Battle of Fort Sumter: Difference between revisions
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as best they could. Fort Sumter was designed to mount 135 guns, operated by 650 officers and men, but construction had met with numerous delays for decades and budget cuts had left it only about 90 percent finished in early 1861. Anderson's garrison consisted of just 85 men, primarily made up of two small artillery [[Company (military unit)|companies]]: Company E, 1st U.S. Artillery, commanded by Capt. [[Abner Doubleday]], and Company H, commanded by Capt. [[Truman Seymour]]. There were six other officers present: Surgeon [[Samuel W. Crawford]], First Lt. Theodore Talbot of Company H, First Lt. [[Jefferson C. Davis]] of the 1st U.S. Artillery, and Second Lt. [[Norman J. Hall]] of Company H. Capt. [[John G. Foster]] and First Lt. George W. Snyder of the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|Corps of Engineers]] were responsible for construction of the Charleston forts, but they reported to their headquarters in Washington, not directly to Anderson. The remaining personnel were 68 noncommissioned officers and privates, eight musicians, and 43 noncombatant workmen.<ref>Welcher, p. 699.</ref> |
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By April the Union troops had positioned 60 guns, but they had insufficient men to operate them all. The fort consisted of three levels of enclosed gun positions, or [[casemate]]s. The second level of casemates was unoccupied. The majority of the guns were on the first level of casemates, on the upper level (the [[parapet]] or [[barbette]] positions), and on the center parade field. Unfortunately for the defenders, the original mission of the fort—harbor defense—meant that it was designed so that the guns were primarily aimed at the Atlantic, with little capability of protecting from artillery fire from the surrounding land or from infantry conducting an amphibious assault.<ref>Detzer, pp. 124–25; Burton, pp. 29–30; {{Cite web|title = Fort Sumter National Monument|publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/12/hh12d.htm|accessdate=2011-03-10}}</ref> |
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[[File:Pgt beauregard.jpg|right|thumb|alt=Head and torso photograph of a high ranking Confederate army officer. He has short dark hair, a mustache, and small goatee|Brig. Gen. [[P.G.T. Beauregard]]]] |
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In March, [[Brigadier General (CSA)|Brig. Gen.]] [[P.G.T. Beauregard]] took command of South Carolina forces in Charleston; on March 1, President [[Jefferson Davis]] had appointed him the first general officer in the armed forces of the new Confederacy,<ref>Eicher, ''High Commands'', p. 810.</ref> specifically to take command of the siege. Beauregard made repeated demands that the Union force either surrender or withdraw and took steps to ensure that no supplies from the city were available to the defenders, whose food was running low. He also increased drills amongst the South Carolina militia, training them to operate the guns they manned. Ironically, Major Anderson had been Beauregard's artillery instructor at [[United States Military Academy|West Point]]; the two had been especially close, and Beauregard had become Anderson's assistant after graduation. Both sides spent March drilling and improving their fortifications to the best of their abilities.<ref>Eicher, ''Longest Night'', p. 36.</ref> |
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Beauregard, a trained military engineer, built-up overwhelming strength to challenge Fort Sumter. Fort Moultrie had three 8-inch [[Columbiad]]s, two 8-inch [[howitzer]]s, five 32-pound [[smoothbore]]s, and four 24-pounders. Outside of Moultrie were five 10-inch [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]], two 32-pounders, two 24-pounders, and a 9-inch Dahlgren smoothbore. The floating battery next to Fort Moultrie had two 42-pounders and two 32-pounders on a raft protected by iron shielding. Fort Johnson on James Island had one 24-pounder and four 10-inch mortars. At Cummings Point on Morris Island, the Confederates had emplaced seven 10-inch mortars, two 42-pounders, an English Blakely [[Rifling|rifled]] cannon, and three 8-inch Columbiads, the latter in the so-called Iron Battery, protected by a wooden shield faced with iron bars. About 6,000 men were available to man the artillery and to assault the fort, if necessary, including the local militia, young boys and older men.<ref>Davis, pp. 136–37.</ref> |
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===Decisions for war=== |
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On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated as president. He was almost immediately confronted with the surprise information that Major Anderson was reporting that only six weeks of rations remained at Fort Sumter. A crisis similar to the one at Fort Sumter had emerged at [[Pensacola, Florida]], where Confederates threatened another U.S. fortification—[[Fort Pickens]]. Lincoln and his new cabinet struggled with the decisions of whether to reinforce the forts, and how. They were also concerned about whether to take actions that might start open hostilities and which side would be perceived as the aggressor as a result. Similar discussions and concerns were occurring in the Confederacy.<ref>McPherson, pp. 261–63; Detzer, pp. 212–14.</ref> |
