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{{ infobox tunnel
| image = Course Channeltunnel en.svg
| caption = Map of the Channel Tunnel
| line =
| location = [[English Channel]] ([[Strait of Dover]])
| coordinates = Folkestone: {{Coord|51|5|49.5|N|1|9|21|E|name=Folkestone Portal}}<br />Coquelles: {{Coord|50|55|22|N|1|46|50.16|E|name=Coquelles Portal}}
| system =
| status = Active
| start = [[Folkestone]], [[Kent]], United Kingdom
| end = [[Coquelles]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], France
| stations =
| open = 6 May 1994 (tunnel), 14 November 1994 (passenger service)
| owner = [[Eurotunnel]]
| operator = Eurotunnel, [[Eurostar]], [[DB Schenker Rail (UK)]], [[SNCF]]
| character = Through-rail passenger and freight. Vehicle shuttle.
| linelength = {{convert|50.45|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| tracklength =
| notrack = 2 [[Single track (rail)|single track]] tunnels<br/>1 service tunnel
| gauge = standard: {{RailGauge|sg}}
| el = [[25 kV AC]] [[Overhead lines|OHLE]]
| speed =
| hielevation =
| lowelevation =
}}

The '''Channel Tunnel''' ({{lang-fr|Le tunnel sous la Manche}}), known colloquially as the '''Chunnel''', is a {{convert|50.5|km|mi|adj=on}} undersea rail [[tunnel]] linking [[Folkestone, Kent|Folkestone]], [[Kent]] near [[Dover]] in the United Kingdom with [[Coquelles]], [[Pas-de-Calais]] near [[Calais]] in northern France beneath the [[English Channel]] at the [[Strait of Dover]]. At its lowest point it is {{convert|75|m|ft}} deep.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.raileurope.com/us/rail/eurostar/channel_tunnel.htm | title = The Channel Tunnel | publisher = raileurope.com | accessdate = 2009-07-19 }}</ref><ref name="ICE p. 95" /><ref name="autogenerated1">{{ cite web | url = http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/extreme_machines/4217338.html?series=23 | title = Turkey Building the World's Deepest Immersed Tube Tunnel | publisher = [[Popular Mechanics]] | accessdate = 2009-07-19 }}</ref> At {{convert|37.9|km|mi}}, the Channel Tunnel has the longest undersea portion of any tunnel in the world although the [[Seikan Tunnel]] in Japan is both longer overall, at {{convert|53.85|km|mi}} and deeper, at {{convert|240|m|ft}} below sea level.

The tunnel carries high-speed [[Eurostar]] passenger trains, [[Eurotunnel Shuttle]] [[roll-on/roll-off]] vehicle transport—the largest in the world—and international rail [[freight train]]s.<ref name="Chisholm" /> The tunnel connects end-to-end with the [[LGV Nord]] and [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]] high-speed railway lines. In 1996 the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] identified the tunnel as one of the [[American Society of Civil Engineers#World Wonders|Seven Wonders of the Modern World]].<ref name="The Plain Dealer" />

Ideas for a cross-Channel fixed link appeared as early as 1802,<ref name="Whiteside p17" /><ref>{{ cite news | url = http://library.thinkquest.org/5983/pages/chunnel.htm | title = The Channel Tunnel | publisher = library.thinkquest.org | accessdate = 2009-07-19 }}</ref> but British political and press pressure over compromised national security stalled attempts to construct a tunnel.<ref name="Wilson pp. 14–21" /> However, the eventual successful project, organised by [[Eurotunnel]], began construction in 1988 and opened in 1994. The project came in 80% over its predicted budget.<ref name="Flyvbjerg p. 12" /> Since its construction, the tunnel has faced several problems. Fires have disrupted operation of the tunnel. Illegal immigrants and asylum seekers have used the tunnel to enter Britain,<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/7171985.stm | title = Four men caught in Channel Tunnel | publisher = BBC News | accessdate = 2009-07-19 | date = 2008-01-04 }}</ref> causing a minor diplomatic disagreement over the siting of the [[Sangatte]] [[refugee camp]], which was eventually closed in 2002.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2002/may/23/immigration.immigrationandpublicservices1 | title = Sangatte refugee camp | publisher = The Guardian | accessdate = 2009-07-19} }}</ref>

== Origins ==
=== Proposals and attempts ===

{| class="wikitable" style="width: 40%; float: right; margin-left: 1em"
|+ Key dates
| 1802 || Albert Mathieu put forward a cross-Channel tunnel proposal.
|-
| 1875 || The Channel Tunnel Company Ltd<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.subbrit.org.uk/sb-sites/sites/c/channel_tunnel_1880_attempt/index.shtml | title = Subterranea Britannica: Channel Tunnel - 1880 attempt | publisher = subbrit.org | accessdate = 2009-07-19 }}</ref> began preliminary trials
|-
| 1882 || The Abbot's Cliff heading had reached {{convert|897|yd}} and that at Shakespeare Cliff was {{convert|2040|yd}} in length
|-
| January 1975 || A UK–France government backed scheme that started in 1974 was cancelled
|-
| February 1986 ||The [[Treaty of Canterbury]] was signed allowing the project to proceed
|-
| June 1988 || First tunnelling commenced in France
|-
| December 1988 || UK [[Tunnel boring machine|TBM]] commenced operation
|-
| December 1990 || The service tunnel broke through under the Channel
|-
| May 1994 ||The tunnel was formally opened by HM The Queen and President Mitterrand
|-
| Mid 1994 || Freight and passenger trains commenced operation
|-
| November 1996 || A fire in a lorry shuttle severely damaged the tunnel
|-
| November 2007 || [[High Speed 1]], linking London to the tunnel, opened
|-
| September 2008 || Another fire in a lorry shuttle severely damaged the tunnel
|-
| December 2009 || Eurostar trains stranded in the tunnel due to condensation affecting the trains' electrical hardware
|}

In 1802, French mining engineer [[Albert Mathieu]] put forward a proposal to tunnel under the English Channel, with illumination from oil lamps, horse-drawn coaches, and an artificial island mid-Channel for changing horses.<ref name="Whiteside p17">Whiteside p. 17</ref>

In the 1830s, Frenchman [[Aimé Thomé de Gamond]] performed the first geological and hydrographical surveys on the Channel, between Calais and Dover. Thomé de Gamond explored several schemes and, in 1856, he presented a proposal to [[Napoleon III]] for a mined railway tunnel from Cap [[Gris-Nez]] to [[Eastwater Point]] with a port/airshaft on the [[Varne sandbank]]<ref name="Whiteside p18-23">Whiteside pp. 18–23</ref> at a cost of 170&nbsp;million [[French franc|franc]]s, or less than {{£|7 million}}.<ref name="NY Times 1866">{{ cite news | url = http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9A00EFD9133DE53BBC4F53DFBE66838D679FDE | title = The Proposed Tunnel Between England and France | publisher = The New York Times | date = 1866-08-07 | accessdate = 2008-01-03 }}</ref>

[[file:Channel Tunnel 1856 idea from Gamond 1a.png|thumb|left|Thomé de Gamond's 1856 plan for a cross-Channel link, with a port/airshaft on the [[Varne sandbank]] mid-Channel]]

In 1865, a deputation led by [[George Ward Hunt]] proposed the idea of a tunnel to the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] of the day, [[William Ewart Gladstone]].<ref name="William Gladstone 1888">{{ cite book | last = Gladstone | first = William | authorlink = William Ewart Gladstone | editor = A. W. Hutton & H.J. Cohen | title = The Speeches Of The Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone On Home Rule, Criminal Law, Welsh And Irish Nationality, National Debt And The Queen's Reign | publisher = Methuen And Company | year = 1902 | location = London | series = The Speeches And Public Addresses Of The Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P. | volume = X | accessdate = 2008-05-13 }}</ref>

After 1867, [[William Low]] and [[John Hawkshaw|Sir John Clarke Hawkshaw]] promoted ideas, but none were implemented. An official Anglo-French protocol was established in 1876 for a cross-Channel railway tunnel. In 1881, British railway entrepreneur [[Edward Watkin|Sir William Watkin]] and French [[Suez Canal]] contractor [[Alexandre Lavalley]] were in the [[Anglo-French Submarine Railway Company]] that conducted exploratory work on both sides of the Channel. On the English side a {{convert|2.13|m|ft|0|adj=on}} diameter Beumont-English boring machine dug a {{convert|1893|m|ft|0||adj=on}} pilot tunnel from [[Shakespeare Cliff]]. On the French side, a similar machine dug {{convert|1669|m|ft|0|}} from [[Sangatte]]. The project was abandoned in May 1882, owing to British political and press campaigns advocating that a tunnel would compromise Britain's national defences.<ref name="Wilson pp. 14–21" /> These early works were encountered more than a century later during the TML project.

In 1955, defence arguments were accepted to be irrelevant because of the dominance of air power; thus, both the British and French governments supported technical and geological surveys. Construction work commenced on both sides of the Channel in 1974, a government-funded project using twin tunnels on either side of a service tunnel, with capability for car shuttle wagons. In January 1975, to the dismay of the French partners, the British government cancelled the project. The government had changed to the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] and there was uncertainty about EC membership, cost estimates had ballooned to 200% and the national economy was troubled. By this time the British Priestly TBM was ready and the Ministry of Transport was able to do a 300&nbsp;m experimental drive.<ref name="Wilson pp. 14–21" /> This short tunnel would however be reused as the starting and access point for tunnelling operations from the British side.

