View source for Byzantine-Sasanian Wars

{{short description|A series of conflicts between Byzantine and Sasanian empires}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Byzantine-Sasanian Wars
| partof            = [[Roman-Persian Wars]]
| image             = File:Piero della Francesca 021.jpg
| image_size        = 300
| map_type          = 
| map_relief        = 
| caption           = ''Illustration of the [[Battle of Nineveh (627)]], which became decisive in the history of the Byzantine-Sasanian wars''
| date              = 421-628
| place             = [[Asia Minor]], [[Transcaucasia]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Sasanian conquest of Egypt|Egypt]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]
| coordinates       = 
| result            = Eventual Byzantine victory{{efn|Most conflicts end in Byzantine victory, including the last decisive war, See: [[List of Greco-Persian wars]]}}
| combatant1        = {{flagicon image|Simple Labarum.svg|size=20px|border=no}} '''[[Byzantine empire]]'''
{{Collapsible list|title=''List of allies''
|[[Ghassanids]]
|[[Western Turkic Khaganate]]
|[[Huns]]
|[[Kingdom of Iberia]]
|[[Heruli]]
|[[Tzani]]
|[[Alans]]
|[[Armenians]]
|[[Mamikonians]]
}}
| combatant2        =  {{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg|size=22px}} '''[[Sasanian empire]]'''
{{Collapsible list|title=''List of allies''
|[[Lakhmids]]
|[[Avar Khaganate]]
|[[Sabirs]]
|[[Abasgia]]
|[[Dailamites]]
|[[Lazica]]
}}
| commander1        = {{Collapsible list|title=''List of Commanders''
|'''[[Theodosius II]]'''
|'''[[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius I]]'''
|'''[[Justin I]]'''
|'''[[Justinian I]]'''
|'''[[Justin II]]'''
|'''[[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]'''
|'''[[Phocas]]'''{{executed}}
|'''[[Heraclius]]'''
|[[Ardabur]]
|[[Anatolius (magister militum)|Anatolius]]
|[[Areobindus Dagalaifus Areobindus|Areobindus]]
|[[Patricius]]
|[[Hypatius]]
|[[Domnentiolus]]{{surrendered}}
|[[Jabalah IV ibn al-Harith]]{{KIA}}
|[[John Tzibus]]{{KIA}}
|[[Apion]]
|[[Vitalian]]
|[[Celer (magister officiorum)|Celer]]
|[[Germanus (magister militum under Phocas)|Germanus]]{{DOW}}
|[[Bessas (magister militum)|Bessas]]
}}
| commander2        = {{Collapsible list|title=''List of Commanders''
|'''[[Bahram V]]'''
|'''[[Yazdegerd II]]'''
|'''[[Kavad I]]'''
|'''[[Khosrow I]]'''
|'''[[Khosrow II]]{{executed}}'''
|[[Mehr Narseh]]
|[[Al-Mundhir I]]
|[[Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man]]
|[[Baresmanas]]{{KIA}}
|[[Adergoudounbades]]
|[[Bawi]]
|[[Al-Mundhir IV ibn al-Mundhir]]{{KIA}}
|[[Tamkhosrow]]{{KIA}}
|Dzuan Veh{{KIA}}
|[[Nehemiah ben Hushiel]]{{executed}}
|[[Rhahzadh]]{{KIA}}
|[[Benjamin of Tiberias]]{{executed}}
|[[Narses (magister militum per Orientem)|Narses]]{{executed}}
|[[Stephen I of Iberia|Stephen I]]{{executed}}
|[[Shahraplakan]]{{executed}}
}}
| strength1         =
| strength2         = 
| casualties1       = 
| casualties2       =
| territory = * Byzantines [[Byzantine-Sasanian War of 572-591|capture most of the Sasanian Caucasus]] and subsequently successfully repel the [[Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628|Persian invasion]]
* As a result of the conflicts, both sides lose the opportunity to [[Early Muslim conquests|resist the Arabs]]: Byzantium loses its southern territories,{{efn|See: [[Arab conquest of Egypt]], [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]], [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb]]}} and the Sassanids are [[Muslim conquest of Persia|completely conquered]]
}}
'''Byzantine-Sasanian Wars''' or '''Byzantine-Persian Wars''' it is a series of conflicts between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Sassanian Empire]] that lasted 207 years and ended with the [[Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628|victory of Byzantine empire]], after which the Sassanian Empire declined and was [[Muslim conquest of Persia|conquered by the Arabs]] after 30 years.

