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{{three other uses|the Chinese civilization|the modern political entity governing mainland China, Hong Kong and Macao|People's Republic of China|the modern political entity governing Taiwan|Republic of China}}
{{Chinese/China
|t={{linktext|中|國}}
|s={{linktext|中|国}}
|p=Zhōngguó
|tp=Jhongguó
|w=Chung¹-kuo²<br />{{Audio|zh-zhongguo.ogg|Listen}}
|j=zung¹ gwok³
|poj=Tiong-kok
|h=Chûng-koet
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{{ChineseText}}
'''China''' ({{zh-tsht|t={{linktext|中|國}}|s={{linktext|中|国}} |hp={{Audio|zh-zhongguo.ogg|Zhōngguó}}|tp=Jhongguó}}; [[Wade-Giles]] ([[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]]): Chung¹kuo²) is a [[Culture of China|cultural region]], an ancient [[civilization]], and a
[[national]] or [[multinational]] entity in [[East Asia]].

China has one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations, consisting of states and [[Culture of China|cultures]] dating back more than six millennia. It has the world's longest continuously used [[Chinese writing system|written language system]], and the source of [[List of Chinese inventions|such major inventions]] as what the British scholar and biochemist [[Joseph Needham]] called the [[Four Great Inventions of Ancient China]]: [[paper]], the [[compass]], [[gunpowder]], and [[printing]].

The stalemate of the last [[Chinese Civil War]] has resulted in two political entities using the name ''China'': the '''[[People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China (PRC)]]''', commonly known as '''China''', which controls [[mainland China]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Macau]]; and the '''[[Republic of China|Republic of China (ROC)]]''', commonly known as '''[[Taiwan]]''', which controls the island of [[Taiwan]] and some [[List of islands of the Republic of China|nearby islands]].

{{TOClimit|limit=2}}

==Etymology==
{{main|Names of China}}
China is called '''''Zhongguo''''' (中國 or 中国) in Chinese. The character ''zhōng'' (中) means "middle" or "central," while ''guó'' (国 or 國) means "state". The term is commonly translated into English as "'''Middle Kingdom'''", but is also sometimes translated as "Central Kingdom".<ref>
*Sources using the term "Middle Kingdom" include:
:*Rossabi, Morris, ed. ''China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.
:*Williams, S. Wells. ''The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants''. Rev. ed. New York: Scribner, 1883.
:*Wilson, James Harrison. ''China: travels and investigations in the "Middle Kingdom." A study of its civilization and possibilities; with a glance at Japan.'' New York, Appleton, 1887.
:*Zhang, Yongjin. ''China in the international system, 1918-20 : the middle kingdom at the periphery''. New York : St. Martin’s, 1991.
*Sources using the alternative term "Central Kingdom" include:
:*William Edgar Geil, ''A Yankee on the Yangtze: Being a Narrative of a Journey from Shanghai Through the Central Kingdom''. Hodder and Stoughton, 1904.
:*Aihe Wang, ''Cosmology and Political Culture in Early China''. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
:*Regarding the accuracy of the translation, Professor Chen Jian writes: "I believe that 'Central Kingdom' is a more accurate translation for 'Zhong Guo' (China) than 'Middle Kingdom'. The term 'Middle Kingdom' does not imply that China is superior to other peoples and nations around it &mdash; China just happens to be located in the middle geographically; the term 'Central Kingom', however, implies that China is superior to any other people and nation 'under the heaven' and that it thus occupies a 'central' position in the known universe." (''Mao's China and the Cold War''. UNC Press. ISBN 0-8078-4932-4)</ref>

The name ''"Zhongguo"'' appeared first in the ''[[Classic of History]]'' (6th Century BC), and was used to refer to the late [[Zhou Dynasty]], as they believed that they were the "center of civilization" <ref>《尚書•梓材》:「皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王」Roughly translated as "The Heavens awarded the lands and peoples of Zhongguo to our ancestors".</ref>, while peoples in the four cardinals were called [[Dongyi|Eastern Yi]], [[Nanman|Southern Man]], [[Xirong|Western Rong]] and [[Beidi|Northern Di]] respectively. Some texts imply that "Zhongguo" was originally meant to refer to the capital of the sovereign, to differ from the capital of his vassals.<ref>《毛亨·傳》：「中國，京師也」 Roughly translated as "Zhongguo, the capital."</ref> The use of ''"Zhongguo"'' implied a claim of political legitimacy. ''"Zhongguo"'' was often used by states who saw themselves as the sole legitimate successor to previous Chinese dynasties; for example, in the era of the [[Southern Song Dynasty]], both the [[Jin Dynasty]] and the Southern Song state claimed to be ''"Zhongguo"''.<ref> See Quansongwen (8345 chapters), 2005. Historic texts written in the period of Southern Song refer to the Jin Dynasty as "barbarians", while Jin texts portray the Song as "Manzi". Official historic texts such as Songshi, which is written after the period, are more neutral. </ref>

