Neighborhood planning
Neighborhood planning is a form of urban planning through which professional urban planners and communities seek to shape new and existing neighborhoods. It can denote the process of creating a physical neighborhood plan, for example via participatory planning, or an ongoing process through which neighborhood affairs are decided.[1]
The concept of the neighborhood as a spatial unit has a long and contested history.[2][3] In 1915, Robert E. Park and E. W. Burgess introduced the idea of "neighborhood" as an ecological concept with urban planning implications. Since then, many concepts and ideas of a neighborhood have emerged,[4] including the influential concept of the neighborhood unit. The history of neighborhood planning in the United States extends over a century.[5] City planners have used this process to combat a range a social problems such as community disintegration, economic marginalization, and environmental degradation.[6] The concept was partially employed during the development of new towns in the United Kingdom. The process has been revived as a form of community-led planning in England under the Localism Act 2011.[7]
Neighborhood planning process
There is no set process for neighborhood planning. In some cases, such as statutory neighbourhood planning in England, regulations establish formal steps in the process such as being designated by the Local Planning Authority. The following six steps are typical of a general neighborhood planning process:
- Defining the neighborhood boundaries
- Public engagement and consultation
- Evidence collection
- Plan-writing
- Implementation
- Evaluation and monitoring
The first step in planning for a neighborhood is to define the boundaries of the neighborhood. Neighborhoods can be difficult to define geographically, although neighborhood planning can work with all scales of area, from urban neighborhoods to rural areas. The process of defining boundaries can sometimes be problematic, for example if some areas do not want certain streets or houses to be included within a neighborhood boundary. More than one neighborhood district may attempt to claim a certain street or group of homes. Less problematic neighborhood boundary definitions are sometimes based on existing natural boundaries such as rivers, existing administrative boundaries, or based on census information.
After the boundaries of the plan are established, those leading the plan should decide how to get the wider neighborhood involved with the planning process. To define the goals of the plan, public participation of local residents and stakeholders is often considered central. A city official may do all of the planning with minimal contact or input from the residents or the plan may undertaken by a self-selected group of residents who do not seek or else ignore input from others in the neighborhood. However it typically assumed that the involvement of as many residents as possible is desirable, or the outcome may lack critical information and perspectives and thus not fully represent the desires of the neighborhood residents.
Many strategies may be used to involve neighborhood residents in the planning process and outreach methods may be used to generate interest. Planners can involve neighbors by collecting data and information about the area and how the residents use it. Community development practitioners are often asked to assist with consultation as they can act as an independent facilitator to engagement. Planners can then combine the information they have gathered from residents with other evidence at their disposal. This might include retail or employment surveys, demographic data or housing needs assessments.
Once data from community consultation and evidence collection have been collated, a neighbourhood plan can be drafted. Successful neighbourhood plans typically seek to deliver community wishes in ways that are supported by the underpinning evidence. This may be achieved by generating policy alternatives before consulting again with the wider community to decide among them. The next step is to figure out how to implement the plan the committee has created. This requires the planning committee to decide what actions need to take place effectively implement the plan. The committee must decide what resources are available, and how to create more available resources.
The final step of neighborhood planning is generally considered to be evaluating and monitoring. Planning and sustaining a functional neighborhood involves iterations of work and decision-making, and so plans may also be revised or replaced by a new plan.
Neighbourhood Planning in England
A statutory form of Neighborhood Planning was introduced in England by the Localism Act 2011.[8] This allowed designated qualifying bodies (either a Parish or Town Council, or neighbourhood forum made of up of local residents) to produce a Neighbourhood Development Plan setting planning policy for the relevant neighbourhood. Neighbourhood Development Plans must pass certain Basic Conditions to the satisfaction of an independent examiner before advancing to a local referendum. If successful at referendum, the Neighbourhood Development Plan becomes a statutory planning document that the Local Planning Authority must consider in future planning decisions.[9]
Critiques of participation
Efforts to promote public participation through neighborhood planning have been widely critiqued. There is particular concern regarding the potential capture of the public into the sphere of influence of governance stakeholders, leaving communities frustrated by participatory initiatives.[10] In England, where communities may produce statutory Neighbourhood Development Plans, evidence has shown that neighborhood planning has promoted sustainability and social purpose in the housing market,[11] however it has also been critiqued for concentrating too heavily on housing growth at the expense of community empowerment.[12] That neighborhood planning is a complex and often burdensome process,[13] primarily undertaken by more affluent, rural neighborhoods has also been long-standing criticism.[14][15] Researchers have questioned whether Neighbourhood Planning in England is democratically legitimate where those leading the plan are not representative of the wider community.[16]
See also
References
- ^ Talen, Emily (2019-07-01). "Plan vs. Process: The Case of Neighbourhood Planning". Built Environment. 45 (2): 173–189. doi:10.2148/benv.45.2.173. S2CID 198641088.