==Background==
[[File:Roman-Persian Frontier, 5th century.png|thumb|Byzantine-Sasanian frontier]]
Throughout its history, the [[Sasanian Empire]] sought to gain control of the Middle East, justifying this with the [[Achaemenid]] legacy. [[Byzantine empire]], in turn, sought to seize [[Transcaucasia]] and the trade routes coming from distant China.{{sfn|Dmitriev|2008|p=4}}<br>
During [[Julian's Persian campaign]], the Romans suffered a crushing defeat. As a result of the [[Perso–Roman Peace Treaty of 363|humiliating peace treaty]] for the Romans, a huge number of territories in the east were ceded to the [[Sasanian Empire]], including Armenia.{{sfn|Gibbon|2008|p=833}}
<br>
The last conflict in the history of the [[Roman-Sasanian wars]] was the [[Shapur III#Reign|Shapur 3 campaign in Armenia]]{{sfn|Toumanoff|1961|p=5}}, as a result of the [[Peace of Acilisene|peace treaty]], Armenia was divided into two parts: [[Persarmenia]] (territory ceded to the Sassanians) and [[Armenia Minor]] (territory ceded to the Romans).{{sfn|Lang|1970|p=163}}<br>
In 421, [[Bahram V]] became emperor of the Sasanian Empire and continued the persecution of [[Christians]] in the territory of the Sasanian Empire, which was started by his father [[Yazdigerd I]].{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|p=37}}<br>
The Persians hired several Roman gold miners, but now refused to send them back; moreover, the Sassanids seized the property of Roman merchants. This was the reason for the first [[Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422|Byzantine-Sasanian war]].

==War of 421-422==
{{excerpt|Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422#Conflict}}

==War of 440==
{{excerpt|Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440#History}}
[[File :Theodosius II solidus.jpg|thumb|[[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]] of [[Theodosius II]], minted in [[Constantinople]]]]

==Anastasian War==
{{main article|Anastasian War}}
[[File:Solidus Anastasius.jpg|thumb|Gold ''[[Solidus (coin)|solidus]]'' of Anastasius I|upright=1.2]]
The Persian king [[Kavadh I]] was sorely short of money, for this reason he declared war on Byzantium. In 502, the Sassanid emperor invaded [[Byzantine empire]], and captured a number of fortresses not ready for war by the Romans.{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|pp=62-63}}<br>
[[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius I]] sent an army of 52,000 men under the command of [[Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus|Areobindus]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Petersen |first1=Leif Inge Ree |title=Siege Warfare and Military Organization in the Successor States (400-800 AD): Byzantium, the West and Islam |date=15 September 2013 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-25446-6 |page=342 |language=en}}</ref>. This army was divided into two parts: one of them went to capture Amidah, the second besieged [[Nisibis]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shahid |first1=Irfan |title=Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century |date=1995 |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks |isbn=978-0-88402-214-5 |page=21 |language=en}}</ref>. Although the Byzantines were initially successful at [[Nisibis]], they could not consolidate the advantage, [[Kavadh I]] forced [[Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus|Areobindus]] to retreat during a counterattack<ref name="Heather">{{cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Peter J. |title=Rome Resurgent: War and Empire in the Age of Justinian |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-936274-5 |page=77 |language=en}}</ref>. The second part of the army tried to come to the support of the first, but it was too late, the Persians defeated this army, separately from the army of Areobind.<br>
[[Kavadh I]], who reached [[Edessa]], began demanding peace in exchange for a payment of 10,000 pounds from Byzantium, but Areobindus refused this.<br>
The success of the Byzantine forces at Amida, as well as the invasion of the Huns, forced the Sassanids to retreat from [[Edessa]]{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|p=69-71}}.