''"Zhongguo"'' came to official use as an abbreviation for the [[Republic of China]] (''Zhonghua Minguo'') after the government's establishment in 1912. Since the [[People's Republic of China]], established in 1949, now controls the great majority of area encompassed within the traditional concept of "China", the People's Republic is the political unit most commonly identified with the abbreviated name ''"Zhongguo"''. <ref>The official name of ROC in Chinese is "中华民国". The official name of PRC in Chinese is "中华人民共和国". ''"Zhongguo"'' are the first and last characters of both of these official names. Although in both of these contexts, the name does not contain the exact phrasing of "Zhongguo", it is expressed in the similar phrase "Zhonghua", while the PRC's official abbreviation is "中国".</ref>

[[English language|English]] and many other languages use various forms of the name "China" and the [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]] "Sino-" or "Sin-". These forms are thought to derive from the name of the [[Qin Dynasty]] that first unified the country (221–206 [[Common era|BCE]]). The pronunciation of "''Qin''" is similar to "Chin", which is considered the possible root of the word "China"<ref>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed (AHD4). Boston and New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000, entries ''china, Qin, Sino-''.</ref>.

==History==
{{main|History of China|Timeline of Chinese history}}
{{History of China}}
[[Ancient China]] was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent [[history of writing|writing]] independently, the others being [[Mesopotamia]], [[Indus Valley Civilization]], [[Maya Civilization]], [[Ancient Greece]] ([[Minoan Civilization]]), and [[Ancient Egypt]].

===Prehistory===
Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest humans in China date from 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago.<ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/0001/newsbriefs/china.html "Early Homo erectus Tools in China"] by [http://www.archaeological.org/ Archaeological Institute of America]</ref><ref>[http://www.chineseprehistory.org/table.htm List of Chinese fossil hominids] at [http://www.chineseprehistory.org ChinesePrehistory.org]</ref> A cave in [[Zhoukoudian]] (near present-day [[Beijing]]) has fossils dated at somewhere between 300,000 to 550,000 years.

The earliest evidence of a fully modern human in China comes from [[List of administrative divisions of Guangxi|Liujiang County]], [[Guangxi]], where a cranium has been found and dated to approximately 67,000 years ago. Although much controversy persists over the dating of the Liujiang remains,<ref>[http://www-personal.une.edu.au/%7Epbrown3/Liujiang.html The Liujiang skeleton]</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20021221/fob1.asp "Chinese Roots: Skull may complicate human-origins debate"] at [http://www.sciencenews.org/index.asp Science News Online]</ref> a partial skeleton from Minatogawa in [[Okinawa]], [[Japan]] has been dated to 18,250 ± 650 to 16,600 ± 300 years ago, so modern humans must have reached China before that time.

===Dynastic rule===
{{main|Dynasties in Chinese history|Chinese sovereign}}
Chinese tradition names the first [[dynasty]] [[Xia Dynasty|Xia]], but it was considered mythical until scientific excavations found early [[bronze-age]] sites at [[Erlitou culture|Erlitou]] in [[Henan]] Province.<ref>[http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm "Bronze Age China"] by [http://www.nga.gov National Gallery of Art]</ref> Archaeologists have since uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in locations cited as Xia's in ancient historical texts, but it is impossible to verify that these remains are of the Xia without written records from the period.

[[Image:Terracotta pmorgan.jpg|thumb|left|Some of the thousands of life-size [[Terracotta Army|Terracotta Warriors]] of the [[Qin Dynasty]], ca. 210 BC.]]
The second dynasty, the loosely feudal [[Shang Dynasty|Shang]], definitely settled along the [[Yellow River]] in eastern China from the 18th to the 12th century BCE. They were invaded from the west by the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]], who ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BCE. The centralized authority of the Zhou was slowly eroded by warlords. Many strong, independent states continually waged war with each other in the [[Spring and Autumn period]], only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king.

The first unified Chinese state was established by the [[Qin Dynasty]] in 221 BCE, when the office of the [[Emperor]] was set up and the Chinese language was forcibly standardized. This state did not last long, as its [[Legalism (philosophy)|legalist]] policies soon led to widespread rebellion.

The subsequent [[Han Dynasty]] ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, and created a lasting [[Han Chinese|Han cultural identity]] among its populace that would last to the present day. The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]], [[Mongolia]] and [[Central Asia]], and also helped establish the [[Silk Road]] in Central Asia.

After Han's collapse, another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the [[Three Kingdoms]]. Independent Chinese states of this period also opened diplomatic relations with [[Japan]], introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 CE, China was reunited under the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]]. However, the Sui Dynasty was short-lived after a failure in the [[Goguryeo-Sui Wars]] (598–614) weakened it.
[[Image:Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 043.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A 10th-11th century [[Longquan celadon|Longquan]] [[stoneware]] vase from [[Zhejiang]] province, during the [[Song Dynasty]].]]
Under the succeeding [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song Dynasty|Song]] dynasties, Chinese technology and culture reached its zenith. The Song dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese [[polity]] to establish a permanent standing navy. Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size. This growth came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, along with its production of abundant food surpluses. Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100 million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period in China for the arts, philosophy, and social life. [[Landscape art]] and [[portrait]] [[painting]]s were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity since the Tang Dynasty, and social elites gathered to view art, share their own, and make trades of precious artworks. [[Philosopher]]s such as [[Cheng Yi (philosopher)|Cheng Yi]] and [[Chu Hsi]] reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused [[Buddhist]] ideals, and emphasis on new organization of classic texts that brought about the core doctrine of [[Neo-Confucianism]].