In 1979, the "Mouse-hole Project" was suggested when the Conservatives came to power in Britain. The concept was a single-track rail tunnel with a service tunnel, but without shuttle terminals. The British government took no interest in funding the project, but Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] said she had no objection to a privately funded project. In 1981 British and French leaders Margaret Thatcher and [[François Mitterrand]] agreed to set up a working group to look into a privately funded project, and in April 1985 promoters were formally invited to submit scheme proposals. Four submissions were shortlisted:

* a rail proposal based on the 1975 scheme presented by Channel Tunnel Group/France–Manche (CTG/F–M),
* Eurobridge: a 4.5&nbsp;km span [[suspension bridge]] with a roadway in an enclosed tube
* Euroroute: a 21&nbsp;km tunnel between artificial islands approached by bridges, and
* Channel Expressway: large diameter road tunnels with mid-channel ventilation towers.<ref name="Wilson pp. 14–21" />

The cross-Channel ferry industry protested under the name "Flexilink". In 1975 there was no campaign protesting a fixed link, with one of the largest ferry operators (Sealink) being state-owned. Flexilink continued rousing opposition throughout 1986 and 1987.<ref name="Wilson pp. 14–21" /> Public opinion strongly favoured a drive-through tunnel, but ventilation issues, concerns about accident management, and fear of driver mesmerisation led to the only shortlisted rail submission, CTG/F-M, being awarded the project.<ref name="Wilson pp. 14–21">Wilson pp. 14–21</ref>

=== Arrangement ===
[[file:Channel Tunnel project relations flow chart 1.svg|thumb|A block diagram describing the organisation structure used on the project. Eurotunnel is the central organisation for construction and operation (via a concession) of the tunnel]]

The British ''Channel Tunnel Group'' consisted of two banks and five construction companies, while their French counterparts, ''France–Manche'', consisted of three banks and five construction companies. The role of the banks was to advise on financing and secure loan commitments. On 2 July 1985, the groups formed Channel Tunnel Group/France–Manche (CTG/F–M). Their submission to the British and French governments was drawn from the 1975 project, including 11&nbsp;volumes and a substantial environmental impact statement.<ref name="Wilson pp. 14–21" />

The design and construction was done by the ten construction companies in the CTG/F-M group. The French terminal and boring from Sangatte was undertaken by the five French construction companies in the joint venture group ''GIE Transmanche Construction''. The English Terminal and boring from Shakespeare Cliff was undertaken by the five British construction companies in the ''Trankslink Joint Venture''. The two partnerships were linked by [[TransManche Link]] (TML), a bi- national project organisation.<ref name="Wilson pp. 14–21" /> The Maître d'Oeuvre was a supervisory engineering body employed by Eurotunnel under the terms of the concession that monitored project activity and reported back to the governments and banks.<ref name="Kirkland pp.10–11">Kirkland pp. 10–11</ref>

In France, with its long tradition of infrastructure investment, the project garnered widespread approval and in April 1987 the French National Assembly gave unanimous support and, in June 1987, after a public inquiry, the Senate gave unanimous support. In Britain, select committees examined the proposal, making history by holding hearings outside of Westminster, in Kent. In February 1987, the third reading of the Channel Tunnel Bill took place in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]], and was carried by 94&nbsp;votes to 22. The Channel Tunnel Act gained [[Royal assent]] and passed into English law in July of that year.<ref name="Wilson pp. 14–21" />

The Channel Tunnel is a build-own-operate-transfer ([[BOOT]]) project with a concession.<ref name="Flyvbjerg p. 96/97">Flyvbjerg et al. pp.&nbsp;96–97</ref> TML would design and build the tunnel, but financing was through a separate legal entity: Eurotunnel. Eurotunnel absorbed CTG/F-M and signed a construction contract with TML; however, the British and French governments controlled final engineering and safety decisions. The British and French governments gave Eurotunnel a 55- (later 65-) year operating concession to repay loans and pay dividends. A Railway Usage Agreement was signed between Eurotunnel, [[British Rail]] and the [[Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français]] guaranteeing future revenue in exchange for the railways obtaining half of the tunnel's capacity.

Private funding for such a complex infrastructure project was of unprecedented scale. An initial equity of £45&nbsp;million was raised by CTG/F-M, increased by £206&nbsp;million private institutional placement, £770&nbsp;million was raised in a public share offer that included press and television advertisements, a syndicated bank loan and [[letter of credit]] arranged £5&nbsp;billion.<ref name="Wilson pp. 14–21" /> Privately financed, the total investment costs at 1985 prices were £2600&nbsp;million. At the 1994 completion actual costs were, in 1985 prices, £4650&nbsp;million: an 80% cost overrun.<ref name="Flyvbjerg p. 12">Flyvbjerg et al. p. 12</ref> The cost overrun was partly due to enhanced safety, security, and environmental demands.<ref name="Flyvbjerg p. 96/97" /> Financing costs were 140% higher than forecast.<ref name="Flyvbjerg p. 3">Flyvbjerg et al. p. 3</ref>

=== Construction ===

Eleven [[tunnel boring machine]]s, working from both sides of the Channel, cut through chalk [[marl]] to construct two rail tunnels and a service tunnel. The vehicle shuttle terminals are at [[Cheriton, Kent|Cheriton]] (part of [[Folkestone]]) and Coquelles, and are connected to the British and French motorways ([[M20 motorway|M20]] and [[A16 motorway (France)|A16]] respectively).

Tunnelling commenced in 1988, and the tunnel began operating in 1994.<ref name ='BBConthisday'>{{ cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/1/newsid_2516000/2516473.stm | title = On this day: Tunnel links UK and Europe | publisher = BBC News | accessdate = 2009-07-19 | date = 1990-12-01 }}</ref> In 1985 prices, the total construction cost was [[Pound sterling|£]]4650&nbsp;million (equivalent to £{{Inflation|UK|4650|1985}}&nbsp;million today), an 80% cost overrun. At the peak of construction 15,000&nbsp;people were employed with daily expenditure over £3&nbsp;million.<ref name="Anderson Story p xvi-xvii">Anderson, pp. xvi–xvii</ref> Ten workers, eight of them British, were killed during construction between 1987 and 1993, most in the first few months of boring.<ref name="Harlow">{{ cite news | first = John | last = Harlow | title = Phantom Trains Wreak Havoc in Channel Tunnel | publisher = The Times | date = 1995-04-02 | accessdate = 2009-07-19 }}</ref><ref name="ingenious 1">{{ cite web | url = http://www.ingenious.org.uk/Read/Identity/RailwaysandIdentity/Navvies/ | title = ingenious: Navvies | date = 2008-03-11 | publisher = ingenious | accessdate = 2009-07-19 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/thirteen-workers-die-as-safety-standards-are-ignored-in-race-to-build-olympic-sites-558698.html | title = Thirteen workers die as safety standards are ignored in race to build Olympic sites | publisher = [[The Independent]] | accessdate = 2008-09-26 }}</ref>

=== Completion ===
[[file:Channel Tunnel Opening Ceremony.jpg|thumb|The Channel Tunnel was opened in Calais on 6 May 1994 by British Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] and French President [[François Mitterrand]]]]

A small, two-inch (50-mm) diameter pilot hole allowed the service tunnel to break through without ceremony on 30 October 1990.<ref name="WashPost">{{ cite news | title = Britain and France Link Up-at Last | author = Glenn Frankel | publisher = The Washington Post | date = 1990-10-31 }}</ref> On 1 December 1990, Englishman Graham Fagg and Frenchman Phillippe Cozette broke through the service tunnel with the media watching.<ref name="Evening Mail birthday">{{ cite news | title = Chunnel birthday |work= Evening Mail | publisher = Birmingham Post & Mail Ltd | date = 2 December 2000 }}</ref> Eurotunnel completed the tunnel on time,<ref name="Flyvbjerg p. 96/97" /> and the tunnel was officially opened by British [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and French President [[François Mitterrand]] in a ceremony held in [[Calais]] on 6 May 1994. The Queen travelled through the tunnel to Calais on a [[Eurostar]] train, which stopped nose to nose with the train that carried President Mitterrand from Paris.<ref name="BBC openingceremony">{{ cite news | title = On This Day - 1994: President and Queen open Chunnel | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/6/newsid_2511000/2511653.stm | publisher = BBC News | date = 1994-05-06 | accessdate = 2008-01-12 }}</ref> Following the ceremony President Mitterrand and the Queen travelled on [[Eurotunnel Shuttle|Le Shuttle]] to a similar ceremony in [[Folkestone]].<ref name="BBC openingceremony" />

The Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), now called [[High Speed 1]], runs {{convert|69|mi|km|0|}} from [[St Pancras railway station]] in London to the Channel Tunnel portal at Folkestone in Kent. It cost £5.8&nbsp;billion. On 16 September 2003 UK Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] opened the first section of High Speed 1, from Folkestone to north Kent. On 6 November 2007 the Queen officially opened High Speed 1 and St Pancras International station,<ref name="High-speed Newswire">{{ cite news | first = Peter | last = Woodman | title = High-speed Rail Link Finally Completed |work= Press Association National Newswire | date = 2007-11-14 }}</ref> replacing the original slower link to [[Waterloo International railway station]]. On High Speed 1 trains traveling at speeds up to {{convert|300|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, the journey from London to Paris takes 2&nbsp;hours 15&nbsp;minutes and London to Brussels takes 1&nbsp;hour 51&nbsp;minutes.<ref name="NewsAsia High Speed 1">{{ cite news | title = New high-speed rail line opens to link Britain to Europe|work= Channel NewsAsia | publisher = MediaCorp News | date = 2007-11-15 }}</ref>

In 1996, the American Society of Civil Engineers, with ''[[Popular Mechanics]]'', selected the tunnel as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World.<ref name="The Plain Dealer">{{ cite news | first = Christopher | last = Reynolds | title = Seven Wonders of the World: The Modern List | publisher = The Plain Dealer | date = 1996-05-19 | accessdate = 2008-03-13 }}</ref>

== Engineering ==
[[file:Channel Tunnel NRM.jpg|thumb|The Channel Tunnel exhibit at the [[National Railway Museum]] in [[York]], England, showing the circular cross section of the tunnel with the [[overhead lines|overhead line]] powering a [[Eurostar]] train. Also visible is the segmented tunnel lining]]

Surveying undertaken in the twenty years before tunnel construction confirmed earlier speculations that a tunnel route could be bored through a chalk marl stratum. The chalk marl was conducive to tunnelling, with impermeability, ease of excavation and strength. While on the English side the chalk marl ran along the entire length of the tunnel, on the French side a length of {{convert|5|km|mi|0}} had variable and difficult geology. The Channel Tunnel consists of three bores: two {{convert|7.6|m|ft|0|adj=on}} diameter rail tunnels, {{convert|30|m|ft|0}} apart, {{convert|50|km|mi|0}} in length with a {{convert|4.8|m|ft|0|adj=on}} diameter service tunnel in between. There are also cross-passages and piston relief ducts. The service tunnel was used as a pilot tunnel, boring ahead of the main tunnels to determine the conditions. English access was provided at Shakespeare Cliff, while French access came from a shaft at Sangatte. The French side used five [[tunnel boring machine]]s (TBMs), the English side used six. The service tunnel uses Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) and Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS). Fire safety was a critical design issue.

