Cruz, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, San Pedro and Monterey would grow to prominence and success in California as instrumental ports of commerce.[17][29] Copious, prepared hides were taken onto Bostonian ships in California which sailed up and down the California shoreline, arriving and trading at these cities perhaps for four months at a time. The efficient crew proceeded to stock purchased hides in San Diego until tens of thousands of hides had been gathered over a period of a few years, now having obtained an expedient and suitable count for the return journey.[12][14][30] Some round-trip ventures could take as many as three years for one conscripted ship.[12] Goods from the trade would reach various corners of the globe including Canton in the Far East, Lima in Peru in South America, and Boston in New England. The Hawaiian ports of Honolulu and Oahu existed as significant destinations and ports of call along the way to California,[23] China, and other destinations such as the Russian ports, Petropavlovsk, Fort Ross and Sitka, and the Sandwich Islands as well.[2][31][32][33][34] Hawaii itself, under British sovereignty, existed as a great hub of trade, providing unique goods such as tobacco which could be sold in California and elsewhere, while also becoming a safe haven in the winter for ships engaged in the hide trade.[23] Canton in China provided a tempting market for seal and otter skins procured mostly earlier in the century on the California coast before the seal and otter populations started to wane, the skins sometimes fetching over twelve times their original value.[35][36][37] Fort Vancouver, another British protectorate, provided a key jumping point to the California coast as the Hudson Bay Company came to power in the area.[33] The geographical extent of the trade grew to become a global enterprise.

International political ramifications and multicultural interactions

This image depicts the USS Boston, a contemporary vessel the likes of which would be trading in California ports like San Diego, Monterey, and Santa Barbara.

The Hide Trade proved to gain momentum and come to its ultimate fruition as a result of Mexican Independence, when individual ranches replaced missions during Mexico’s “secularization” era in the 1820s.[7][26] The number of large ranches increased exponentially by 1840, with cattle numbering over one million in the region.[1][38][6] Though many nations including Russia and the United Kingdom came and traded along the California coastline at major ports, contributing to this economic growth, the United States became the most influential.[39][2] American trade initially began with sailors from New England, who found an interest in the California otter and seal skins industry which diminished in prominence rapidly after the beginning of the nineteenth century.[35][2][37] As hides and tallow replaced seals and otters as the primary products of commerce, corporations such as John Begg and Company of the United Kingdom[17][2] and Bryant and Sturgis, William Appleton and Company, and Marshall and Wildes of Boston began to demonstrate a vested interest in the hide trade.[17][20][40][41] The John Begg and Company representatives Hugh McCullough and William Hartnell were able to ensure British influence in the trade for three years beginning in 1822, the de facto first year of the enterprise.[17][20][41] Competition between the two powers escalated over dominance in the trade, with the United States eventually gaining the upper hand.[42] The flourishing corporation of Bryant and Sturgis itself grew to become the most influential private business venture, facilitated by its associate William Gale,[17][20] taking in four fifths of all hides gotten in California.[17][20][41] The influence of Bryant and Sturgis proved so pervasive that locals equated the company’s city of headquarters, Boston, with the entire United States.[17] Thus, American influence in the region can be traced back as far as the 1820s.[17]

California, during the tenure of the successful hide trade, represented a significant crossroads of various cultures, a frontier shaped by diverse peoples from around the world.[38] Native Americans including the Tlingit, Chinook, Kodiak, Haida, Aleut and Tsimshian groups as well as others often interacted with white traders, at times giving way to positive and negative experiences.[43][37] Often seeking areas where their trade was less prominent, otter-hunting Tlingit Native Americans would board the ships of foreign captains to travel from Alaska elsewhere.[44] Undoubtedly, Tlingits benefited from commercial trade as well, obtaining objects like copper, porcelain, buttons, and dishes that they may not have come upon otherwise.[45] Oftentimes, American or British traders and sailors from the east would stay in California, becoming some of the first Americans to settle in the region, living and intermarrying with Spanish families as a result of Mexico’s relaxed and welcoming laws regarding resident aliens.[46] Eventually, by the 1840s, the originally booming hide and tallow trade began to diminish in significance, the cause proving to be the overabundance of hides now in the eastern markets of Boston created by the trade itself.[19]