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After the formation of the Confederate States of America in early February, there was some debate among the secessionists whether the capture of the fort was rightly a matter for South Carolina or for the newly declared national government in [[Montgomery, Alabama]]. South Carolina Governor Pickens was among the [[states' rights]] advocates who felt that all property in Charleston harbor had reverted to South Carolina upon that state's secession as an independent commonwealth. This debate ran alongside another discussion about how aggressively the installations—including Forts Sumter and Pickens—should be obtained. President Davis, like his counterpart in Washington, preferred that his side not be seen as the aggressor. Both sides believed that the first side to use force would lose precious political support in the border states, whose allegiance was undetermined; before Lincoln's inauguration on March 4, five states had voted ''against'' secession, including [[Virginia]], and Lincoln openly offered to evacuate Fort Sumter if it would guarantee Virginia's loyalty.<ref>Detzer, page 212. When asked about that offer, Lincoln commented, "A state for a fort is no bad business."</ref> |
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The South sent delegations to Washington, D.C., and offered to pay for the Federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with the Confederate agents because he did not consider the Confederacy a legitimate nation and making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. However, Secretary of State [[William H. Seward]], who wished to give up Sumter for political reasons—as a gesture of good will—engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.<ref>McPherson, pp. 268–71.</ref> |
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On April 4, as the supply situation on Sumter became critical, President Lincoln ordered a relief expedition, to be commanded by former naval captain (and future Assistant Secretary of the Navy) [[Gustavus V. Fox]], who had proposed a plan for nighttime landings of smaller vessels than the ''Star of the West''. Fox's orders were to land at Sumter with supplies only, and if he was opposed by the Confederates, to respond with the U.S. Navy vessels following and to then land both supplies and men. This time, Maj. Anderson was informed of the impending expedition, although the arrival date was not revealed to him. On April 6, Lincoln notified Governor Pickens that "an attempt will be made to supply Fort Sumter with provisions only, and that if such attempt be not resisted, no effort to throw in men, arms, or ammunition will be made without further notice, [except] in case of an attack on the fort."<ref>Detzer, pp. 225–31, 249; Burton, p. 33–35; McPherson, p. 272; Davis, pp. 133–36; Welcher, p. 699.</ref> |
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Lincoln's notification had been made to the governor of South Carolina, not the new Confederate government, which Lincoln did not recognize. Pickens consulted with Beauregard, the local Confederate commander. Soon Jefferson Davis ordered Beauregard to repeat the demand for Sumter's surrender, and if it did not, to reduce the fort before the relief expedition arrived. The Confederate cabinet, meeting in Montgomery, endorsed Davis's order on April 9. Only Secretary of State [[Robert Toombs]] opposed this decision: he reportedly told Jefferson Davis the attack "will lose us every friend at the North. You will only strike a hornet's nest. ... Legions now quiet will swarm out and sting us to death. It is unnecessary. It puts us in the wrong. It is fatal."<ref>Ward, Burns, and Burns, p. 38.</ref> |
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Beauregard dispatched aides—Col. [[James Chesnut]], Col. James A. Chisholm, and Capt. [[Stephen D. Lee]]—to Fort Sumter on April 11 to issue the ultimatum. Anderson refused, although he reportedly commented, "I shall await the first shot, and if you do not batter us to pieces, we shall be starved out in a few days." The aides returned to Charleston and reported this comment to Beauregard. At 1 a.m. on April 12, the aides brought Anderson a message from Beauregard: "If you will state the time which you will evacuate Fort Sumter, and agree in the meantime that you will not use your guns against us unless ours shall be employed against Fort Sumter, we will abstain from opening fire upon you." After consulting with his senior officers, Maj. Anderson replied that he would evacuate Sumter by noon, April 15, unless he received new orders from his government or additional supplies. Col. Chesnut considered this reply to be too conditional and wrote a reply, which he handed to Anderson at 3:20 a.m.: "Sir: by authority of Brigadier General Beauregard, commanding the Provisional Forces of the Confederate States, we have the honor to notify you that he will open fire of his batteries on Fort Sumter in one hour from this time." Anderson escorted the officers back to their boat, shook hands with each one, and said "If we never meet in this world again, God grant that we may meet in the next." <ref>Davis, pp. 139–41; Burton, pp. 39–42; Detzer, pp. 256–67; Eicher, ''Longest Night'', p. 37.</ref> |