Between the portals at Beussingue and [[Castle Hill, Folkestone|Castle Hill]] the tunnel is {{convert|50.5|km|mi|0}} long, with {{convert|3.3|km|mi|0}} under land on the French side, {{convert|9.3|km|mi|0}} under land on the UK side and {{convert|37.9|km|mi|0}} under sea.<ref name="ICE p. 95">Institute of Civil Engineers p. 95</ref> This makes the Channel Tunnel the second longest rail tunnel in the world, behind the [[Seikan Tunnel]] in Japan, but with the longest under-sea section.<ref name="Daily Post 2006">{{ cite news | first = Jane | last = Gilbert | title = `Chunnel' workers link France and Britain |work= The Daily Post (New Zealand) | publisher = APN New Zealand Ltd | date = 2006-12-01 }}</ref> The average depth is {{convert|45|m|ft|0}} below the seabed.<ref name="Kirkland pp.13">Kirkland p. 13</ref> On the UK side, of the expected {{convert|5|e6m3|e6cuyd|lk=on}} of spoil approximately {{convert|1|e6m3|e6cuyd}} was used for fill at the terminal site, and the remainder was deposited at Lower Shakespeare Cliff behind a seawall, [[land reclamation|reclaiming]] {{convert|74|acre|ha|0}}<ref name="Anderson Story p xvi-xvii" /> of land.<ref name="ICE p. 208">Institute of Civil Engineers p. 208</ref> This land was then made into the [[Samphire Hoe Country Park]]. Environmental impact assessment did not identify any major risks for the project, and further studies into safety, noise, and air pollution were overall positive. However, environmental objections were raised over a high-speed link to London.<ref name="Flyvbjerg p. 51">Flyvbjerg et al. p. 51</ref>

=== Geology ===
[[file:Channel Tunnel geological profile 1.svg|thumb|250px|Geological profile along the tunnel as constructed. For the majority of its length the tunnel bores through a chalk marl stratum (layer)]]

Successful tunnelling under the channel required a sound understanding of the topography and geology and the selection of the best rock strata through which to tunnel. The geology generally consists of northeasterly dipping Cretaceous strata, part of the northern limb of the Wealden-Boulonnais dome. Characteristics include:

* Continuous chalk on the cliffs on either side of the Channel containing no major faulting, as observed by [[Verstegan]] in 1698
* Four geological [[stratum|strata]], marine sediments laid down 90–100&nbsp;million years ago; pervious upper and middle chalk above slightly pervious lower chalk and finally impermeable [[Gault Clay]]. A sandy stratum, glauconitic marl (tortia), is in between the chalk marl and gault clay
* A {{convert|25|–|30|m|adj=on}} layer of chalk marl (French: ''craie bleue'') in the lower third of the lower chalk appeared to present the best tunnelling medium. The chalk has a clay content of 30–40% providing impermeability to groundwater yet relatively easy excavation with strength allowing minimal support. Ideally the tunnel would be bored in the bottom {{convert|15|m|ft|0}} of the chalk marl, allowing water inflow from fractures and joints to be minimised, but above the gault clay that would increase stress on the tunnel lining and swell and soften when wet.<ref name="Eng Geol">{{ cite book | title = Engineering Geology of the Channel Tunnel | editor = Harris, C.S. et al. | year = 1996 | publisher = Thomas Telford | location = London | isbn = 0727720457 | page = 57 }}</ref>

On the English side of the channel, the strata [[Strike and dip|dip]] less than 5°, however, on the French side, this increases to 20°. Jointing and faulting is present on both the English and French sides. On the English side, only minor faults of displacement less than {{convert|2|m|ft|0}} exist. On the French side, displacements of up to {{convert|15|m|ft|0}} are present owing to the Quenocs [[anticline|anticlinal]] [[fold (geology)|fold]]. The faults are of limited width, filled with calcite, pyrite and remoulded clay. The increased dip and faulting restricted the selection of route on the French side. To avoid confusion microfossil assemblages were used to classify the chalk marl. On the French side, particularly near the coast, the chalk was harder, more brittle, and more fractured than on the English side. This led to the adoption of different tunnelling techniques on the French and English sides.<ref name="Kirkland geol pp.21–50" />

No major geological hazards were identified; however, the Quaternary undersea valley Fosse Dangaered, and [[Castle Hill, Folkestone|Castle Hill]] landslip located at the English portal, caused concerns. Identified by the 1964–65 geophysical survey, the Fosse Dangaered is an infilled valley system extending {{convert|80|m|ft|0}} below the seabed, {{convert|500|m|ft|0}} south of the tunnel route, located mid-channel. A 1986 survey showed that a tributary crossed the path of the tunnel, and so the tunnel route was made as far north and deep as possible. The English terminal had to be located in the Castle Hill landslip, which consists of displaced and tipping blocks of lower chalk, glauconitic marl and gault debris. Thus the area was stabilised by buttressing and inserting drainage adits.<ref name="Kirkland geol pp.21–50" /> The service tunnels were pilot tunnels preceding the main tunnels, so that the geology, areas of crushed rock, and zones of high water inflow could be predicted. Exploratory probing took place in the service tunnels, in the form of extensive forward probing, vertical downward probes and sideways probing.<ref name="Kirkland geol pp.21–50">Kirkland pp. 21–50</ref>

=== Surveying ===

Marine soundings and samplings by Thomé de Gamond were carried out during 1833–67, establishing the seabed depth at a maximum of {{convert|55|m}} and the continuity of geological strata (layers). Surveying continued over many years, with 166&nbsp;marine and 70&nbsp;land-deep boreholes being drilled and over 4000&nbsp;line kilometres of marine geophysical survey completed.<ref name="Kirkland geol pp.22–26" /> Surveys were undertaken in 1958–59, 1964–65, 1972–74 and 1986–88.

The surveying in 1958–59 catered for immersed tube and bridge designs as well as a bored tunnel, and thus a wide area was investigated. At this time marine geophysics surveying for engineering projects was in its infancy, with poor positioning and resolution from seismic profiling. The 1964-65 surveys concentrated on a northerly route that left the English coast at Dover harbour; using 70&nbsp;boreholes, an area of deeply weathered rock with high [[permeability (earth sciences)|permeability]] was located just south of Dover harbour.<ref name="Kirkland geol pp.22–26" />

Given the previous survey results and access constraints, a more southerly route was investigated in the 1972–73 survey and the route was confirmed to be feasible. Information for the tunnelling project also came from work before the 1975 cancellation. On the French side at Sangatte a deep shaft with [[adit]]s was made. On the English side at Shakespeare Cliff, the government allowed {{convert|250|m|ft|0}} of {{convert|4.5|m|ft|0}} diameter tunnel to be driven. The actual tunnel alignment, method of excavation and support were essentially the same as the 1975 attempt. In the 1986–97 survey, previous findings were reinforced and the nature of the gault clay and tunnelling medium, chalk marl that made up 85% of the route, were investigated. Geophysical techniques from the oil industry were employed.<ref name="Kirkland geol pp.22–26">Kirkland pp. 22–26</ref>

=== Tunnelling ===
[[file:Eurotunnel schema (empty service).svg|thumb|Typical tunnel cross section, with a service tunnel between twin rail tunnels. Shown linking the rail tunnels is a piston relief duct, necessary to manage pressure changes due to the movement of trains]]

Tunnelling between England and France was a major engineering challenge, with the only precedent being the undersea [[Seikan Tunnel]] in Japan. A serious risk with underwater tunnels is major water inflow due to the water pressure from the sea above under weak ground conditions. The Channel Tunnel also had the challenge of time—being privately funded, early financial return was paramount.

The objective was to construct: two {{convert|7.6|m|ft|0|adj=on}} diameter rail tunnels, {{convert|30|m|ft|0}} apart, {{convert|50|km|mi|0}} in length; a {{convert|4.8|m|ft|0|adj=on}} diameter service tunnel between the two main tunnels; pairs of {{convert|3.3|m|ft|0|adj=on}} diameter cross-passages linking the rail tunnels to the service tunnel at {{convert|375|m|ft|0|adj=on}} spacing; piston relief ducts {{convert|2|m|ft|0|adj=on}} diameter connecting the rail tunnels at {{convert|250|m|ft|0|adj=on}} spacing; two undersea crossover caverns to connect the rail tunnels.<ref name="Kirkland pp.63–128">Kirkland pp. 63–128</ref> The service tunnel always preceded the main tunnels by at least {{convert|1|km|mi|1}} to ascertain the ground conditions. There was plenty of experience with tunnelling through chalk in the mining industry. The undersea crossover caverns were a complex engineering problem. The French cavern was based on the [[Mount Baker Tunnel|Mount Baker Ridge]] freeway tunnel in the USA. The UK cavern was dug from the service tunnel ahead of the main tunnels to avoid delay.