==Iberian War==
{{main article|Iberian War}}
''[[File:Sanvitale03.jpg|thumb|right|Mosaic of [[Justinian I]] in [[Ravenna]]]]''
[[File:Plate with king hunting rams (white background).jpg|thumb|left|''Plate with illustrate of [[Kavad I]]'']]
[[Lazica]], a kingdom usually allied with the Persians, converted to Christianity and sided with Byzantium. He was followed by the rest of the Caucasian kingdoms, such as [[Iberia]], to get out from under the influence of the Persians. The Persians tried to bring back the now Christian kingdom of Iberia to [[Zoroastrianism]], but this kingdom rebelled, following its neighbor [[Lazica]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Borgeraze |first=A. |author-link= |editor-last= |editor-first= |editor-link= |encyclopedia=Georgia |title=Revolt of Gourgen |trans-title= |url= |access-date= |language=KA |edition= |year=2012 |publisher= |series= |volume=II |location=Tbilisi|id= |isbn= |issn= |oclc= |doi= |pages=211–212 |quote= }}</ref>. <br>
As part of his strategic consolidation of power in the East, [[Justinian I]] further strengthened the border defenses by incorporating the Armenian provinces into the empire and deploying Roman garrisons in the area.<ref>Procopius, Wars, 1.17. 46–48.</ref><br>
Already in 526, an open confrontation began between the empires in the [[Transcaucasus]]. At first, the Persians were lucky, the uprising in Iberia was suppressed, the Roman offensives were repelled, and attempts to strengthen the border were stopped by Persian raids.{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|p=85}}<br>
In 528, the Persians moved from [[Iberia]] to [[Lazica]], where, in a [[Battle of Thannuris|small skirmish]], they forced [[Belisarius]] to retreat to [[Dara]].<ref>Conor Whately, Battles and Generals: Combat, Culture, and Didacticism in Procopius, 2006, Netherlands, p.238</ref><br>
In 530, the Byzantines managed to win a number of major victories. Under Dara, Belisarius [[Battle of Dara|routed]] a completely superior force, while Sittas and Dorotheus [[Battle of Satala|defeated the Sasanian army at Satala (530)]]. However, in 531 Belisarius [[Battle of Callinicum|was defeated at Callinicum]] and was removed from command of the army{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|p=93}}, the Persian general Azaret was also removed because he failed to take advantage of the victory at Callinicum.<br>
After the failure of the [[Siege of Martyropolis (531)|Siege of Martyropolis]] and the death of [[Kavadh I]], a peace was concluded, according to which Byzantium retained [[Lazica]] and the Sassanids retained [[Iberia]].{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|p=96}}

==Lazic War==
{{excerpt|Lazic War#War}}

==War of 571-592==
{{main article|Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591}}
[[File:The battle between kusrau parvis and Bhram Chubineh.jpg|thumb|A [[Shahnameh]] illustration depicting the battle between Khosrow II and Bahram Chobin]]
Less than 10 years after the end of the Lazic War, tensions have risen again. The Persians invaded Yemen, expelling the Byzantine allies, and the allied Arabs raided the territories of Byzantium in the east.{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|pp=135-138}}<br>
In 572, there was an uprising against the Persians in Armenia, which was suppressed, but the connection of the head of the uprising with the emperor helped unite all Christians in this region. This helped the Byzantines move deeper into Persia, all the way to [[Caucasian Albania]].{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|p=149}}<br>
In Mesopotamia, however, the war began disastrously for the Byzantines. After a victory at Sargathon in 573, they [[Siege of Nisibis (573)|laid siege]] to [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]] and were apparently on the point of capturing this, the chief bulwark of the Persian frontier defences, when the abrupt dismissal of their general [[Marcian (cousin of Justin II)|Marcian]] led to a disorderly retreat.{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|pp=142–145}}. Taking advantage of Byzantine confusion, Sassanid forces under [[Khosrow I]] swiftly counter-attacked and encircled [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]], capturing the city after a [[Siege of Dara (573)|four-month siege]]. At the same time, a smaller Persian army under [[Adarmahan]] ravaged Syria, sacking [[Apamea, Syria|Apamea]] and a number of other cities.{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|pp=146–149, 150}}. They were only pushed away from Syria proper by a bumbling Byzantine defence near Antioch.<ref>persianempire.info</ref> To make matters worse, in 572 the [[Byzantine emperor]] [[Justin II]]  had ordered the assassination of the Ghassanid king [[Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith|al-Mundhir III]]; as a result of the unsuccessful attempt on his life, al-Mundhir severed his alliance with the Byzantines, leaving their desert frontier exposed{{sfn||Greatrex|1991|p=136}}.<br>
In 575, the Byzantines managed to resolve their conflict with the [[Ghassanids]]{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|p=153}}, the latter in turn plundered the capital of the Arabs allied to the Persians.<br>
[[Khosrow I]] prepared a grandiose campaign through the Caucasus to [[Anatolia]], but during this campaign he was defeated near Melitene. The Byzantines took advantage of the situation and began raiding [[Caucasian Albania]], wintering there and plundering territories. Khosrow wanted to ask for peace, but the victory of his general in Armenia stopped him.{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|pp=153-160}}<br>
In 578, the main front moved to [[Mesopotamia]]. Mauritius has conducted successful raids on both banks of the [[Tigris]]. Khosrow wanted to ask for peace again, but died, and his heir [[Hormizd IV]] interrupted the negotiations.<br>
In 582, [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] became emperor, but in the 80s neither side was able to achieve anything. In 589, the Persian general Bahram 6, was able to repel the Roman offensive, but after a single defeat he was dismissed. The angry general raised an uprising, as a result of which Khosrow 2 was elevated to the throne, but Bahram was still dissatisfied, after a while Khosrow was forced to flee to Byzantium, and [[Bahram IV]] became emperor, but a year later he was defeated and [[Khosrow II]] came to power.