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==Bombardment== |
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[[File:Attack on Fort Sumter.jpg|right|thumb|alt=Illustration of a battle scene showing the inside of a fortification with soldiers and the back of two large cannons. The cannons are firing at a fortification across the water in the distance which is surrounded by smoke and fire.|Bombardment of the Fort by the Confederates.]] |
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At 4:30 a.m. on April 12, Lt. Henry S. Farley, acting upon the command of Capt. George S. James, fired a single 10-inch mortar round from Fort Johnson. (James had offered the first shot to [[Roger Pryor]], a noted Virginia secessionist, who declined, saying, "I could not fire the first gun of the war.") The shell exploded over Fort Sumter as a signal to open the general bombardment from 43 guns and mortars at Fort Moultrie, Fort Johnson, the floating battery, and Cummings Point. Under orders from Beauregard, the guns fired in a counterclockwise sequence around the harbor, with 2 minutes between each shot; Beauregard wanted to conserve ammunition, which he calculated would last for only 48 hours. [[Edmund Ruffin]], another noted Virginia secessionist, had traveled to Charleston to be present for the beginning of the war, and fired one of the first shots at Sumter after the signal round, a 64-pound shell from the Iron Battery at Cummings Point. The shelling of Fort Sumter from the batteries ringing the harbor awakened Charleston's residents (including diarist [[Mary Chesnut]]), who rushed out into the predawn darkness to watch the shells arc over the water and burst inside the fort.<ref>Detzer, pp. 268–71. Detzer comments that Ruffin claimed he fired ''the'' first shot, but did not. Davis, p. 146.</ref> |
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Major Anderson held his fire, awaiting daylight. His troops reported for a call at 6 a.m. and then had breakfast. At 7 a.m., Capt. [[Abner Doubleday]] fired a shot at the Ironclad Battery at Cummings Point. He missed. Given the available manpower, Anderson could not take advantage of all of his 60 guns. He deliberately avoided using guns that were situated in the fort where casualties were most likely. The fort's best cannons were mounted on the uppermost of its three tiers—the barbette tier—where his troops were most exposed to incoming fire from overhead. The fort had been designed to withstand a naval assault, and naval warships of the time did not mount guns capable of elevating to shoot over the walls of the fort; however, the land-based cannons manned by the Confederates were capable of landing such indirect fire on Fort Sumter. Fort Sumter's garrison could only safely fire the 21 working guns on the lowest level, which themselves, because they were emplaced in stone, were largely incapable of indirect fire that could seriously threaten Fort Moultrie. Moreover, although the Federals had moved as many of their supplies to Fort Sumter as they could manage, the fort was quite low on ammunition, and was nearly out at the end of the 34-hour bombardment. A more immediate problem was the scarcity of cloth gunpowder cartridges or bags; only 700 were available at the beginning of the battle and workmen sewed frantically to create more, in some cases using socks from Anderson's personal wardrobe. Because of the shortages, Anderson reduced his firing to only six guns: two aimed at Cummings Point, two at Fort Moultrie, and two at the Sullivan's Island batteries.<ref>Davis, pp. 147–53; Burton, pp. 46–49.</ref> |
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Ships from Fox's relief expedition began to arrive on April 12. Although Fox himself arrived at 3 a.m. on his steamer ''Baltic'', most of the rest of his fleet was delayed until 6 p.m., and one of the two warships, [[USS Powhatan (1850)|USS ''Powhatan'']], never did arrive. Unbeknownst to Fox, it had been ordered to the relief of Fort Pickens in Florida. As landing craft were sent toward the fort with supplies, the artillery fire deterred them and they pulled back. Fox decided to wait until after dark and for the arrival of his warships. The next day, heavy seas made it difficult to load the small boats with men and supplies and Fox was left with the hope that Anderson and his men could hold out until dark on April 13.<ref>Davis, pp. 152–54.</ref> |