In 1271, the [[Mongol]] leader and the fifth [[Khagan]] of the [[Mongol Empire]] [[Kublai Khan]] established the [[Yuan Dynasty]], with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. A peasant named [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the [[Ming Dynasty]]. Ming Dynasty thinkers such as [[Wang Yangming]] would further critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas of [[individualism]] and innate morality that would have tremendous impact on later Japanese thought. [[Joseon Dynasty|Chosun Korea]] also became a nominal vassal state of Ming China and adopted much of its Neo-Confucian bureaucratic structure. China's capital was moved from [[Nanjing]] to [[Beijing]] during the early Ming Dynasty. The Ming fell to the [[Manchus]] in 1644, who then established the [[Qing Dynasty]]. An estimated 25 million people died during the Manchu conquest of Ming Dynasty (1616–1644).<ref>[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat0.htm#Manchu17c Twentieth Century Atlas - Historical Body Count]</ref>

The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last dynasty in China. In the 19th century the Qing Dynasty adopted a defensive posture towards European [[imperialism]], even though it engaged in [[Imperialism in Asia|imperialistic]] expansion into Central Asia itself. At this time China awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, in particular the West. As China opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, [[opium]] produced by [[British India]] was forced onto Qing China. Two [[Opium War]]s with Britain weakened the Emperor's control.

One result was the [[Taiping Rebellion|Taiping Civil War]] which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It was led by [[Hong Xiuquan]], who was partly influenced by a misinterpretation of [[Christianity]]. Hong believed himself to be the son of [[God]] and the younger brother of [[Jesus]]. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the [[First World War]]), with some estimates up to two-hundred million. In addition, more costly rebellions in terms of human lives and economics followed the Taiping Rebellion such as the [[Punti-Hakka Clan Wars]] (1855–1867), [[Nien Rebellion]] (1851–1868), [[Dungan revolt|Muslim Rebellion]] (1862–1877), [[Panthay Rebellion]] (1856–1873) and the Miao Rebellion (1854–1873).<ref>Jenks, R.D. Insurgency and Social Disorder in Guizhou: The Miao ‘Rebellion’, 1854–1873. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 1994. </ref> <ref>Cf. William J. Peterson, ''The Cambridge History of China Volume 9'' (Cambridge University Press, 2002)</ref> These rebellions resulted in an estimated loss of several million lives for each rebellion and in disastrous results for the economy and the countryside.<ref>Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0</ref><ref name=chineseciv>Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. [[New York]]: Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref> <ref> Perry, Elizabeth. Rebels and Revolutionaries in Northern China, 1845–1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1980). </ref> The flow of British opium led to more decline.

[[Image:角樓.JPG|thumb|right|220px|A corner tower of the [[Forbidden City]] at night; the palace served as the residence for the imperial family since the reign of the [[Yongle Emperor]] of the [[Ming Dynasty]] in the 15th century, up until the fall of the [[Qing Dynasty]] in 1912.]]
While China was torn by continuous war, [[Meiji Japan]] succeeded in rapidly modernizing its military with its sights on Korea and Manchuria. Maneuvered by Japan, [[Korea]] declared independence from Qing China's [[suzerainty]] in 1894, leading to the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], which resulted in the Qing Dynasty's cession of both Korea and [[Taiwan]] to Japan. Following these series of defeats, [[Hundred Days' Reform|a reform plan]] for the empire to become a modern Meiji-style [[constitutional monarchy]] was drafted by the [[Emperor Guangxu]] in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the Empress Dowager [[Cixi]], who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup d'état. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900 [[Boxer Rebellion]] against westerners in [[Beijing]]. By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution were heard across the country. The 38 year old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on November 14, 1908, suspiciously just a day before Cixi. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, his two year old nephew [[Puyi]], who became the Xuantong Emperor, '''the last Chinese emperor'''. Guangxu's consort, who became the [[Empress Dowager Longyu]], signed the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died, childless, in 1913.

===Republic of China (1912–1949)===
{{main|History of the Republic of China}}
On January 1, 1912, the [[Republic of China]] was established, heralding the end of the [[Qing Dynasty]]. [[Sun Yat-sen]] of the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT or Nationalist Party), was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, the presidency was latter given to [[Yuan Shikai]], a former Qing general, who had ensured the defection of the entire [[Beiyang Army]] from the Qing Empire to the revolution. In 1915, Yuan proclaim himself [[Empire of China|Emperor of China]], but was forced to abdicate, and return the [[state]] to a republic, when he realized it was an unpopular move, not only with the population, but also his own [[Beiyang Army]] and its commanders.

[[Image:LA2-NSRW-1-0148.jpg|thumb|200px|Map of Republic of China printed by Rand McNally & Co. in the year 1914.]]
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally recognized, but virtually powerless, national government seated in [[Peking]] (modern day Beijing). Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories. In the late 1920s, the [[Kuomintang]], under [[Chiang Kai-shek]], was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to [[Nanking]] (modern day Nanjing) and implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang.