Precast segmental linings in the main TBM drives were used, but different solutions were used on the English and French sides. On the French side, neoprene and grout sealed bolted linings made of cast iron or high-strength reinforced concrete were used. On the English side, the main requirement was for speed and bolting of cast-iron lining segments was only carried out in areas of poor geology. In the UK rail tunnels, eight lining segments plus a key segment were used; on the French side, five segments plus a key segment.<ref name="Wilson p.38">Wilson p. 38</ref> On the French side, a {{convert|55|m|ft|0|adj=on}} diameter {{convert|75|m|ft|0|adj=on}} deep grout-curtained shaft at Sangatte was used for access. On the English side, a marshalling area was {{convert|140|m|ft|0}} below the top of Shakespeare Cliff, and the [[New Austrian Tunnelling method]] (NATM) was first applied in the chalk marl here. On the English side, the land tunnels were driven from Shakespeare Cliff, the same place as the marine tunnels, not from Folkestone. The platform at the base of the cliff was not large enough for all of the drives and, despite environmental objections, tunnel spoil was placed behind a reinforced concrete seawall, on condition of placing the chalk in an enclosed lagoon to avoid wide dispersal of chalk fines. Owing to limited space, the precast lining factory was on the Isle of Grain in the Thames estuary.<ref name="Kirkland pp.63–128" />

On the French side, owing to the greater permeability to water, earth pressure balance TBMs with open and closed modes were used. The TBMs were of a closed nature during the initial {{convert|5|km|mi|0}}, but then operated as open, boring through the chalk marl stratum.<ref name="Kirkland pp.63–128" /> This minimised the impact to the ground and allowed high water pressures to be withstood, and it also alleviated the need to grout ahead of the tunnel. The French effort required five TBMs: two main marine machines, one main land machine (the short land drives of 3&nbsp;km allowed one TBM to complete the first drive then reverse direction and complete the other), and two service tunnel machines. On the English side, the simpler geology allowed faster open-faced TBMs.<ref name="Kirkland geol pp.29">Kirkland p. 29</ref> Six machines were used, all commenced digging from Shakespeare Cliff, three marine-bound and three for the land tunnels.<ref name="Kirkland pp.63–128" /> Towards the completion of the undersea drives, the UK TBMs were driven steeply downwards and buried clear of the tunnel. The French TBMs then completed the tunnel and were dismantled.<ref name="Wilson p. 44">Wilson p. 44</ref> A 900&nbsp;mm gauge railway was used on the English side during construction.<ref name="Kirkland pp.117–128">Kirkland pp. 117–128</ref>

In contrast to the English machines, which were simply given alphanumeric names, the French tunnelling machines were all named after women: Brigitte, Europa, Catherine, Virginie, Pascaline, Séverine.<ref>{{ cite article | url = http://pagesperso-orange.fr/batisseurs-tunnel/3tunnels.pdf | author = Pierre-Jean Pompee | title = Channel Tunnel: Tunnel's Construction | publisher = pagesperso-orange.fr | accessdate = 2009-07-19 }}</ref>

=== Railway design ===
[[file:ETunnelhoch.jpg|thumb|Interior of [[Eurotunnel Shuttle]], a vehicle shuttle train. The largest railway wagons in the world,<ref name="Anderson Story p xvi-xvii" /> the shuttle trains transport vehicles between terminals on either side of the tunnel]]

==== Communications ====

There are three communication systems in the tunnel: concession radio (CR) for mobile vehicles and personnel within Eurotunnel's Concession (terminals, tunnels, coastal shafts); track-to-train radio (TTR) for secure speech and data between trains and the railway control centre; Shuttle internal radio (SIR) for communication between shuttle crew and to passengers over car radios.<ref name="Kirkland pp.129–132">Kirkland pp. 129–132</ref>

==== Power supply ====

All tunnel services run on electricity, shared equally from English and French sources. Power is delivered to the locomotives via an [[overhead line]] (catenary)<ref name="Kirkland pp.134–148">Kirkland pp. 134–148</ref> at [[25 kV AC railway electrification|{{nowrap|25 kV 50 Hz}}]].<ref name="wiki_railelectric">Article: Railway electric traction 2009-08-09</ref>

A large proportion of the railway south of [[London]] uses a 750&nbsp;V&nbsp;DC [[third rail]] to deliver electrical power; however since the opening of High Speed 1 there is no need to use the third rail system for any part of the Eurostar journey. High Speed 1, the tunnel itself and the route to Paris has power provided via overhead catenary at 25&nbsp;kV&nbsp;50&nbsp;Hz. The railways in [[Brussels]] are also electrified by overhead catenaries, but at 3000&nbsp;V&nbsp;DC.<ref name="wiki_railelectric" />

==== Signalling ====

A cab signalling system is used that gives information directly to train drivers on a display. There is [[Automatic Train Protection]] (ATP) that stops the train if the speed differs from that indicated on the in-cab display. [[Transmission Voie-Machine|TVM430]], as used on [[LGV Nord]], is used in the tunnel.<ref name="Kirkland pp.149–155">Kirkland pp. 149–155</ref> The maximum allowed speed is {{nowrap|160 km/h}}.<ref name="wiki_de-eurotunnel">Article-de: Eurotunnel#Betrieb 2009-08-09</ref>

==== Track system ====

The American Sonneville International Corporation track system consisting of UIC60 rails on 900A grade resting on microcellular [[Ethylene-vinyl acetate|EVA]]<!--Correct disambig?--> pads, bolted into concrete was chosen.<ref name="Kirkland pp.157–174">Kirkland pp. 157–174</ref> The larger European GB+ [[loading gauge]] was used rather that one of the smaller UK alternatives; this gauge is maintained on High Speed 1 as far as [[Barking]] in east London.<ref name=DfTlong>{{ cite web | url = http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/rail/strategyfinance/strategy/freightnetwork/ | title = Strategic Freight Network: The Longer-Term Vision | publisher = Department for Transport | accessdate = 2009-05-17 }}</ref> [[Rail tracks#Ballastless Track|ballasted track]] was ruled out owing to maintenance constraints and a need for geometric stability.

=== Rolling stock ===

==== Eurotunnel Shuttle ====
{{Main|Eurotunnel Shuttle|Eurotunnel Class 9}}

Initially 38&nbsp;Le Shuttle locomotives were commissioned, working in pairs with one at each end of a shuttle train. The shuttles have two separate halves: single and double deck. Each half has two loading/unloading wagons and twelve carrier wagons. Eurotunnel's original order was for nine tourist shuttles.

HGV shuttles also have two halves, with each half containing one loading wagon, one unloading wagon and 14&nbsp;carrier wagons. There is a club car behind the leading locomotive. Eurotunnel originally ordered six HGV shuttles rakes.

==== Freight locomotives ====
{{See also|British Rail Class 92}}

Forty-six Class 92 locomotives for hauling freight trains and overnight passenger trains (the [[Nightstar (train)|Nightstar]] project, which was abandoned) were commissioned, which can run on both overhead AC and [[third rail|third-rail]] DC power.

==== International passenger ====
{{Main|British Rail Class 373}}

Thirty-one Eurostar trains—based on the [[Train à Grande Vitesse|French TGV]]—built to UK [[loading gauge]], and with many modifications for safety within the tunnel, were commissioned, with split ownership between British Rail, [[SNCF|French National Railway Company]] and [[National Railway Company of Belgium]]. [[British Rail]] ordered seven more for services north of London.<ref name="Kirkland pp.175–211">Kirkland pp. 175–211</ref>

At the end of 2009, extensive fire-proofing requirements were dropped and [[Deutsche Bahn]] received permission to run German [[Intercity-Express]] (ICE) trains through the Channel Tunnel in the future.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,5018915,00.html?maca=en-rss-en-all-1573-rdf | title = Deutsche Bahn gets access to Channel Tunnel|work=Deutsche Welle | date = 2009-12-16 | accessdate = 2009-12-20 | first = Sam | last = Edmonds }}</ref><ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.austinnews.net/story/578370 | title = Deutsche Bahn allowed through chunnel|work=Austin News | date = 2009-12-16 | accessdate = 2009-12-20 }}</ref>

==== Service locomotives ====

[[Diesel locomotive]]s for rescue and shunting work are [[Eurotunnel Class 0001]] and [[Eurotunnel Class 0031]].

== Operation ==

=== Usage and services ===
[[file:Chunnel traffic.svg|thumb|A Channel Tunnel traffic graph showing the number of passengers and [[tonnes]] of freight. Freight vehicle shuttle numbers dropped in 1996/7 owing to closure of the service after the November 1996 fire]]
[[file:Channel Tunnel Terminal.jpg|thumb|The British terminal at [[Cheriton, Kent|Cheriton]] in west Folkestone. The terminal services shuttle trains that carry vehicles, and is linked to the [[M20 motorway]]]]
[[File:Folkestone White Horse cropped.jpg|thumb|The [[Folkestone White Horse]] is the last view of England for most passengers embarking at the Cheriton terminal]]

Services offered by the tunnel are:

* [[Eurotunnel Shuttle]] (formerly Le Shuttle) roll-on roll-off shuttle service for road vehicles,
* [[Eurostar]] passenger trains,
* through freight trains.<ref name="Chisholm">{{ cite book | title = Britain on the edge of Europe | last = Chisholm | first = Michael | year = 1995 | publisher = Routledge | location = London | isbn = 0415119219 | page = 151 }}</ref>

Both the freight and passenger traffic forecasts that led to the construction of the tunnel were largely and universally overestimated. Particularly, Eurotunnel's commissioned forecasts were over-predictions.<ref name="Flyvbjerg p. 22" /> Although the captured share of Channel crossings (competing with air and sea) was forecast correctly, high competition and reduced tariffs has led to low revenue. Overall cross-Channel traffic was overestimated.<ref name="Anguera 2006" />

==== Passenger traffic volumes ====

Total cross-tunnel passenger traffic volumes peaked at 18.4&nbsp;million in 1998, then dropped to 14.9&nbsp;million in 2003, from then rising again to 16.1&nbsp;million in 2008.