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Although Sumter was a masonry fort, there were wooden buildings inside for barracks and officer quarters. The Confederates targeted these with "hot shot" rounds (cannonballs that had been heated in ovens), starting fires that could prove more dangerous to the men than the explosive artillery. At 7 p.m. on April 12, a rain shower extinguished the flames and at the same time the Union gunners stopped firing for the night. They slept fitfully, concerned about a potential infantry assault against the fort. During the darkness, the Confederates reduced their fire to four shots each hour. The following morning, the full bombardment resumed and the Confederates continued firing hot shot against the wooden buildings. By noon most of the wooden buildings in the fort and the main gate were on fire. The flames moved toward the main ammunition magazine, where 300 barrels of gunpowder were stored. The Union soldiers frantically tried to move the barrels to safety, but two-thirds were left when Anderson judged it was too dangerous and ordered the magazine doors closed. He ordered the remaining barrels thrown into the sea, but the tide kept floating them back together into groups, some of which were ignited by incoming artillery rounds. He also ordered his crews to redouble their efforts at firing, but the Confederates did the same, firing the hot shots almost exclusively. Many of the Confederate soldiers admired the courage and determination of the Yankees. When the fort had to pause its firing, the Confederates often cheered and applauded after the firing resumed and they shouted epithets at some of the nearby Union ships for failing to come to the fort's aid.<ref>Davis, pp. 152–57; Burton, pp. 49–51.</ref> |
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==Surrender== |
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[[File:Fort Sumter storm flag 1861.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Photograph of a faded and torn United States flag|[[Fort Sumter Flag]]]] |
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{{wikisource|Fort Sumter telegram|Major Anderson's telegram announcing the surrender}} |
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The fort's central flagpole was knocked down at 1 p.m. on April 13, raising doubts among the Confederates about whether the fort was ready to surrender. Col. [[Louis Wigfall]], a former U.S. senator, had been observing the battle and decided that this indicated the fort had had enough punishment. He commandeered a small boat and proceeded from Morris Island, waving a white handkerchief from his sword, dodging incoming rounds from Sullivan's Island. Meeting with Major Anderson, he said, "You have defended your flag nobly, Sir. You have done all that it is possible to do, and General Beauregard wants to stop this fight. On what terms, Major Anderson, will you evacuate this fort?" Anderson was encouraged that Wigfall had said "evacuate," not "surrender." He was low on ammunition, fires were burning out of control, and his men were hungry and exhausted. Satisfied that they had defended their post with honor, enduring over 3,000 Confederate rounds without losing a man, Anderson agreed to a truce at 2 p.m.<ref>Detzer, pp. 292–300; Burton, pp. 51–55.</ref> |
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Fort Sumter raised Wigfall's white handkerchief on its flagpole as Wigfall departed in his small boat back to Morris Island, where he was hailed as a hero. The handkerchief was spotted in Charleston and a delegation of officers representing Beauregard—Stephen D. Lee, [[William Porcher Miles|Porcher Miles]], a former mayor of Charleston, and Roger Pryor—sailed to Sumter, unaware of Wigfall's visit. Anderson was outraged when these officers disavowed Wigfall's authority, telling him that the former senator had not spoken with Beauregard for two days, and he threatened to resume firing. Meanwhile, General Beauregard himself had finally seen the handkerchief and sent a second set of officers, offering essentially the same terms that Wigfall had presented, so the agreement was reinstated.<ref>Detzer, pp. 292–300; Davis, pp. 157–60; Burton, pp. 53–55.</ref> |
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The Union garrison surrendered the fort to Confederate personnel at 2:30 p.m., April 14. No one from either side was killed during the bombardment. During the 100-gun salute to the U.S. flag—Anderson's one condition for withdrawal—a pile of cartridges blew up from a spark, mortally wounding privates [[Daniel Hough]] and Edward Gallway, and seriously wounding the other four members of the gun crew; these were the first military fatalities of the war. The salute was stopped at fifty shots. Hough was buried in the Fort Sumter parade ground within two hours after the explosion. Gallway and Private George Fielding were sent to the hospital in Charleston, where Gallway died a few days later; Fielding was released after six weeks.<ref>Eicher, ''Longest Night'', p. 41; Detzer, pp. 308–309.</ref> The other wounded men and the remaining Union troops were placed aboard a Confederate steamer, the ''Isabel'', where they spent the night and were transported the next morning to Fox's relief ship ''Baltic'', resting outside the harbor bar.<ref>Ripley, p. 20.</ref> |
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[[File:Our Banner in the Sky by Frederic Edwin Church.jpg|thumb|left|''Our Banner in the Sky'' (1861) by [[Frederic Edwin Church]]]] |
