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Claviscopulia

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Claviscopulia
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Porifera
Class: Hexactinellida
Order: Sceptrulophora
Family: Farreidae
Genus: Claviscopulia
Schulze, 1899 [1]
Species

Claviscopulia is a genus of glass sponge in the family Farreidae.[3]

Background

Claviscopulia is one of the genus in the family Farreidae under a class of glass sponges or Hexactinellida. Hexactinellida is one of four classes of phylum Porifera. [4]

Hexactinellida can exist in many different forms and shapes: sac, vase, blade, and branching. Hexactinellida is distinguished from the other three classes of sponge for its siliceous skeletal arrangements (spicules), triaxonic symmetry (six-rayed spicules or hexactins), and its huge soft tissue structures.[5]

Glass sponges provide shelter and nutrients for many sea life. They make up a large amount of biomass because they are often found in large sizes.[6]

They can live up to more than 100 years and are thought to be the oldest metazoans according to fossil records. However, despite being the oldest metazoans, glass sponges are the most understudied compared to other Porifera classes. The phylogenetic relationships between each genuses are still being studied.[7] What we know about glass sponges is that they break down into two subtaxa which are Hexasterophora and Amphidiscophora.[7] The two subtaxa are separated by their skeletal characteristics: Hexaters and Amphidisc microscleres. Hexasterophora consists of 17 families under 5 orders while Amphidiscophora have 1 order and 3 families. There are about known 600 species within Hexactinellida, but it is thought to be even more diverse.[4]

Description

Claviscopulia is under Farreidae which is under the order Sceptrulophora. Sceptrulophora is characterized by its sceptrule spicules and dictyonal framework. Dictyonal Framework are mesh-like or net-like arrangements that are either irregular or polygonal that make up the entire body structures. In another word, the internal structure of Claviscopulia is made out of hexactins that are fused together. The dictyonal framework is a unique characteristic for genuses under the Farreidae family.[8]

Claviscopulia facunda has sceptrule head that is a brush-like shape. The genus has what we called farreoid dictyonal framework with clavules. Claviscopulia has a central cylindrical tube that has a diameter range from 8 to 10 mm and about 1 mm in thickness. The tube is then connected to the head which can branch out to more than 80 mm in diameter. Claviscopulia also have unicates and pentactins with spiny rays but no narrow-headed scopules. Its microscleres are also in the form of hexasters, hemi-heaxasters, and hexactins.[9]

Claviscopulia used to be put into the family Euretidae until 1927 when a marine biologist, Isao Ijima realized that the sarules of Claviscopulia were made out of diactins, not monactins, so it could not be considered modified scopules. [10]

Claviscopulia is thought to be homologous with a genus Sarostegia because they both possess sarules.[10] Even though Sarostegia has a euretoid framework instead of farreoid framework, it is placed into the family Farreidae because of its similarity in possessing the sarules like Claviscopulia. However, Sarostegia has shorter sarules and pine-cone shaped sceptrule head unlike Claviscopulia's which is more brush-like shape.[8]

Diet

Glass sponges feed through filtering microscopic-size food from water. Glass sponges are distinct filter-feeders that thrive in thedeeper part of the ocean even though plankton concentrations are considerably low. They are supported by food sources that come as a result of strong current or the bacteria from sediments.[11]

Reproductive

Glass sponges are viviparous. They produce trichimella larvae. The development of trichimella start with cleavage, blastula, morphogenesis, and, lastly, larva. The cleavage is the first process of reproduction in metazoan where the multicellularity and ooplasmic segregation are created. [12]

Distribution

Glass sponges such as Claviscopulia are found worldwide in both hard and soft substrates and in the deeper part of the sea ranging from around 200m to more than 6000m. In some cases, glass sponges live in shallower areas like the submarine caves in Mediterranean or off the coast of British Columbia.[13]