The [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)|Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945]] (part of [[World War II]]) forced an uneasy alliance between the Nationalists and the Communists as well as causing around 10 million Chinese civilian deaths. With the [[surrender of Japan]] in 1945, China emerged victorious but financially drained. The continued distrust between the [[Kuomintang|Nationalists]] and the [[Chinese Communist Party|Communists]] led to the resumption of the [[Chinese Civil War]]. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented on the mainland.

===The People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (1949–present)===
{{Chinese/China/Map}}
{{main|History of the People's Republic of China|Republic of China on Taiwan}}
{{see also|History of Hong Kong|History of Macau|History of Taiwan}}
After its victory in the [[Chinese Civil War]], the [[Communist Party of China]], led by [[Mao Zedong]], gained control of most of the Mainland China. On October 1, 1949, they established the People's Republic of China, laying claim as the [[successor state]] of the ROC. The central government of the Chinese Nationalist Party led by Chiang Kai-shek was forced to retreat to the island of [[Taiwan]] that it had occupied at the end of World War II and moved the ROC government there. Major armed hostilities ceased in 1950 but no peace treaty has been signed.

Beginning in the late 1970s, the Republic of China began the implementation of full, multi-party, [[representative democracy]] in the territories still under its control ([[Taiwan]], and a number of smaller islands including [[Kinmen|Quemoy]] and [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]]). Today, the ROC has active political participation by all sectors of society. The main cleavage in ROC politics is the issue of eventual political unification with the Chinese mainland vs. formal independence of Taiwan.

After the Chinese Civil War, mainland China underwent a series of disruptive [[socioeconomic]] movements starting in the late 1950s with the [[Great Leap Forward]] and continued in the 1960s with the [[Cultural Revolution]] that left much of its education system and economy in shambles. With the death of its first generation Communist Party leaders such as [[Mao Zedong]] and [[Zhou Enlai]], the PRC began implementing a series of political and economic reforms advocated by [[Deng Xiaoping]] that eventually formed the foundation for mainland China's rapid economic development starting in the 1990s.

Post-1978 reforms on the mainland have led to some relaxation of control over many areas of society. However, the PRC government still has almost absolute control over politics, and it continually seeks to eradicate what it perceives as threats to the social, political and economic stability of the country. Examples include the fight against [[terrorism]], jailing of [[dissident|political opponents]] and [[journalists]], custody [[regulation]] of the press, regulation of religion, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|student protests]] at [[Tiananmen Square]] were violently put to an end by the Chinese military after 15 days of martial law. In 1997, [[Hong Kong]] was returned to the PRC by the [[United Kingdom]], and in 1999, [[Macau]] was returned by [[Portugal]].

Today, [[mainland China]] is administered by the [[People's Republic of China]]&mdash;a one-party state under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party; while the island of [[Taiwan]] and surrounding islands are administered by the [[Republic of China]]&mdash;a democratic multi-party state. After the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, both states claimed to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of "China". After the Kuomintang retreat to [[Taiwan]] in 1949, the [[Republic of China]] had maintained official diplomatic relations with most states around the world, but by the 1970s, there was a shift in the international diplomatic circles and the [[People's Republic of China]] gained the upper hand in international diplomatic relations and recognition count. In 1971, under [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|resolution 2758]], the representatives of Chiang Kai-shek to the [[United Nations]] were expelled from the intergovernmental organization. With the expulsion of the [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s representatives, and effectively the [[Republic of China]], the representatives of the [[People's Republic of China]] were invited to assume China's seat on the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]], the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] and other [[United Nations]] councils and agencies. Later attempts by the [[Republic of China]] to rejoin the UN have either been blocked by the [[People's Republic of China]], who has veto power on [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]], or rejected by the [[United Nations Secretariat]] or a [[United Nations General Assembly]] committee responsible for the General Assembly's agenda<ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2007/09/19/taiwan-un.html
|title= Taiwan's 15th bid for UN membership rejected
|accessdate= 2008-01-07
|author= CBC News
|date= 2007-09-19
}}</ref>.

Since its retreat to [[Taiwan]], the [[Republic of China]] has not formally renounced its claim to all of China, nor has it changed its official maps, which includes the [[Mainland China|mainland]] and [[Mongolia]]. Following the introduction to full democracy and the electoral victory of [[DPP]]'s [[Chen Shui-bian]] in the presidential elections, the Republic of China has not pursued its claims on the [[Mainland China|mainland]] and in [[Mongolia]]. The [[Chen Shui-bian|current DPP Administration]] has adopted a policy of separating the [[Republic of China|state's]] identity from "China", while moving towards identifying the state as "Taiwan". The ROC has not made formal moves to change the name, flag, or national anthem of the state to reflect a Taiwan identity due to pressure from the United States and the fear of invasion or military action from the [[People's Republic of China]] against the island. The [[People's Republic of China]] claims to have succeeded the [[Republic of China]] as the sole legitimate governing authority of all of China, which, from the official viewpoint of [[People's Republic of China]], includes the island of [[Taiwan]]. Over the last 50 years, both the [[Republic of China]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] have used diplomatic and economic means to compete for recognition in the international arena. Due to the fact that most international, intergovernmental organizations observe the [[One-China policy]] of the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[PRC]] has been able to pressure organizations, such as the [[World Health Organization]] and the [[International Olympic Committee]], to refuse official recognition of the [[Republic of China]]. Due to the One-China policy, states around the world are pressured to refuse, or to cut off, diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]]. As a result, only [[Foreign relations of the Republic of China|24 U.N. member states]] currently maintain official diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] while the vast majority of the U.N. member states maintain official diplomatic relations with the [[People's Republic of China]].