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Anderson carried the [[Fort Sumter Flag]] with him North, where it became a widely known symbol of the battle, and rallying point for supporters of the Union.<ref>Detzer, pp. 311–13.</ref> This inspired [[Frederic Edwin Church]] to paint ''Our Banner in the Sky'', described as a "symbolic landscape embodying the stars and stripes." A [[chromolithograph]] was then created and sold to benefit the families of Union soldiers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Our Banner in the Sky|url=http://m.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=10151215572059000|publisher=[[Olana State Historic Site]]|accessdate=January 12, 2013}}</ref> |
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{{clear}} |
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==Aftermath== |
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[[File:Fort sumter 1861.jpg|thumb|alt=1861 photograph of the interior of a damaged military fortification. The flag of the Confederate States of America flies from a flagpole near the center of the photograph.|Confederate Flag flying in Fort Sumter after the 1861 surrender]] |
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The bombardment of Fort Sumter was the first military action of the American Civil War. Following the surrender, Northerners rallied behind Lincoln's call for all states to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the Union. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for [[75,000 volunteers]] for 90 days.<ref>McPherson, p. 274.</ref> Some Northern states filled their quotas quickly. There were so many volunteers in Ohio that within 16 days they could have met the full call for 75,000 men by themselves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ohsweb.ohiohistory.org/exhibits/fftc/relicroom/war.aspx?war=2 |title=Fight for the Colors, the Ohio Battle Flags Collection, Civil War Room |publisher=Ohio Historical Society |date= |accessdate=2011-10-17}}</ref> Other governors from [[Border states (American Civil War)|border states]] were undiplomatic in their responses. For example, Gov. [[Claiborne Jackson]] wrote, "Not one man will the state of Missouri furnish to carry on any such unholy crusade", and Gov. [[Beriah Magoffin]] wrote, “Kentucky will furnish no troops for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern states.”<ref>Tod Widmer, [http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/14/lincoln-declares-war/ "Lincoln Declares War."] ''New York Times'' ''Opinionator'' column, April 14, 2011.</ref> The governors of other states still in the Union were equally unsupportive. The call for 75,000 troops triggered four additional slave states to declare secessions and join the Confederacy.<ref>Eicher, ''Longest Night'', pp. 52–53, 72–73.</ref> The ensuing war lasted four years, effectively ending in April 1865, with the surrender of General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s [[Army of Northern Virginia]].<ref>Eicher, ''Longest Night'', pp. 820, 841.</ref> |
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Charleston Harbor was completely in Confederate hands for almost the entire four-year duration of the war, leaving a hole in the [[Union blockade|Union naval blockade]]. Union forces conducted major operations in 1862 and 1863 to capture Charleston, first overland on James Island (the [[Battle of Secessionville]], June 1862), then by naval assault against Fort Sumter (the [[First Battle of Charleston Harbor]], April 1863), then by seizing the Confederate artillery positions on Morris Island (beginning with the [[Second Battle of Fort Wagner]], July 1863, and followed by a siege until September). After pounding Sumter to rubble with artillery fire, a final amphibious operation attempted to occupy it (the [[Second Battle of Fort Sumter]], September 1863), but was repulsed and no further attempts were made. The Confederates evacuated Fort Sumter and Charleston in February 1865 as Union Maj. Gen. [[William T. Sherman]] outflanked the city in the [[Carolinas Campaign]]. On April 14, 1865, four years to the day after lowering the [[Fort Sumter Flag]] in surrender, Robert Anderson (by then a [[Major general (United States)|major general]], although ill and in retired status) returned to the ruined fort to raise the flag he had lowered in 1861.<ref>Eicher, ''Longest Night'', p. 834.</ref> |
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Two of the cannons used at Fort Sumter were later presented to [[Louisiana State University]] by General [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], who was president of the university before the war began.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://appl003.lsu.edu/artsci/milscience.nsf/$Content/Unit+History?OpenDocument |title=Louisiana State University Army ROTC Unit History |publisher=Louisiana State University |date= |accessdate=2011-03-10}}</ref> |
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==Notes== |
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{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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==References== |