Stories and accounts of the region such as Richard Henry Dana, Jr.’s Two Years Before the Mast[16][47] and Alfred Robinson’s Life in California,[48] seen through the eyes of sailors and voyagers, gave rise to a great fascination and recognition of the California region.[49][48] Setting an important historical antecedent, the California Hide Trade contributed to a dream of Western promise and success in the minds of Americans back East which helped inspire droves of immigrants during the Gold Rush, according to the historian John Caughey, who states, “The hide and tallow trade had made California an outpost of New England”.[47] Ultimately, the California Hide Trade set an important precedent which would impact the way the people looked at the West for decades to come.[16] For those interested in further information, The Peabody Essex Museum located in Salem, Massachusetts provides one of many, unique places where one can learn firsthand about the California Hide Trade.[50]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c Bean 1968, p. 70.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Caughey 1953, p. 178.
  3. ^ Davis 1929, p. 256.
  4. ^ Bean, pp. 70–71.
  5. ^ Caughey 1953, p. 168,178.
  6. ^ a b Rolle 1969, p. 115.
  7. ^ a b c Bean 1968, pp. 70–71.
  8. ^ Caughey 1963, p. 168,178.
  9. ^ Rolle 1969, p. 116,136.
  10. ^ Davis 1929, pp. 35–36.
  11. ^ Bean 1968, p. 71.
  12. ^ a b c d Caughey 1953, p. 180.
  13. ^ Caughey, p. 167,180.
  14. ^ a b c Rolle 1969, p. 136.
  15. ^ Davis 1929, p. 35-36,153.
  16. ^ a b c d e Bean 1968, p. 76.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Bean 1968, p. 75.
  18. ^ Bean 1968, p. 170.
  19. ^ a b c d Gibson 1992, p. 260.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h Caughey 1953, p. 179.
  21. ^ Malloy 1998, p. 88.
  22. ^ Malloy 1998, p. 80.
  23. ^ a b c Gough 1971, p. 36.
  24. ^ Davis 1929, p. 8.
  25. ^ Bean 1968, pp. 65, 70, 71.
  26. ^ a b Caughey 1953, pp. 167, 178–179.
  27. ^ Davis 1929, p. 204.
  28. ^ Bean 1968, pp. 65, 70.
  29. ^ Davis 1929, p. 153.
  30. ^ Davis 1929, pp. 153–154.
  31. ^ Malloy 1998, pp. 76, 80, 96, 124.
  32. ^ Gibson 1992, pp. 260–261.
  33. ^ a b Gough 1971, p. 41.
  34. ^ Davis 1929, p. 31.
  35. ^ a b Bean 1968, pp. 74–75.
  36. ^ Malloy 1998, pp. 80, 96.
  37. ^ a b c Gibson 1992, p. 259.
  38. ^ a b Caughey 1953, p. 167.
  39. ^ Bean 1968, p. 74.
  40. ^ Gibson 1992, pp. 259–260.
  41. ^ a b c Rolle 1969, p. 135.
  42. ^ Bean 1968, p. 179.
  43. ^ Malloy 1998, pp. 42–43, 82, 91.
  44. ^ 1998, pp. 80, 88, 96, 124, 177.
  45. ^ Malloy 1998, pp. 12, 19.
  46. ^ Rolle 1969, pp. 136–137.
  47. ^ a b Caughey 1953, p. 181.
  48. ^ a b Caughey 1953, pp. 180–181.
  49. ^ Bean 1968, pp. 75–76.
  50. ^ Malloy 1998, pp. 227–228.

References

  • Bean, Walton (1968). California: An Interpretive History. New York: McGraw-Hill. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Caughey, John Walton (1953). California. New York: Prentice-Hall. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Davis, William Heath (1929). Seventy-Five Years in California. San Francisco: John Howell. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Gibson, James R. (1992). Otter Skins, Boston Ships, and China Goods: The Maritime Fur Trade of the Northwest Coast, 1785-1841. Seattle,Montreal: University of Washington Press, McGill-Queen's University Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Gough, Barry M. (1971). The Royal Navy and the Northwest Coast of North America, 1810-1914: A Study of British Maritime Ascendancy. Vancouver: University of British Columbia. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Malloy, Mary (1998). Boston Men on the Northwest Coast: The American Maritime Fur Trade 1788-1844. Kingston, Ontario;Fairbanks, Alaska: The Limestone Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Rolle, Andrew F. (1969). California: A History. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
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