==Territory and environment==
===Historical political divisions===
{{main|History of the political divisions of China}}
[[Image:Territories of Dynasties in China.gif|250px|thumb|right|Territories occupied by different dynasties as well as modern political states throughout the history of China.]]
Top-level political divisions of China have altered as administrations changed. Top levels included [[circuit (political division)|circuit]]s and [[province of China|province]]s. Below that, there have been [[prefecture of China|prefecture]]s, [[subprefecture]]s, [[Department (subnational entity)|departments]], [[commanderies]], [[district of China|district]]s, and [[county of China|counties]]. Recent divisions also include [[prefecture-level cities]], [[county-level cities]], [[town of China|town]]s and [[township of China|township]]s.

Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known as [[China proper]]. Various dynasties also [[expansionism|expanded]] into peripheral territories like [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Manchuria]], [[Xinjiang]], and [[Tibet]]. The [[Manchu]]-established [[Qing Dynasty]] and its successors, the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territories into the Chinese empire.

===Geography and climate===
{{main|Geography of China}}
{{seealso|Environment of China}}
[[Image:China 100.78713E 35.63718N.jpg|thumb|left|Composite satellite photo]]
China ranges from mostly [[plateaus]] and [[mountains]] in the west to lower lands in the east. Principal [[river]]s flow from west to east, including the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] (central), the [[Huang He]] (Yellow river, north-central), and the [[Amur]] (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the [[Pearl River (China)|Pearl River]], [[Mekong River]], and [[Brahmaputra]]), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the [[Pacific Ocean]].

In the east, along the shores of the [[Yellow Sea]] and the [[East China Sea]] there are extensive and densely populated [[alluvial]] plains. On the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China is dominated by hills and low [[mountain range]]s. In the central-east are the [[river delta|deltas]] of China's two major rivers, the [[Huang He]] and [[Yangtze River]]. Most of China's arable lands lie along these rivers; they were the centers of China's major ancient civilizations. Other major rivers include the [[Pearl River]], [[Mekong]], [[Brahmaputra]] and [[Amur]]. Yunnan Province is considered a part of the Greater Mekong Subregion, which also includes Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam<ref>[http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/GMS_Atlas/default.asp Greater Mekong Subregion Atlas of the Environment] published by [http://www.adb.org/default.asp Asian Development Bank]</ref>.
[[Image:ChinaGeography.png|The Geography of China|thumb|Main geographic features and regions of China.]]
In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast [[calcareous]] [[tableland]] traversed by [[hill]] ranges of moderate elevation, and the [[Himalaya]]s, containing Earth's highest point, [[Mount Everest]]. The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid [[desert]] landscapes such as the [[Takla-Makan]] and the [[Gobi Desert]], which has been expanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high [[mountain]]s and deep valleys of [[Yunnan]], which separate modern China from [[Burma]], [[Laos]] and [[Vietnam]].

The [[Paleozoic]] formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the [[Carboniferous]] system, are [[sea|marine]], while the [[Mesozoic]] and [[Tertiary]] deposits are [[estuarine]] and [[freshwater]] or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of [[Volcano|volcanic]] cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the [[Liaodong]] and [[Shandong]] Peninsulas, there are [[basalt]]ic plateaus.

The [[climate]] of China varies greatly. The northern zone (containing Beijing) has summer daytime temperatures of more than 30 degrees Celsius and winters of [[Arctic]] severity. The central zone (containing [[Shanghai]]) has a [[temperate]] [[continental climate]] with very hot summers and cold winters. The southern zone (containing [[Guangzhou]]) has a [[subtropical]] climate with very hot summers and mild winters.

Due to a prolonged [[drought]] and poor agricultural practices, [[dust storm]]s have become usual in the spring in China.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4915690.stm "Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm"]. BBC news. Accessed 17 April, 2006.</ref> Dust has blown to southern China and Taiwan, and has even reached the West Coast of the [[United States]]. Water, [[erosion]], and [[pollution control]] have become important issues in China's relations with other countries.

==Economy==
{{main|Economic history of China}}

==Society==
===Culture===
{{main|Culture of China}}
{{see also|Chinese law|Chinese philosophy|Confucianism}}
Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of [[Imperial China]]'s history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for [[Imperial examination|entry into the imperial bureaucracy]]. China's traditional values were derived from various versions of [[Confucianism]]. A number of more [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] strains of thought have also been influential, such as [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]]. There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the [[Song Dynasty]] [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucians]] believed [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]] departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a [[meritocracy|culture of merit]] remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of [[New Confucianism|New Confucians]] (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".<ref>Bary, Theodore de. [http://web.archive.org/web/20050311041507/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccba/cear/issues/fall97/graphics/special/debary/debary.htm "Constructive Engagement with Asian Values"]. Columbia University.</ref>
[[Image:Wang-yang-ming.jpg|thumb|120px|left|[[Wang Yangming]], a highly influential [[Neo-Confucian]].]]
With the rise of Western [[Economics|economic]] and [[military]] power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and Western cultures. In essence, the history of 20th century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, [[political]], and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.