==War of 602-628==
{{excerpt|Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628}}
==List of Wars==
{{excerpt|List of Greco-Persian Wars#Byzantine Empire}}
==See also==
*[[Roman-Persian Wars]]
*[[List of Greco-Persian Wars]]
*[[List of conflicts between Romans and Persians]]

==References and Notes==
{{reflist}}
===Notes===
{{notelist}}
===Bibliography===
* {{cite book|last=Bury|first=John Bagnell|author-link=J. B. Bury|title=History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian, Volume 2|location=Mineola, New York|publisher=Dover Publications |year=1958|isbn=0-486-20399-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxWifqqPtUcC}}
* {{cite book |last=Dmitriev |first=Vladimir |lang=ru |script-title=ru:Борьба Византийской империи и Сасанидского Ирана за господство в передней Азии  |trans-title=The struggle of the Byzantine Empire and Sasanian Iran for supremacy in the Near East |date=2008 |place=Pskov |isbn=978-5-87854-429-0 }}
*{{cite book |first=David Marshall |last=Lang |title=Armenia: Cradle of Civilization |publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd |year=1970 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Toumanoff |first=Cyril |author-link=Cyril Toumanoff |year=1961|title=Introduction to Christian Caucasian History: II: States and Dynasties of the Formative Period |journal=Traditio |publisher= Cambridge University Press |volume=17|pages=1–106 |doi= 10.1017/S0362152900008473|jstor=27830424|s2cid=151524770 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Greatrex|first=Geoffrey |title=The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian wars.Part II.363-630AD |publisher=Routledge |year=1991 |isbn=0-415-14687-9 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Yazdegerd II | last = Daryaee | first = Touraj | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/yazdgerd-ii | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica }}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran|volume=3a|last=Frye|first=R. N.|authorlink=Richard Nelson Frye|chapter=The political history of Iran under the Sasanians}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Martindale|editor1-first=John Robert|editor2-last=Jones|editor2-first=Arnold Hugh Martin|editor3-last=Morris|editor3-first=J.|title=The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Volume III: A.D. 527–641|year=1992|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-20160-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=110PAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Payne |first=Richard|title=The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-107-63388-9 |editor-last=Maas |editor-first=Michael |pages=282–299|chapter=The Reinvention of Iran: The Sasanian Empire and the Huns}}
* {{cite book |first1=M. Rahim |last1=Shayegan|editor1-last=Potts |editor1-first=Daniel T. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter=Sasanian political ideology|pages=1–1021|isbn=9780190668662|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_tRvgAACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Decker|first= Michael J. |title=The Sasanian empire at War.Persia,Rome and the rise od Islam|publisher= Westholme Publishing,LLC|year=2022 |isbn=978-1-59416-692-1}}
*{{cite book|last = Gibbon|first=Edward|title = The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|year=2008|isbn=978-5-275-01704-5}}