References

  1. ^ Schulze, F.E. (1899). Amerikanische Hexactinelliden, nach dem Materiale der Albatross-Expedition. (Fischer: Jena): 1-126, pls I-XIX. page(s): 76
  2. ^ Schmidt, O. (1870). Grundzüge einer Spongien-Fauna des atlantischen Gebietes. (Wilhelm Engelmann: Leipzig): iii-iv, 1-88, pls I-VI. page(s): 16-17
  3. ^ "Claviscopulia". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species.
  4. ^ a b Henkel, D.; Borkenhagen, K.; Janussen, D. (November 2015). "Phylogeny of the Hexactinellida: phylogenetic reconstruction of the subclass Hexasterophora based on morphological characters". Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 95 (7): 1365–1369. doi:10.1017/S0025315413000180. ISSN 0025-3154. S2CID 86613491.
  5. ^ Dohrmann, Martin; Kelley, Christopher; Kelly, Michelle; Pisera, Andrzej; Hooper, John N. A.; Reiswig, Henry M. (December 2017). "An integrative systematic framework helps to reconstruct skeletal evolution of glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida)". Frontiers in Zoology. 14 (1): 18. doi:10.1186/s12983-017-0191-3. ISSN 1742-9994. PMC 5359874. PMID 28331531.
  6. ^ Reiswig, Henry M.; Dohrmann, Martin (June 2014). "Three new species of glass sponges (Porifera: Hexactinellida) from the West Indies, and molecular phylogenetics of Euretidae and Auloplacidae (Sceptrulophora): Three New West Indies Glass Sponges". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 171 (2): 233–253. doi:10.1111/zoj.12138. S2CID 82429774.
  7. ^ a b Kersken, Daniel; Kocot, Kevin; Janussen, Dorte; Schell, Tilman; Pfenninger, Markus; Martínez Arbizu, Pedro (April 2018). "First insights into the phylogeny of deep-sea glass sponges (Hexactinellida) from polymetallic nodule fields in the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCFZ), northeastern Pacific". Hydrobiologia. 811 (1): 283–293. doi:10.1007/s10750-017-3498-3. ISSN 0018-8158. S2CID 3780848.
  8. ^ a b Dohrmann, Martin; Göcke, Christian; Janussen, Dorte; Reitner, Joachim; Lüter, Carsten; Wörheide, Gert (December 2011). "Systematics and spicule evolution in dictyonal sponges (Hexactinellida: Sceptrulophora) with description of two new species: EVOLUTION OF SCEPTRULOPHORAN SPONGES". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 163 (4): 1003–1025. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00753.x.
  9. ^ Lopes, Daniela A.; Tabachnick, Konstantin R. (June 2013). "New data on glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) of the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Part 1. Farreidae". Marine Biology Research. 9 (5–6): 462–468. doi:10.1080/17451000.2012.749995. ISSN 1745-1000. S2CID 85398589.
  10. ^ a b TABACHNICK, KONSTANTIN R.; MENSHENINA, LARISA L.; PISERA, ANDRZEJ; EHRLICH, HERMANN (2011-05-19). "Revision of Aspidoscopulia Reiswig, 2002 (Porifera: Hexactinellida: Farreidae) with description of two new species". Zootaxa. 2883 (1): 1. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.2883.1.1. ISSN 1175-5334.
  11. ^ Kahn, Amanda S.; Chu, Jackson W. F.; Leys, Sally P. (December 2018). "Trophic ecology of glass sponge reefs in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 756. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8..756K. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-19107-x. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5768768. PMID 29335445.
  12. ^ Leys, S P; Ereskovsky, A V (2006-02-01). "Embryogenesis and larval differentiation in sponges". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 84 (2): 262–287. doi:10.1139/z05-170. ISSN 0008-4301.
  13. ^ Van Soest, Rob W. M.; Boury-Esnault, Nicole; Vacelet, Jean; Dohrmann, Martin; Erpenbeck, Dirk; De Voogd, Nicole J.; Santodomingo, Nadiezhda; Vanhoorne, Bart; Kelly, Michelle; Hooper, John N. A. (2012-04-27). Roberts, John Murray (ed.). "Global Diversity of Sponges (Porifera)". PLOS ONE. 7 (4): e35105. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...735105V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035105. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3338747. PMID 22558119.


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