====Arts, scholarship, and literature====
{{main|Chinese art|History of Chinese art}}
{{see also|Chinese art|Chinese painting|Chinese paper art|Chinese calligraphy|Chinese poetry|Cinema of China|Music of China}}
[[Image:mifu01.jpg|thumb|[[Chinese calligraphy]] by [[Mi Fu]], [[Song Dynasty]], ca. 1100 CE]]
[[Image:Bamboo book - binding - UCR.jpg|thumb|A bamboo book copy of Sun Tzu's ''[[The Art of War]]'', a 20th century reprint of a [[Qianlong Emperor|Qianlong]] imperial edition. ]]

[[Chinese character]]s have had many variants and styles throughout Chinese history. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant, from [[Oracle bones]] to Qing edicts. This literary emphasis affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, e.g. the view that [[Chinese calligraphy|calligraphy]] was a higher art form than painting or drama. Manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly [[Confucian]], [[Taoist]], and [[Buddhist]]) were handwritten by [[ink brush]]. Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions.

[[Chinese literature]] has a long past; the earliest classic work in Chinese, the ''[[I Ching]]'' or "Book of Changes" dates to around 1000 BCE. A flourishing of philosophy during the [[Warring States Period]] produced such noteworthy works as Confucius's ''[[Analects]]'' and [[Laozi]]'s ''[[Tao Te Ching]]''. (See also the [[Chinese classics]].) Dynastic histories were often written, beginning with [[Sima Qian]]'s seminal ''[[Records of the Historian]]'' written from 109 BCE to 91 BCE. The Tang Dynasty witnessed a [[Chinese poetry|poetic]] flowering, while the [[Four Great Classical Novels]] of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

[[Printmaking]] in the form of [[movable type]] was developed during the [[Song Dynasty]]. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in these discussions as well. The Song Dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, such as [[Su Song]]'s ''Xin Yixiang Fayao'' and [[Shen Kuo]]'s ''[[Dream Pool Essays]]''. There were also enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias, such as [[Sima Guang]]'s ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'' of 1084 CE or the ''[[Four Great Books of Song]]'' fully compiled and edited by the 11th century.

For centuries, economic and social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on the [[imperial examination]]s. This led to a [[meritocracy]], although it was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as ''jinshi,'' a highly esteemed socio-economic position.

Chinese philosophers, writers and poets were highly respected and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.

The Chinese invented numerous [[musical instrument]]s, such as the [[Guzheng|zheng]] (zither with movable bridges), [[guqin|qin]] (bridgeless zither), [[sheng (instrument)|sheng]]<!--Note: the sheng was most likely an adapted instrument; adapted from non-Han peoples of mainland Southeast Asia (although the Chinese version of the instruments differs from the Southeast Asian ones). As such it should be listed as an "adapted"/"adopted"--> (free reed mouth organ), and [[xiao (flute)|xiao]] (vertical flute) and adopted and developed others such the [[erhu]] (alto fiddle or bowed lute) and [[pipa]] (pear-shaped plucked lute), many of which have later spread throughout [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]], particularly to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

==Demography==
{{main|Ethnic groups in Chinese history|Ethnic minorities in China}}
[[Image:china ethnolinguistic 83.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Ethnolinguistic map of the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]].]]
Hundreds of [[ethnicity|ethnic groups]] have existed in China throughout its history. The largest ethnic group in China by far is the [[Han Chinese|Han]]. This group is diverse in itself and can be divided into smaller ethnic groups that share some traits.

Over the last three millennia, many previously distinct ethnic groups in China have been [[Sinicization|Sinicized]] into a Han identity, which over time dramatically expanded the size of the Han population. However, these assimilations were usually incomplete and vestiges of indigenous language and culture often are still retained in different regions of China. Because of this, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, though still identifying as Han. Several ethnicities have also dramatically shaped Han culture, e.g. the Manchurian clothing called the [[qipao]] became the new "Chinese" fashion after the 17th century, replacing earlier Han styles of clothing such as the [[Hanfu]]. The modern term [[Chinese nation]] (''Zhonghua Minzu'') is now used to describe a notion of a Chinese nationality that transcends ethnic divisions.

===Languages===
{{main|Languages of China}}
Most languages in China belong to the [[Sino-Tibetan]] language family, spoken by 29 ethnicities. There are also several major ''[[dialects]]'' within the [[Chinese language]] itself. The most spoken dialects are [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] (spoken by over 70% of the population), [[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]] (Shanghainese), <!--Shanghainese is the common name for the Wu dialects. Please do not remove. Western sinologists and linguists use the term "Shanghainese" to generalize the Wu dialects. This is identical to Cantonese (Guangzhou-hua) being used to generalize the diverse Yue dialects.--> [[Yue (linguistics)|Yue]] (Cantonese), [[Min (linguistics)|Min]], [[Xiang (linguistics)|Xiang]], [[Gan (linguistics)|Gan]], and [[Hakka (linguistics)|Hakka]]. Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include [[Zhuang language|Zhuang]] (Thai), [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] (Turkic), [[Hmong language|Hmong]] and [[Korean language|Korean]].<ref name=language>[http://english.gov.cn/2005-08/16/content_23691.htm Languages]. 2005. GOV.cn. ''URL accessed 3 May 2006.''</ref>

[[Classical Chinese]] was the written standard used for thousands of years in China before the 20th century and allowed for written communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China. [[Vernacular Chinese]] or ''baihua'' is the written standard based on the Mandarin dialect first popularized in Ming dynasty [[novels]] and was adopted (with significant modifications) during the early 20th century as the national vernacular. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese.