At the time of deciding to build the tunnel, 15.9&nbsp;million passengers were predicted for Eurostar trains in the opening year. In 1995, the first full year, actual numbers were a little over 2.9&nbsp;million, growing to 7.1&nbsp;million in 2000, then dropping again to 6.3&nbsp;million in 2003. However, Eurostar was also limited by the lack of a high-speed connection on the British side. After the completion of [[High Speed 1]] (formerly CTRL) to London in two stages in 2003 and 2007, traffic increased. In 2008, Eurostar carried 9,113,371 passengers in cross-Channel-Tunnel traffic, a 10% increase over the previous year, despite traffic limitations due to the [[2008 Channel Tunnel fire]].<ref name="ETreport2008">{{ cite web | url = http://www.eurotunnel.com | title = Eurotunnel 2008 traffic and revenue figures | date = 2009-01-15 | publisher = [[Eurotunnel]] | accessdate = 2009-01-15 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!ROWSPAN="2" | &nbsp;Year&nbsp;
!COLSPAN="3" | Passengers transported...
|-
! by Eurostar{{ref label|cross_chunnel|A|A}}<ref name="ETtraffic5yr">{{ cite web | url = http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTheGroup/ukcOperations/ukpTraffic | title = Traffic figures | publisher = [http://www.eurotunnel.com Eurotunnel] | accessdate = 2009-01-15 }}</ref><ref name="ETtraffic1995-2002">{{ cite web | url = http://www.southeast-ra.gov.uk/southeastplan/key/study_areas/initial_studies/east_kent_ashford_annex%202.xls | title = Study Report Annex 2 |pages=Table 11 |month=June | year = 2004 |work=Initial [http://www.southeast-ra.gov.uk/southeastplan/key/study_areas/initial_studies/east_kent_ashford.html East Kent and Ashford Sub-Regional Study] for [http://www.southeast-ra.gov.uk/southeastplan/ The South East Plan] | publisher = [http://www.southeast-ra.gov.uk/ South East England Regional Assembly] | accessdate = 2009-01-21 }}</ref><br />(''actual ticket sales'') !! by Eurotunnel Passenger Shuttles<ref name="Anguera 2006">{{ cite journal | author = Ricard Anguera | year = 2006 | month = May | title = The Channel Tunnel—an ex post economic evaluation | journal = Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice | volume = 40 | issue = 4 | pages = 291–315 | doi = 10.1016/j.tra.2005.08.009 }}</ref><ref name="ETtraffic5yr" /><br />(''estimated, millions'') !! Total<br />(''estimated, millions'')
|-
| 1994
| ~100,000<ref name="Anguera 2006" />
| 0.2
| 0.3
|-
| 1995
| 2,920,309
| 4.4
| 7.3
|-
| 1996
| 4,995,010
| 7.9
| 12.9
|-
| 1997
| 6,004,268
| 8.6
| 14.6
|-
| 1998
| 6,307,849
| 12.1
| 18.4
|-
| 1999
| 6,593,247
| 11.0
| 17.6
|-
| 2000
| 7,130,417
| 9.9
| 17.0
|-
| 2001
| 6,947,135
| 9.4
| 16.3
|-
| 2002
| 6,602,817
| 8.6
| 15.2
|-
| 2003
| 6,314,795
| 8.6
| 14.9
|-
| 2004
| 7,276,675
| 7.8
| 15.1
|-
| 2005
| 7,454,497
| 8.2
| 15.7
|-
| 2006
| 7,858,337
| 7.8
| 15.7
|-
| 2007
| 8,260,980
| 7.9
| 16.2
|-
| 2008
| 9,113,371
| 7.0
| 16.1
|-
| COLSPAN=4 |
{{note label|cross_chunnel|A|A}}only passengers taking Eurostar to cross the Channel
|}

==== Freight traffic volumes ====

Cross-tunnel freight traffic volumes have been erratic, with a decrease during 1997 due to a closure caused by a fire in a freight shuttle. The total freight crossings increased over the period, indicating the substitutability of the tunnel by sea crossings. The tunnel has achieved a cross-Channel freight traffic market share close to or above Eurotunnel's 1980s predictions but Eurotunnel's 1990 and 1994 predictions were overestimates.

For freight transported on through freight trains, the first year freight prediction was 7.2&nbsp;million gross tonnes, however, the 1995 figure was 1.3&nbsp;million gross tonnes.<ref name="Flyvbjerg p. 22">Flyvbjerg et al. p. 22</ref> Through freight volumes peaked in 1998 at 3.1&nbsp;million tonnes. However, with continuing problems, this figure fell back to 1.21&nbsp;million tonnes in 2007, increasing again slightly to 1.24 million tonnes in 2008.<ref name="ETreport2008" />

However, together with that carried on freight shuttles, freight traffic growth has occurred since opening, with 6.4&nbsp;million tonnes carried in 1995, 18.4&nbsp;million tonnes recorded in 2003<ref name="Anguera 2006" /> and 19.6&nbsp;million tonnes in 2007.<ref name="ETtraffic5yr" />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!ROWSPAN="2" | &nbsp;Year&nbsp;
!COLSPAN="3" | Freight transported...
|-
! by through freight trains<ref name="ETtraffic1995-2002" /><br />(''actual tonnes'')!! by Eurotunnel Truck Shuttles<ref name="Anguera 2006" /><ref name="ETtraffic5yr" /><br />(''estimated, million tonnes'') !! Total<br />(''estimated, million tonnes'')
|-
| 1994
| 0
| 0.8<ref name="Anguera 2006" />
| 0.8
|-
| 1995
| 1,349,802
| 5.1
| 6.4
|-
| 1996
| 2,783,774
| 6.7
| 9.5
|-
| 1997
| 2,925,171
| 3.3
| 6.2
|-
| 1998
| 3,141,438
| 9.2
| 12.3
|-
| 1999
| 2,865,251
| 10.9
| 13.8
|-
| 2000
| 2,947,385
| 14.7
| 17.6
|-
| 2001
| 2,447,432
| 15.6
| 18.0
|-
| 2002
| 1,463,580
| 15.6
| 17.1
|-
| 2003
| 1,743,686<ref name="ETtraffic2003">{{ cite web | url = http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2004/ukcJanuary2004/ukpPr0401Revenue.htm | title = Eurotunnel 2003 Revenue & Traffic | date = 2004-01-20 | publisher = [[Eurotunnel]] | accessdate = 2009-01-21 }}</ref>
| 16.7
| 18.4
|-
| 2004
| 1,889,175<ref name="ETtraffic2005" />
| 16.6
| 18.5
|-
| 2005
| 1,587,790<ref name="ETtraffic2005">{{ cite web | url = http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2006/ukcJanuary2006/ukpPr06012005TrafficAndRevenue.htm | title = Eurotunnel: 2005 Traffic and revenue figures. | date = 2006-01-16 | publisher = [[Eurotunnel]] | accessdate = 2009-01-21 }}</ref>
| 17.0
| 18.6
|-
| 2006
| 1,569,429<ref name="ETtraffic2007" />
| 16.9
| 18.5
|-
| 2007
| 1,213,647<ref name="ETtraffic2007">{{ cite web | url = http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2008/ukcJanuary2008/ukpPr0801TrafficAndRevenue2007.htm | title = Eurotunnel 2007 Traffic and Revenue figures: a remarkable year | date = 2008-01-15 | publisher = [http://www.eurotunnel.com Eurotunnel] | accessdate = 2009-01-21 }}</ref>
| 18.4
| 19.6
|-
| 2008
| ~1,240,000{{ref label|tonne2train|B|B}}<ref name="ETtraffic5yr" />
| 14.2
| 15.4
|-
| COLSPAN=4 |
{{note label|tonne2train|B|B}}From October 2007, Eurotunnel invoices through railfreight by trains rather than tonne.<ref name="ETtraffic2007" />
|}

Eurotunnel's freight subsidiary is [[Europorte 2]].<ref name="AFX Europorte">{{ cite news | title = Eurotunnel gets backing for freight service |work= AFX | publisher = Agence France Presse | date = 28 October 2004 }}</ref> In September 2006 EWS, the UK's largest rail freight operator, announced that owing to cessation of UK-French government subsidies of £52&nbsp;million per annum to cover the Channel Tunnel "Minimum User Charge" (a subsidy of around £13,000 per train, at a traffic level of 4,000&nbsp;trains per annum), freight trains would stop running after 30 November.<ref name="Times cash row">{{ cite news |url = http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article626416.ece | title = Chunnel cash row threatens freight trains | author = Dominic O'Connell | publisher = The Times | date = 2006-09-03 | accessdate = 2006-09-03 | location = London }}</ref>

==== Economic performance ====

Shares in Eurotunnel were issued at £3.50 per share on 9 December 1987. By mid-1989 the price had risen to £11.00. Delays and cost overruns led to the share price dropping; during demonstration runs in October 1994 the share price reached an all-time low value. Eurotunnel suspended payment on its debt in September 1995 to avoid bankruptcy.<ref>{{ cite article | url = http://www.josephcoates.com/pdf_files/268_Megaprojects_and_Risk.pdf | title = Megaprojects and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition | publisher = josephcoates.com | accessdate = 2009-07-19 }}</ref> In December 1997 the British and French governments extended Eurotunnel's operating concession by 34&nbsp;years to 2086. Financial restructuring of Eurotunnel occurred in mid-1998, reducing debt and financial charges. Despite the restructuring ''[[The Economist]]'' reported in 1998 that to break even Eurotunnel would have to increase fares, traffic and market share for sustainability.<ref name="Flyvbjerg p. 32–34">Flyvbjerg et al. pp. 32–34</ref> A cost benefit analysis of the Channel Tunnel indicated that there were few impacts on the wider economy and few developments associated with the project, and that the British economy would have been better off if the tunnel had not been constructed.<ref name="Anguera 2006" /><ref name="Flyvbjerg">{{ cite book | author = Flyvbjerg, B. Buzelius, N. Rothengatter, W | year = 2003 | title = Megaprojects and Risk | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | pp = 68-69 | isbn = 0521009464 }}</ref>

Under the terms of the Concession, Eurotunnel was obliged to investigate a cross-Channel road tunnel. In December 1999 road and rail tunnel proposals were presented to the British and French governments, but it was stressed that there was not enough demand for a second tunnel.<ref name="Second Link Birm">{{ cite news | title = Eurotunnel unveils plans for second link | publisher = [[Birmingham Post]] | date = 6 January 2000 | accessdate = 2009-07-19 }}</ref> A three-way treaty between the United Kingdom, France and Belgium governs border controls, with the establishment of ''control zones'' wherein the officers of the other nation may exercise limited customs and law enforcement powers. For most purposes these are at either end of the tunnel, with the French border controls on the UK side of the tunnel and vice versa. For certain city-to-city trains, the train itself represents a control zone.<ref name="CPS zones">{{ cite web | url = http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section2/chapter_f.html#_Toc44570638 | title = The CPS: Channel Tunnel | accessdate = 2008-03-11 |work= Crown Prosecution Service }}</ref> A binational emergency plan coordinates UK and French emergency activities.<ref name="Kirkland pp.311">Kirkland p. 331</ref>

In 1999 Eurostar posted its first ever net profits, having previously made a loss of £925m in 1995.<ref name ='BBConthisday' />

== Terminals ==
[[file:Chargement voiture Eurotunnel.jpg|thumb|A [[Eurovan (PSA/Fiat joint venture)#Second generation|Peugeot 807]] entering a shuttle wagon at the French terminal at [[Coquelles]] near [[Calais]] in northern France]]