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* Burton, E. Milby. ''The Siege of Charleston 1861–1865''. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1970. ISBN 0-87249-345-8. |
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* [[William C. Davis (historian)|Davis, William C.]], and the Editors of Time-Life Books. ''Brother against Brother: The War Begins''. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1983. ISBN 0-8094-4700-2. |
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* Detzer, David. ''Allegiance: Fort Sumter, Charleston, and the Beginning of the Civil War''. New York: Harcourt, 2001. ISBN 0-15-100641-5. |
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* [[David J. Eicher|Eicher, David J.]] ''The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-684-84944-5. |
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* Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher. ''Civil War High Commands''. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8047-3641-3. |
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* Kennedy, Frances H., ed. ''The Civil War Battlefield Guide''. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. ISBN 0-395-74012-6. |
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* [[James M. McPherson|McPherson, James M.]] ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era''. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-19-503863-0. |
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* Ripley, Warren. "War's First Death Accidental." In ''The Civil War at Charleston'', edited by Arthur M. Wilcox and Warren Ripley. 16th ed. Charleston, SC: Evening-Post Publishing Co., 1992. {{OCLC|636046368}}. |
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* Ward, Geoffrey C., [[Ken Burns]], and Ric Burns. ''The Civil War, an Illustrated History''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990. ISBN 978-0-394-56285-8. |
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* Welcher, Frank J. ''The Union Army, 1861–1865 Organization and Operations''. Vol. 1, ''The Eastern Theater''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-253-36453-1. |
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* [http://www.cr.nps.gov/hps/abpp/battles/sc001.htm National Park Service battle description] |
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==Further reading== |
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* [[Mary Chesnut|Chesnut, Mary]], [http://docsouth.unc.edu/southlit/chesnut/maryches.html ''Diary of Mary Chesnut'']. Fairfax, VA: D. Appleton and Company, 1905. {{OCLC|287696932}}. |
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* [[Abner Doubleday|Doubleday, Abner]]. [http://www.pddoc.com/skedaddle/articles/sumter_and_moultrie.htm ''Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860–61'']. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1876. {{OCLC|1320168}}. |
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* Hatcher, Richard W. [http://www.civilwar.org/hallowed-ground-magazine/winter-2010/problem-in-charleston-harbor.html "The Problem in Charleston Harbor: Fort Sumter and the Opening Shots of the Civil War."] ''Hallowed Ground'' Magazine ([[Civil War Trust]]), Winter 2010. |
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* Hendrickson, Robert. ''Sumter: The First Day of the Civil War''. New York: Promontory Press, 1996. ISBN 0-88394-095-7. |
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* Klein, Maury. ''Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War'': New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997. ISBN 0-679-44747-4. |
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==External links== |
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{{Commons category|Fort Sumter}} |
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* [http://www.nps.gov/fosu/ Fort Sumter National Monument] |
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* [http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/12/index.htm National Park Service Historical Handbook] |
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* [http://www.civilwar.org/fortsumter Battle of Fort Sumter]: Maps, histories, photos, and preservation news ([[CWPT]]) |
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* [http://www.tulane.edu/~sumter/index.html Crisis at Fort Sumter] |
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* [http://www.civilwarhome.com/CMHsumter.htm Details of requests for surrender prior to the battle] |
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* [http://www.civilwarhome.com/sumterownership.htm Discussion of transfer of federal property within state boundaries] |
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* [http://www.newsinhistory.com/feature/dramatic-newspaper-coverage-battle-fort-sumter-attack-began-civil-war Newspaper coverage of the Battle of Fort Sumter] |
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Revision as of 19:32, 19 February 2013
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