===Religion===
[[Image:Mahayanabuddha.jpg|thumb|A Chinese [[Tang Dynasty]] (618–907) sculpture of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] seated in [[meditation]].]]
{{main|Religion in China}}
The "official" orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China until the overthrow of the last dynasty is a [[panentheism]] system, centering on the worship of "[[Tian|Heaven]]" as an omnipotent force{{Fact|date=December 2007}}. This faith system pre-dated the development of [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]] or the introduction of [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity]]. It has features of a [[monotheism]] in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. "Heaven" as a supernatural force was variously referred to as ''[[Shangdi]]'' (literally "Emperor Above"). Worship of Heaven includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the [[Altar of Heaven]] in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. Manifestation of the powers of Heaven include weather and natural disasters. Although it gradually diminished in popular belief after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among others, some of its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions of China.

Taoism is an indigenous religion of China and is traditionally traced to the composition of [[Lao Zi]]'s ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' (''The Book of Tao and Its Virtues'') or to seminal works by [[Zhang Daoling]]. The philosophy of Taoism is centered on "[[Dao|the way]]"; an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. Taoism in its unorganized form is also considered a folk religion of China. More secular derivatives of Taoist ideas include [[Feng Shui]], Sun Tzu's ''[[The Art of War|Art of War]]'', and [[acupuncture]].

Buddhism was introduced from [[India]] and [[Central Asia]] during the [[Han dynasty]] and became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, embraced particularly by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. [[Mahayana]] (大乘, ''Dacheng'') is the predominant form of Buddhism practiced in China, where it was largely [[sinification|Sinicized]] and later exported to Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Some subsets of Mahayana popular in China include [[Pure Land]] ([[Amidism]]) and [[Zen]]. Buddhism is the largest organized faith in China and the country has the most Buddhist adherents in the world, followed by Japan. Many Chinese, however, identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist at the same time.

[[Ancestor worship]] is a major religious theme shared among all Chinese religions. Traditional Chinese culture, Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value [[filial piety]] as a top [[virtue]], and the act is a continued display of piety and respect towards departed ancestors. The Chinese generally offer prayers and food for the ancestors, light [[incense]] and candles, and burn offerings of [[Joss paper]]. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine.

[[Islam]], [[Judaism]] and Christianity first arrived in China after the 7th century during the [[Tang Dynasty]]. Islam was later spread by merchants and craftsmen as trade routes improved along the [[Silk Road]], while Christianity began to make significant inroads in China after the 16th century through [[Jesuit]] and later [[protestant]] [[missionaries]]. Islam arrived in China during the 8th century, only a few years after the [[Prophets in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]]'s death. The Emperor of China took Islam highly, and the first mosque in China, the [[Huaisheng Mosque]] was built in Canton, [[Guangzhou]] in 630. In the first half of the 20th century, many [[Jews]] arrived in [[Shanghai]] and [[Hong Kong]] during those cities' periods of economic expansion, seeking refuge from [[the Holocaust]] in [[Europe]]. Shanghai was particularly notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, as it was the only port in the world then to accept them without an entry visa.

==Sports and recreation==
[[Image:Dragon boat racing.jpg|thumb|[[Dragon boat racing]], a popular traditional Chinese sport.]]
{{main|Sports in China}}{{seealso|Sport in Taiwan}}

Many historians <!-- weasel words --> believe that [[football (soccer)]] originated in China, where a form of the sport may have appeared around 1000 CE.<ref>[http://athleticscholarships.net/history-of-soccer.htm Origins of the Great Game]. 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Accessed 23 April 2006.</ref> Other popular sports include [[Chinese martial arts|martial arts]], [[table tennis]], [[badminton]], and more recently, [[golf]]. [[Basketball]] is now popular among young people in crowded urban centers.

There are also many traditional sports. Chinese [[dragon boat racing]] occurs during the [[Duan Wu festival]]. In [[Inner Mongolia]], Mongolian-style wrestling and [[horse racing]] are popular. In [[Tibet]], archery and [[equestrian sports]] are part of traditional festivals.<ref>Qinfa, Ye. [http://chineseculture.about.com/library/weekly/aa032301a.htm Sports History of China]. About.com. Retrieved April 21, 2006.</ref>

China has become a sports power, especially in Asia. It has finished first in medal counts in each of the Asian Games since 1982,<ref>http://www.dohaasiangames.org/en/asian_games_2006/history.html</ref> and in the top four in medal counts in each of the Summer Olympic Games since 1992.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/index_uk.asp International Olympic Committee - Olympic Games<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The [[2008 Summer Olympics]], officially known as the ''Games of the XXIX Olympiad'', will be held in [[Beijing]]. Currently, China has been preparing intensively for the games.