The terminals sites are at Cheriton (Folkestone in the United Kingdom) and Coquelles (Calais in France). The terminals are unique facilities designed to transfer vehicles from the motorway onto trains at a rate of 700&nbsp;cars and 113&nbsp;heavy vehicles per hour. The UK site uses the [[M20 motorway]]. The terminals are organised with the frontier controls juxtaposed with the entry to the system to allow travellers to go onto the motorway at the destination country immediately after leaving the shuttle. The area of the UK site was severely constrained and the design was challenging. The French layout was achieved more easily. To achieve design output, the shuttles accept cars on double-decks; for flexibility, ramps were placed inside the shuttles to provide access to the top decks.<ref name="Kirkland pp.255–270">Kirkland pp. 255–270</ref> At Folkestone there is {{convert|20|km|mi|0}} of mainline track and 45&nbsp;turnouts with eight platforms. At Calais there is {{convert|30|km|mi|0}} of track with 44&nbsp;turnouts. At the terminals the shuttle trains traverse a figure eight to reduce uneven wear on the wheels.<ref name="Kirkland pp.157–174" />

== Regional impact ==

A 1996 report from the [[European Commission]] predicted that [[Kent]] and [[Nord-Pas de Calais]] had to face increased traffic volumes due to general growth of cross-Channel traffic and traffic attracted by the tunnel. In Kent, a high-speed rail line to London would transfer traffic from road to rail.<ref name="EU reg impact 220-222">European Commission pp. 220–222</ref> Kent's regional development would benefit from the tunnel, but being so close to London restricts the benefits. Gains are in the traditional industries and are largely dependent on the development of Ashford International passenger station, without which Kent would be totally dependent on London's expansion. Nord-Pas-de-Calais enjoys a strong internal symbolic effect of the Tunnel which results in significant gains in manufacturing.<ref name="EU reg impact 248-252">European Commission pp. 248–252</ref>

The removal of a bottleneck by means like the Channel Tunnel does not necessarily induce economic gains in all adjacent regions, the image of a region being connected to the European high-speed transport and active political response are more important for regional economic development. Tunnel-induced regional development is small compared to general economic growth.<ref name="Fayman">{{ cite journal | last = Fayman | first = Sonia | coauthors = Metge, Pierre | year = 1995 |month= September | title = The regional impact of the Channel Tunnel: Qualitative and quantitative analysis |journal= European Planning Studies | volume = 3 |issue= 3 | page = 333 }}</ref> The South East of England is likely to benefit developmentally and socially from faster and cheaper transport to continental Europe, but the benefits are unlikely to be equally distributed throughout the region. The overall environmental impact is almost certainly negative.<ref name="Button">{{ cite journal | last = Button | first = Kenneth | year = 1990 |month= July | title = The Channel Tunnel: The Economic Implications for the South East of England|journal= The Geographical Journal | volume = 156 |issue= 2 |pages= 187–199|doi= 10.2307/635327 }}</ref>

Five years after the opening of the tunnel, there were few and small impacts on the wider economy, and it was difficult to identify major developments associated with the tunnel.<ref name="Flyvbjerg p. 68/69">Flyvbjerg et al. p.&nbsp;68–69<!--Flybjerg credits this info with Roger Vickerman, "The Channel Tunnel: Methodology and Evidence" 1999--></ref> It has been postulated that the British economy would have actually been better off without the costs from the construction project,<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.newstatesman.com/200104020018 | work = New Statesman Special Report | title = Coming soon: the Dome on wheels| work = [[New Statesman]] | accessdate=2009-04-28 }}</ref> both [[Eurotunnel]] and [[Eurostar]], companies heavily involved in the Channel Tunnel's construction and operation, have had to resort to large amounts of government aid to deal with debts amounted.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/eurotunnel-calls-for-government-support-after-record-acircpound13bn-loss-569459.html | title = Eurotunnel calls for government support after record £1.3bn loss| work= [[The Independent]] | first=Michael | last=Harrison | date = 2004-02-10 | accessdate=2009-07-21 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/2917255/Eurotunnel-has-4bn-too-much-debt.html | title = Eurotunnel has £4bn too much debt| work= [[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] | date = 2005-01-12 | accessdate=2009-07-21 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2006/feb/21/transportintheuk.politics | title = Debt-laden Channel tunnel rail link is 'nationalised'| publisher = The Guardian | date = 2006-02-21 | accessdate=2009-07-21 }}</ref> Eurotunnel has been described as being in a serious situation.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.adacte.com/economiepolitique/hollandais17062005.doc | title = Facts and figures Eurotunnel 2000-2004/Forecast 2005: Commentry and a suggestion | publisher = Adacte.com | date = June 2005| accessdate=2009-07-21 }}</ref>

== Incidents ==
{{undue weight|section}}

=== Fires ===
{{Main|1996 Channel Tunnel fire|2008 Channel Tunnel fire}}

There have been three fires in the Channel Tunnel that were significant enough to close the tunnel—all on the heavy goods vehicle (HGV) shuttles—and other more minor incidents.

During an "invitation only" testing phase on 9 December 1994 a fire broke out in a Ford Escort car whilst its owner had been loading it on to the upper deck of a tourist shuttle. The fire started at approximately 10:00 with the shuttle train stationary in the Folkestone terminal and was extinguished around 40 minutes later with no passenger injuries.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.independent.co.uk/news/fire-raises-channel-tunnel-fears-1389084.html | title = Fire raises Channel Tunnel fears | first = Christian | last = Wolmar | date = 1994-12-10 | accessdate = 2009-12-25|work=The Independent }}</ref>

On 18 November 1996 a fire broke out on a heavy goods vehicle shuttle wagon in the tunnel but nobody was seriously hurt. The exact cause is unknown,<ref>{{ cite article | url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/documents/CTSA_ChanTun1996.pdf| publisher=Channel Tunnel Safety Authority | title = Inquiry into the fire on Heavy Goods Vehicle Shuttle 7539 on 18 November 1996 | date = May 1997 | isbn = 0115519319 | accessdate=2009-07-21 }}</ref> although it was not a Eurotunnel equipment or rolling stock problem; it may have been due to arson of a heavy goods vehicle. It is estimated that the heart of the fire reached {{convert|1000|°C|°F|sigfig=2}}, with the tunnel severely damaged over {{convert|46|m|ft|0|}}, with some {{convert|500|m|ft|0|}} affected to some extent. Full operation recommenced six months after the fire.<ref name="Kirkland fire">{{ cite journal | author = C. J. Kirkland | date = | year = 2002 | month = | title = The fire in the Channel Tunnel | journal = Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology | volume = 17 | issue = | pages = 129–132 | url = http://www.ita-aites.org/cms/fileadmin/filemounts/ovion/doc/safety/sydney/OS12.PDF | format = PDF| doi = 10.1016/S0886-7798(02)00014-7 }}</ref>

The tunnel was closed for several hours on 21 August 2006, when a [[truck]] on an HGV shuttle train caught fire.<ref name="BBC fire">{{ cite news
| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/5271784.stm | title = Lorry fire closes Channel Tunnel | publisher = BBC News | date = 21 August 2006 | accessdate = 2006-08-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.raib.gov.uk/cms_resources/071023_R372007_Channel%20Tunnel.pdf|title=Fire on HGV shuttle in the Channel Tunnel 21 August 2006|series=Rail Accident Report|author=Rail Accident Investigation Branch|publisher=Department for Transport|date=October 2007}}</ref> On 11 September 2008 a fire occurred in the Channel Tunnel at 13:57 GMT. The incident started on a freight-carrying vehicle train travelling towards France.<ref name=ft1>{{ cite news | url = http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ad05c7e6-8062-11dd-99a9-000077b07658.html | title = Channel tunnel fire causes further cancellations | last = Robert Wright | date = 2008-09-12 | publisher = Financial Times | accessdate = 2009-07-21 }}</ref> The event occurred {{convert|11|km|mi}} from the French entrance to the tunnel. No one was killed but several people were taken to hospitals suffering from smoke inhalation, and minor cuts and bruises. The tunnel was closed to all traffic, with the undamaged South Tunnel reopening for limited services two days later.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Channel-Tunnel-Closed-Due-To-A-Fire/Article/200809215097705?lpos=UK%2BNews_0&lid=ARTICLE_15097705_Channel%2BTunnel%2BClosed%2BDue%2BTo%2BA%2BFire | title = Channel Tunnel Fire Evacuation | publisher = [[Sky News]] | date = 2008-09-11 | accessdate = 2009-03-09 }}</ref> Full service resumed on 9 February 2009<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2009/ukcFebruary2009/ukpPr0902Eurotunnel-back-to-full-capacity.htm | title = Eurotunnel fully open to traffic | publisher = Eurotunnel.com | date = | accessdate = 2010-01-14 }}</ref> after repairs costing €60 million.