- ^ Talen, Emily (2017-05-01). "Social science and the planned neighbourhood". Town Planning Review. 88 (3): 349–372. doi:10.3828/tpr.2017.22. Retrieved 2021-04-25.
- ^ Talen, Emily (2019). Neighborhood. New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-19-090752-5. OCLC 1066247708.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Sharifi, Ayyoob (September 2015). "From Garden City to Eco-urbanism: The quest for sustainable neighborhood development". Sustainable Cities and Society. 20: 1–16. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2015.09.002.
- ^ Silver, Christopher (1985-06-30). "Neighborhood Planning in Historical Perspective". Journal of the American Planning Association. 51 (2): 161–174. doi:10.1080/01944368508976207. ISSN 0194-4363.
- ^ Rohe, William M. (2009-03-27). "From Local to Global: One Hundred Years of Neighborhood Planning". Journal of the American Planning Association. 75 (2): 209–230. doi:10.1080/01944360902751077. ISSN 0194-4363. S2CID 154967605.
- ^ Wills, Jane (2016-07-01). "Emerging geographies of English localism: The case of neighbourhood planning". Political Geography. 53: 43–53. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2016.02.001. hdl:10871/31528. ISSN 0962-6298. S2CID 146853535.
- ^ Parker, Gavin; Lynn, Tessa; Wargent, Matthew (September 2015). "Sticking to the script? The co-production of neighbourhood planning in England". Town Planning Review. 86 (5): 519–536. doi:10.3828/tpr.2015.31. ISSN 0041-0020.
- ^ "Neighbourhood planning". www.rtpi.org.uk. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
- ^ O’Hare, Paul (March 2018). "Resisting the 'Long-Arm' of the State? Spheres of Capture and Opportunities for Autonomy in Community Governance: RESISTING THE 'LONG-ARM' OF THE STATE?" (PDF). International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 42 (2): 210–225. doi:10.1111/1468-2427.12606.
- ^ Bradley, Quintin; Sparling, William (2017-01-02). "The Impact of Neighbourhood Planning and Localism on House-building in England". Housing, Theory and Society. 34 (1): 106–118. doi:10.1080/14036096.2016.1197852. ISSN 1403-6096. S2CID 157001610.
- ^ Wargent, Matthew (2020-05-04). "Localism, governmentality and failing technologies: the case of Neighbourhood Planning in England". Territory, Politics, Governance. 9 (4): 571–591. doi:10.1080/21622671.2020.1737209. ISSN 2162-2671. S2CID 212940938.
- ^ Parker, Gavin (2019). Neighbourhood planning in practice : concise guides to planning. Kat Salter, Matthew Wargent. London: Lund Humphries. ISBN 978-1-84822-284-7. OCLC 1082356220.
- ^ Parker, Gavin; Lynn, Tessa; Wargent, Matthew (2015-09-01). "Sticking to the script? The co-production of neighbourhood planning in England". Town Planning Review. 86 (5): 519–536. doi:10.3828/tpr.2015.31. Retrieved 2021-04-22.
- ^ Localism and neighbourhood planning : power to the people?. Sue Brownill, Quintin Bradley. Bristol, UK. 2017. ISBN 978-1-4473-2951-0. OCLC 968554841.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Davoudi, Simin; Cowie, Paul (2013-12-01). "Are English neighbourhood forums democratically legitimate?". Planning Theory & Practice. 14 (4): 562–566. doi:10.1080/14649357.2013.851880. ISSN 1464-9357. S2CID 144979071.