[[Physical fitness]] is highly regarded. It is common for the elderly to practice [[Tai Chi Chuan]] and [[qigong]] in parks.

[[Board games]] such as [[International Chess]], [[Go (board game)|Go]] (Weiqi), and [[Xiangqi]] (Chinese chess) are also common and have organized formal competitions.

==Science and technology==
[[Image:ChineseCrossbow.JPG|thumb|Remains of an ancient Chinese handheld [[crossbow]], 2nd century BC.]]
{{main|History of science and technology in China|List of Chinese inventions}}
Among the scientific accomplishments of [[ancient China]] were [[paper]] (not [[papyrus]]) and [[papermaking]], [[woodblock printing]] and [[movable type]] [[History of typography in East Asia|printing]], the early lodestone and magnetic [[compass]], [[gunpowder]], [[toilet paper]], early [[seismometer|seismological]] detectors, [[match]]es, [[dry dock#graving dry docks|dry dock]]s, [[pound lock]]s, sliding [[calipers]], the double-action [[piston pump]], [[blast furnace]] and [[cast iron]], the [[iron]] [[plough]], the multi-tube [[seed drill]], the [[wheelbarrow]], the [[suspension bridge]], the [[parachute]], [[natural gas]] as fuel, the [[escapement]] mechanism for [[clock]]s, the [[Differential (mechanical device)|differential gear]] for the [[South Pointing Chariot]], the [[hydraulic]]-powered [[armillary sphere]], the hydraulic-powered [[trip hammer]], the mechanical [[chain drive]], the mechanical [[Belt (mechanical)|belt drive]], the [[raised-relief map]], the [[propeller]], the [[crossbow]], the [[cannon]], the [[rocket]], the [[multistage rocket]], etc. Chinese [[Astronomy|astronomers]] were among the first to record observations of a [[supernova]]. The work of the astronomer [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095) alone was most impressive, as he theorized that the sun and moon were spherical, corrected the position of the [[polestar]] with his improved sighting tube, discovered the concept of [[true north]], wrote of [[planetary motion]]s such as [[retrogradation]], and compared the [[orbit]]al paths of the planets to points on the shape of a rotating [[willow]] leaf. With evidence for them, he also postulated [[geological]] theories for the processes of land formation in [[geomorphology]] and [[climate change]] in [[paleoclimatology]]. Yet there were many other astronomers than Shen Kuo, such as [[Gan De]], [[Shi Shen]], [[Zhang Heng]], [[Yi Xing]], [[Zhang Sixun]], [[Su Song]], etc. [[Chinese mathematics]] evolved independently of [[Greek mathematics]] and is therefore of great interest in the [[history of mathematics]]. The Chinese were also keen on documenting all of their technological achievements, such as in the ''Tiangong Kaiwu'' [[encyclopedia]] written by [[Song Yingxing]] (1587–1666).

China's [[science]] and [[technology]] fell behind that of [[Europe]] by the 17th century. Political, social and cultural reasons have been given for this, although recent historians focus more on economic causes, such as the [[high level equilibrium trap]]. Since the PRC's market reforms China has become better connected to the global economy and is placing greater emphasis on science and technology.

==See also==
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* [[Chinese Language]]
* [[Chinese calendar]]
* [[Chinese cuisine]]
* [[Chinese dragon]]
* [[Chinese economy]]
* [[Chinese name]]
* [[Chinese nationalism]]
* [[Chinese New Year]]
* [[Chinese people]]
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* [[Chinese units of measurement]]
* [[Chinese mathematics]]
* [[Chinese medicine]]
* [[Chinese astronomy]]
* [[Chinese geography]]
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* [[Culture of China]]
* [[Agriculture in China]]
* [[Fenghuang]]
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* [[History of postage in China]]
* [[Hospitals in China]]

* [[List of Chinese inventions]]
* [[List of recipients of tribute from China]]
* [[List of tributaries of Imperial China]]
* [[List_of_wettest_tropical_cyclones_by_country#China|List of wettest tropical cyclones in China]]
* [[Military history of China]]
* [[Overseas Chinese]]
* [[Summer Palace]]
* [[Forbidden City]]
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==References==
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*[http://www.china.org.cn China.org.cn] China news, weather, business, travel, language courses, archives
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/18902.htm U.S. Department of State, Background Note on China]
*[http://www.chinaontv.com/index.php/map Interactive China map with province and city guides.]
*[http://chinadigitaltimes.net/ China Digital Times] Online China news portal, run by the Graduate School of Journalism of University of California at Berkeley.
*[http://www.chinaworker.info China Worker]
*[http://www.chinanewtravel.com/China-Map/ China Map]
*[http://www.nyinquirer.com/nyinquirer/2006/10/chinas_21st_cen.html NY Inquirer: China's 21st Century]
*[http://www.omedia.org/Show_Article.asp?DynamicContentID=2180&MenuID=719&ThreadID=1014008 The Chinese Superpower-Historical Background,] Dr Rivka Shpak-Lissak

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