=== Train failures ===

On the night of 19/20 February 1996, approximately 1,000 passengers became trapped in the Channel Tunnel when two [[British Rail Class 373]] trains on continent-bound [[Eurostar]] service broke down owing to electronic failures caused by snow and ice.<ref name="1996-snow">{{ cite news | url = http://www.independent.co.uk/news/wrong-kind-of-snow-in-tunnel-1320248.html | title = Wrong kind of snow in tunnel... | last = Wolmar | first = Christian | date = 22 February 1996 | publisher = The Independent | accessdate = 21 December 2009 }}</ref>

On 3 August 2007 an electrical failure lasting six hours caused passengers to be trapped in the tunnel on a Eurotunnelshuttle crossing.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/6929713.stm | title = Delays after Channel Tunnel fault | publisher = BBC News | date = 2007-08-03 | accessdate = 2010-01-14 }}</ref>

On the evening of 18 December 2009, during the [[December 2009 European snowfall]], five London-bound trains operating [[Eurostar]] services failed inside the tunnel, trapping 2,000 passengers in the tunnel overnight. The large number of failed trains meant that both running tunnels were blocked. Five [[British Rail Class 373|Class 373]] trains had departed from [[Brussels]] and [[Paris]] and encountered cold temperatures in Northern France, the coldest for eight years.<ref name="sky-colder" /> A Eurotunnel spokesperson explained that the problem had arisen because of 'fluffy snow' in France,<ref>[http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article6963830.ece Eurostar blames 'fluffy' snow for weekend chaos] [[The Times]] 21 December 09</ref> which had evaded the 'winterisation' shields designed to stop snow getting into the electrics.<ref>[http://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5idMZN-hJD1V8NcA5NRMC4A2xVNlw Eurostar cancels trains over snow] - [[Press Association]] (21 December 09)</ref> Electrical failure was then caused by the transition from the cold air in France to the warm atmosphere inside the tunnel.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Eurostar-Trains-Trapped-In-Channel-Tunnel-As-Snow-And-Ice-Brings-Services-To-A-Halt/Article/200912315504284 | title = 'Nightmare' Over For Stranded Passengers | date = 2009-12-18 | accessdate = 2009-12-19 | first = Rob | last = Cole|work=Sky News }}</ref><!-- THE FOLLOWING SEEMS TO BE A MISCONCEPTION, SINCE THE CITED REFERENCE ONLY TALKS ABOUT THE TEMPERATURE IN THE TRAINS GOING UP TO THE CITED VALUE. THERE IS NO MENTION OF THE TEMPERATURE IN THE TUNNEL (35–40&nbsp;°C<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8422190.stm | title = Eurostar passengers on train ordeal|format=Video|work=BBC News Online | date = 2009-12-19 | accessdate = 2009-12-19 }}</ref>)--> Four of the failed trains had been carrying passengers, with the fifth being empty; one train from Brussels had been turned back to Brussels before reaching the tunnel. Two trains were hauled out of the tunnel using diesel-powered [[Eurotunnel Class 0001]]. The blocking of the Channel Tunnel led to the implementation of [[Operation Stack]], the transformation of the [[M20 motorway]] into a linear car park.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5hRM5rF7ThMd2awfWzOXBFJ7AmuXg | publisher = The Press Association | date = 2009-12-19 | title = Passengers home after trapped in Channel Tunnel | accessdate = 2009-12-19 }}</ref>

Problems started at around 21:00, with [[Kent fire brigade]] being alerted at 21:46.<ref name="cnn-cold" /> The journeys of those involved took between eleven and sixteen hours.<ref name="sky-colder" /> Snow that had built up on the trains then melted in the heat of the tunnel, the water causing electrical faults. Of the five Class 373 trains and two turned back:<ref name="cnn-cold">{{ cite news | url = http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/12/19/channel.tunnel/ | title = Eurostar services cancelled as snow brings havoc | first = Melissa | last = Gray|work=CNN | date = 2009-12-19 | accessdate = 2009-12-19 }}</ref><ref name="mirror-cold">{{ cite news | url = http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/top-stories/2009/12/20/eurostar-passengers-told-not-to-breathe-so-hard-as-they-ran-out-of-air-115875-21909898/ | title = Eurostar passengers told not to breathe so hard as they ran out of air|work=Daily Mirror|first1=Kate|last1=Mansey|first2=Nick|last2=Owens|first3=Crystal|last3=Jones | date = 2009-12-20 | accessdate = 2009-12-19 }}</ref><ref name="indy-cold">{{ cite news | url = http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/thousands-stranded-in-eurostar-chaos-1845914.html | title = Thousands stranded in Eurostar chaos|work=Independent|first1=David|last1=Randall|first2=Nina|last2=Lakhani | date = 2009-12-20 | accessdate = 2009-12-20 }}</ref><ref name="bbc-relive">{{ cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8422305.stm | title = Passengers trapped on Eurostar trains relive ordeal|work=BBC News Online | date = 2009-12-20 | accessdate = 2009-12-20 }}</ref>

# 18:59 Brussels–London (9157); towed to London St Pancras by a Eurotunnel diesel locomotive.<ref name="cnn-cold" /> Delay of 3 hours 49 minutes.<ref name="mirror-cold" /><ref name="indy-cold" />
# 18:43 Paris–London (9053); 700 passengers evacuated via service tunnel to an empty Eurotunnel shuttle train in opposite running tunnel.<ref name="cnn-cold" /> Passengers taken to [[Ashford International railway station]], for conventional trains to London.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8422286.stm | title = Family's 15 hour nightmare trapped on Eurostar|format=Video|work=BBC News Online | date = 2009-12-19 | accessdate = 2009-12-19 }}</ref> Late into London by 12 hours,<ref name="mirror-cold" /> arriving at 08:00 the next morning.<ref name="indy-cold" />
# 19:13 Paris–London (9055); Coupled to adjacent 20:13 Eurostar train behind and dragged out by diesel locomotive, then continued to London.<ref name="cnn-cold" /> Hauled to Folkestone<ref name="mirror-cold" /> and picked up passengers from 20:13 Paris service behind it.<ref name="indy-cold" />
# 19:37 Disneyland–London (9057); 664 passengers evacuated via service tunnel to an empty Eurotunnel shuttle train in opposite running tunnel<ref name="cnn-cold" /> and taken via France.<ref name="bbc-relive" />
# 20:13 Paris–London (9059); Coupled to adjacent 19:13 Eurostar train in front, passengers transferred to the earlier 19:13 train for journey to London<ref name="cnn-cold" /> or taken via Folkestone and transported in five coaches by road to London.<ref name="mirror-cold" /><ref name="indy-cold" />
# 20:29 Brussels–London (9163), held at Calais<ref name="indy-cold" /> then turned back to Brussels before reaching the Channel Tunnel.<ref name="mirror-cold" />
# 21:13 Paris–London (9063), held at Calais<ref name="indy-cold" /> then turned back to Paris before reaching the Channel Tunnel.<ref name="mirror-cold" />

The occasion was the first time during the fifteen years that a Eurostar train had to be evacuated inside the tunnel itself; the failing of four at once being described as "unprecedented".<ref name="amsterdam-cold">{{ cite news | url = http://www.amsterdamnews.net/story/579422 | title = Chaos in Eurotunnel as several trains break down|work=Amsterdam News.Net | date = 2009-12-19 | accessdate = 2009-12-19|quote="Four Eurostars broken down at one time&nbsp;— it's absolutely unprecedented", John Keefe of Eurotunnel ... "There's never actually been an evacuation of a Eurostar train in the fifteen years that the tunnel has been opened and last night we evacuated two whole trains to get people off", }}</ref> The Channel Tunnel reopened at 05:40 CET the following morning.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.eurotunnel.com/NR/rdonlyres/E69E8275-E4E9-4B65-AC6A-D5A8E9931DD7/0/091219Eurotunnel_rescues_Eurostar.pdf | title = Eurotunnel rescues Eurostar|work=Eurotunnel Press Release | date = 19 December 2009 | accessdate = 23 December 2009 }}</ref>

The following evening, on 19 December 2009, an extra Eurostar service from Paris broke down. The train successfully negotiated the Channel Tunnel itself, then broke down outside. A second train was sent to tow the first to London, but failed at 18:25 while trying to haul it up a steep incline crossing [[Thurrock]] Viaduct on the outskirts of London.<ref name="sky-colder">{{ cite news | url = http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Eurostar-Says-All-Scheduled-Services-Tomorrow-Have-Been-Cancelled/Article/200912315504284 | title = Severe Weather Brings Eurostar To A Halt | date = 2009-12-19 | accessdate = 2009-12-19|work=Sky News }}</ref><ref>{{ cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8422978.stm | title = Eurostar train becomes stranded on way from Paris | date = 2009-12-19 | accessdate = 2009-12-19|work=BBC News Online }}</ref><ref name="bbc-even-colder">{{ cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8422978.stm | title = Eurostar train stuck between Paris and London | date = 2009-12-20 | accessdate = 2009-12-20|work=BBC News Online }}</ref> Eurostar passenger services restarted on 22 December 2009.<ref>[http://www.rfi.fr/actuen/articles/120/article_6272.asp France/UK - Eurostar suspension: Frozen Eurostar service begins to thaw] 22/12/2009 ''www.rfi.fr''</ref>

[[Nirj Deva]], [[Member of the European Parliament]] for South East England, has called on Eurostar chief executive Richard Brown to resign over the incidents.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8422978.stm | title = Eurostar transports 500 vulnerable passengers to France | publisher = BBC News | date = 2009-12-20 | accessdate = 2010-01-14 }}</ref>

A further Class 373 unit on Brussels–London service broke down in the tunnel on 7 January 2010. The train had 236 passengers on board and was towed to Ashford; other trains that had not yet reached the tunnel were turned back.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/eurostar-disrupted-after-new-breakdown-in-channel-tunnel-1861132.html | title = Eurostar disrupted after new breakdown in Channel tunnel|work=The Independent | date = 2009-01-07 | accessdate = 2009-01-07 }}</ref>
<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE6061L020100107 | title = Stricken Eurostar train towed out of Channel Tunnel | publisher = Uk.reuters.com | date = 2010-01-07 | accessdate = 2010-01-14 }}</ref>

An independent report on the 18/19 December 2009 incidents was issued on 12 February 2010. The report was compiled by [[Christopher Garnett]] (former CEO of [[Great North Eastern Railway]]) and Claude Gressier (a French transport expert) and made 21 recommendations. <ref>http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/eurostar-rapped-in-tunnel-breakdowns-report-1897410.html</ref>

=== Asylum and immigration ===

Immigrants and would-be [[asylum seeker]]s have been known to use the tunnel to attempt to enter Britain. By 1997, the problem had already attracted international press attention, and the French [[Red Cross]] opened a refugee centre at [[Sangatte]] in 1999, using a [[warehouse]] once used for tunnel construction; by 2002 it housed up to 1500&nbsp;persons at a time, most of them trying to get to the UK.<ref name="Red Cross">{{ cite news | url = http://www.redcross.int/EN/mag/magazine2002_2/sangatte.html | title = Sangatte: A place of hope and despair | author = Pierre Kremer | publisher = The Magazine of the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]] | date = February 2002 | accessdate = 2006-08-04 }}</ref> At one point, large numbers came from [[Afghanistan]], [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]], but African and [[Eastern Europe]]an countries are also represented.<ref name="Strangers">{{ cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/saturday_review/story/0,3605,595996,00.html | title = Strangers in a strange land | author = Caryl Phillips | publisher = The Guardian | date = 17 November 2001 | accessdate = 2006-08-04 }}</ref>

Most migrants who got into Britain found some way to ride a freight train, but others used Eurostar. Though the facilities were fenced, airtight security was deemed impossible; refugees would even jump from bridges onto moving trains. In several incidents people were injured during the crossing; others tampered with railway equipment, causing delays and requiring repairs.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/07/31/immigration.daring/index.html | title = Desperate journeys fraught with danger | author = Avril Stephens | publisher = CNN | date = 2007-07-31 | accessdate = 2006-08-04 }}</ref> Eurotunnel said it was losing £5m per month because of the problem.<ref name="Notorious">{{ cite news | url = http://212.58.226.40/1/hi/uk/2003977.stm | title = Europe's most notorious refugee camp | publisher = BBC News | date = 2002-07-12 | accessdate = 2006-08-05 }}</ref> A dozen refugees have died in crossing attempts.<ref name="Red Cross" />

In 2001 and 2002, several riots broke out at Sangatte and groups of refugees (up to 550 in a December 2001 incident) stormed the fences and attempted to enter ''en masse''.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/dec/27/immigration.uk | title = Police braced for new tunnel raid | author = Paul Webster | publisher = The Guardian | date = 2007-12-27 | accessdate = 2006-08-04 }}</ref> Immigrants have also arrived as legitimate Eurostar passengers without proper entry papers.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://migration.ucdavis.edu/MN/more.php?id=1529_0_4_0 | title = UK/Ireland: Asylum (news digest) | publisher = Migration News | date = 1998 (?) | accessdate = 2006-08-04 }}</ref>

Local authorities in both France and the UK called for the closure of Sangatte, and Eurotunnel twice sought an injunction against the centre.<ref name="Red Cross" /> The United Kingdom blamed France for allowing Sangatte to open, and France blamed the UK for its lax asylum rules and the EU for not having a uniform immigration policy.<ref name="Notorious" /> The ''[[cause célèbre]]'' nature of the problem even included journalists detained as they followed refugees onto railway property.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.freemedia.at/cms/ipi/freedom_detail.html?country=/KW0001/KW0003/KW0060/&year=2001 | title = 2001 World Press Freedom Review: France | publisher = International Press Institute | accessdate = 2006-08-04 }}</ref>

In 2002, after the [[European Commission]] told France that it was in breach of [[European Union]] rules on the free transfer of goods, because of the delays and closures as a result of its poor security, a double fence was built at a cost of £5&nbsp;million, reducing the numbers of refugees detected each week reaching Britain on goods trains from 250 to almost none.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2282306.stm | title = Sangatte asylum talks due | publisher = BBC News | date = 2002-09-26 | accessdate = 2006-08-04 }}</ref> Other measures included [[Closed-circuit television|CCTV]] cameras and increased police patrols.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2017789.stm | title = Tunnel security to be tightened | publisher = BBC News | date = 2002-05-31 | accessdate = 2006-08-04 }}</ref> At the end of 2002, the Sangatte centre was closed after the UK agreed to take some of its refugees.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/1408494/Blunkett-reaches-deal-to-shut-Sangatte-camp.html | title = Blunkett reaches deal to shut Sangatte camp | author = Philip Delves Broughton and Andrew Sparrow | publisher = Daily Telegraph | date = 2002-09-27 | accessdate = 2009-02-25 }}</ref>

{{see also|asylum shopping}}

=== Safety ===

The service tunnel is used for access to technical equipment in cross-passages and equipment rooms, to provide fresh-air ventilation, and for emergency evacuation. The Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) allows fast access to all areas of the tunnel. The service vehicles are rubber-tyred with a buried guidance wire system. Twenty-four STTS vehicles were made, and are used mainly for maintenance but also for firefighting and in emergencies. "Pods" with different purposes, up to a payload of {{convert|2.5|–|5|tonne|abbr=on}}, are inserted into the side of the vehicles. The STTS vehicles cannot turn around within the tunnel, and are driven from either end. The maximum speed is {{convert|80|km/h|mi/h|0|abbr=on}} when the steering is locked. A smaller fleet of fifteen Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS) were introduced to supplement the STTSs. The LADOGS have a short wheelbase with a {{convert|3.4|m|abbr=on|adj=on}} turning circle allowing two-point turns within the service tunnel. Steering cannot be locked like the STTS vehicles, and maximum speed is {{convert|50|km/h|mi/h|0|abbr=on}}. Pods up to 1&nbsp;tonne can be loaded onto the rear of the vehicles. Drivers in the tunnel sit on the right, and the vehicles drive on the left. Owing to the risk of French personnel driving on their native right side of the road, sensors in the road vehicles alert the driver if the vehicle strays to the right side of the tunnel.<ref name="Kirkland pp.247–254">Kirkland pp. 247–254</ref>

The three tunnels contain {{convert|6000|tonne}} of air that needs to be conditioned for comfort and safety. Air is supplied from [[ventilation (architecture)|ventilation]] buildings at Shakespeare Cliff and Sangatte, with each building capable of full duty providing 100% standby capacity. Supplementary ventilation also exists on either side of the tunnel. In the event of a fire, ventilation is used to keep smoke out of the service tunnel and move smoke in one direction in the main tunnel to give passengers clean air. The Channel Tunnel was the first mainline railway tunnel to have special cooling equipment. Heat is generated from traction equipment and drag. The design limit was set at {{convert|30|C|F|sigfig=2}}, using a mechanical cooling system with refrigeration plants on both the English and French sides that run chilled water circulating in pipes within the tunnel.<ref name="Kirkland pp.212–230" />

Trains travelling at high speed create piston-effect pressure changes that can affect passenger comfort, ventilation systems, tunnel doors, fans and the structure of the trains, and drag on the trains.<ref name="Kirkland pp.212–230">Kirkland pp. 212–230</ref> Piston relief [[Duct (HVAC)|ducts]] of {{convert|2|m|ft|0|adj=on}} diameter were chosen to solve the problem, with 4&nbsp;ducts per kilometre to give close to optimum results. Unfortunately this design led to unacceptable lateral forces on the trains so a reduction in train speed was required and restrictors were installed in the ducts.<ref name="CT experience">The Channel Tunnel Experience Lessons for the Future pp. 19–23</ref>

The safety issue of a fire on a passenger-vehicle shuttle garnered much attention, with Eurotunnel itself noting that fire was the risk gathering the most attention in a 1994 Safety Case for three reasons: ferry companies opposed to passengers being allowed to remain with their cars; [[Home Office]] statistics indicating that car fires had doubled in ten years; and the long length of the tunnel. Eurotunnel commissioned the UK Fire Research Station to give reports of vehicle fires, as well as liaising with Kent Fire Brigade to gather vehicle fire statistics over one year. Fire tests took place at the French Mines Research Establishment with a mock wagon used to investigate how cars burned.<ref name="Kirkland pp.231–240">Kirkland pp. 231–240</ref> The wagon door systems are designed to withstand fire inside the wagon for 30&nbsp;minutes, longer than the transit time of 27&nbsp;minutes. Wagon air conditioning units help to purge dangerous fumes from inside the wagon before travel. Each wagon has a fire detection and extinguishing system, with sensing of ions or ultraviolet radiation, smoke and gases that can trigger [[Haloalkane|halon]] gas to quench a fire. Since the Heavy Goods Vehicle (HGV) wagons are not covered, fire sensors are located on the loading wagon and in the tunnel itself. A {{convert|10|in|adj=on}} water main in the service tunnel provides water to the main tunnels at {{convert|125|m|ft|0|adj=on}} intervals.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7612776.stm | title = Focus turns to cause of tunnel blaze | publisher = BBC News | accessdate = 2008-09-12 21 | date = 2008-09-12 }}</ref> The ventilation system can control smoke movement. Special arrival sidings exist to accept a train that is on fire, as the train is not allowed to stop whilst on fire in the tunnel. Eurotunnel has banned a wide range of hazardous goods from travelling in the tunnel. Two STTS vehicles with firefighting pods are on duty at all times, with a maximum delay of 10&nbsp;minutes before they reach a burning train.<ref name="Kirkland fire" />

== See also ==

* [[British Rail Class 373]]
* [[Irish Sea tunnel]]
* [[Japan-Korea Undersea Tunnel]]
* [[Samphire Hoe]]

== Notes ==

{{refs|colwidth=30em}}

== References ==

{{refbegin}}
* {{ cite book | title = The Channel Tunnel Story | last = Anderson | first = Graham | coauthors = Roskrow, Ben | year = 1994 | publisher = E & F N Spon | location = London | isbn = 041919620X }}
* {{ cite book | author = [[European Commission]]. Directorate-General for Regional Policy and Cohesion. | title = The regional impact of the Channel Tunnel throughout the Community | year = 1996 | publisher = European Commission | location = Luxembourg | isbn = 9282688046 }}
* {{ cite book | title = Megaprojects and Risk | author = Flyvbjerg, B. Buzelius, N. Rothengatter, W. | year = 2003 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | location = Cambridge | isbn = 0521009464 }}
* {{ cite book | author = Institution of Civil Engineers | title = The Channel Tunnel | year = 1989 | publisher = Thomas Telford | location = London | isbn = 0727715461 }}
* {{ cite book | author = Kirkland, Colin J., ed. | title = Engineering the Channel Tunnel | year = 1995 | publisher = Chapman and Hall | location = London | isbn = 0419179208 }}
* {{ cite book | title = The Tunnel under the Channel | author = Whiteside, Thomas | year = 1962 | publisher = Rupert Hart-Davis | isbn = 0684832437 }}
* {{ cite book | last = Wilson | first = Jeremy | coauthors = Spick, Jerome | title = Eurotunnel&nbsp;— The Illustrated Journey | publisher = HarperCollins | year = 1994 | isbn = 0002555395 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Eurotunnel}}
{{Wikinews}}

* {{official|http://www.eurotunnel.com/}}

{{Channel tunnel}}

[[Category:1994 architecture]]
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[[ur:سرنگ رودبار انگلستان]]
[[vi:Đường hầm eo biển Manche]]
[[zh:英法海底隧道]]

Revision as of 17:25, 17 February 2010

QUEER BAGS

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