Death: Difference between revisions
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{{hatnote|For other uses, see [[Death (disambiguation)]] and [[Dead (disambiguation)]].}} |
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{{redirect6|Dying|the process of coloring|Dyeing||Near-death (disambiguation)}} |
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{{redirect6|Dead|the chemical compound commonly abbreviated as DEAD|Diethyl azodicarboxylate||Dead (disambiguation)}} |
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{{pp-move-indef}} |
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<!--NOTE: This article uses American English.--> |
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[[File:Skullclose.jpg|thumb|250px|upright|A [[human skull]], widely used as a [[skull (symbolism)|symbol]] of death]] |
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'''Death''' is the permanent termination of the [[biological]] functions that sustain a [[life|living]] [[organism]]. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include old age, [[predation]], [[malnutrition]], [[disease]], and [[accident]]s or trauma resulting in terminal [[physical injury|injury]]. Bodies of living organisms begin to [[decompose]] shortly after death. |
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In human societies, the nature of death has for millennia been a concern of the world's [[religions|religious traditions]] and of [[philosophy|philosophical enquiry]]. This may include a belief in some kind of [[afterlife]], [[reincarnation]] or that consciousness ceases to exist with an [[eternal oblivion]]. |
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Commemoration ceremonies after death may include various [[mourning]] or [[funeral]] practices. All known organisms inevitably experience death.<ref>[http://engineering.mit.edu/live/news/1223-must-all-organisms-age-and-die Must all organisms age and die]</ref> The physical remains of a person, commonly known as a ''corpse'' or ''body'', are usually [[burial|interred]] whole or [[cremated]], though among the world's cultures there are a variety of other methods of [[Disposal of human corpses|mortuary disposal]]. |
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==Etymology== |
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The word death comes from Old English deað, which in turn comes from Proto-Germanic *dauþaz (reconstructed by etymological analysis).{{citation needed|date=January 2012}} This comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem *dheu- meaning the 'Process, act, condition of dying'. |
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==Associated terms== |
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The concept and symptoms of death, and varying degrees of delicacy used in discussion in public forums, have generated numerous scientific, legal, and socially acceptable terms or euphemisms for death. When a person has died, it is also said he has ''passed away'', ''passed on'', or ''expired'', among numerous other socially accepted, religiously-specific, slang, and irreverent terms. Bereft of life, the dead person is then a ''corpse'', ''[[cadaver]]'', a ''body'', a ''set of remains'', and finally a [[skeleton]]. The terms ''[[carrion]]'' and ''carcass'' can also be used, though these more often connote the remains of non-human animals. As a polite reference to a dead person, it has become common practice to use the [[participle]] form of "decease", as in ''the deceased''; the noun form is ''decedent''. The ashes left after a [[cremation]] are sometimes referred to by the [[neologism]] ''cremains'', a [[portmanteau]] of "cremation" and "remains". |
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==Senescence== |
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Almost all [[animal]]s who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from [[senescence]]. The only known exception is the jellyfish ''[[Turritopsis nutricula]]'', thought to be, in effect, [[biological immortality|immortal]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jellyfishfacts.net/turritopsis-nutricula-immortal-jellyfish.html |title=Turritopsis nutricula (Immortal jellyfish) |publisher=Jellyfishacts.net}}</ref> Unnatural causes of death include [[suicide]] and [[homicide]]. From all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world each day.<ref name="doi10.2202/1941-6008.1011">{{cite journal |last=Aubrey D.N.J |first=de Grey |authorlink=Aubrey de Grey |title=Life Span Extension Research and Public Debate: Societal Considerations |journal=Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology |volume=1 |issue=1, Article 5 |year=2007 |url=http://www.sens.org/files/pdf/ENHANCE-PP.pdf |format=PDF |doi=10.2202/1941-6008.1011 |accessdate=March 20, 2009 |ref=harv}}</ref> |
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[[Physiological]] death is now seen as a process, more than an event: conditions once considered indicative of death are now reversible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Crippen |first=David |work=ACS Surgery Online, Critical Care, April 2005 |url=http://www.acssurgery.com/abstracts/acs/acs0812.htm |accessdate=2007-01-09 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060624132446/http://www.acssurgery.com/abstracts/acs/acs0812.htm |archivedate=24 June 2006 |title=Brain Failure and Brain Death}}</ref> Where in the process a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of [[vital signs]]. In general, [[clinical death]] is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of [[legal death]]. A patient with working [[human heart|heart]] and [[human lung|lung]]s determined to be [[brain death|brain dead]] can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring. Paradoxically, as [[science|scientific knowledge]] and [[medicine]] advance, a precise medical definition of death becomes more problematic.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.amazon.co.uk/Life-Death-Whatever-Alexander-Artishevsky/dp/1449594204 |title=Life Death Whatever |first=Alexander |last=Artishevsky |publisher=Createspace |year=2010 |isbn=1449594206}}</ref> |
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==Signs of death== |
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Signs of death or strong indications that an animal is no longer alive are: |
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* Cessation of breathing |
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* [[Cardiac arrest]] (No [[heart rate|pulse]]) |
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* [[Pallor mortis]], paleness which happens in the 15–120 minutes after death |
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* [[Livor mortis]], a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body |
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* [[Algor mortis]], the reduction in body temperature following death. This is generally a steady decline until matching ambient temperature |
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* [[Rigor mortis]], the limbs of the corpse become stiff (Latin ''rigor'') and difficult to move or manipulate |
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* [[Decomposition]], the reduction into simpler forms of matter, accompanied by a strong, unpleasant odor. |
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==Diagnosis== |
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===Problems of definition=== |
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[[File:StillLifeWithASkull.jpg|thumb|A flower, a skull and an hourglass stand for [[Life]], Death and [[Time]] in this 17th-century painting by [[Philippe de Champaigne]]]] |
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The concept of death is a key to human understanding of the phenomenon.<ref name="MohammadSamir">Mohammad Samir Hossain and Peter Gilbert. 2010. Concepts of Death: A key to our adjustment. ''Illness, Crisis and Loss'', Vol 18. No 1</ref> There are many scientific approaches to the concept. For example, [[brain death]], as practiced in medical science, defines death as a point in time at which brain activity ceases.<ref name="MohammadSamir" /><ref>[http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0078883601/680442/Additional_Lifespan_Development_Topics.pdf Additional Lifespan Development Topics] McGraw-Hill Companies</ref><ref>[http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pdf/Fenwick%20Book%20Review%20Human%20Immortality;%20%20Death%20and%20Adjustment%20Hypotheses%20Elaborated.x.x.pdf Human Immortality; Death and Adjustment Hypotheses Elaborated.] Book Review by Dr. Peter Fenwick</ref><ref>[http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pdf/Hossain%20Facing%20the%20Finality.pdf Facing the finality – Death and Adjustment Hypotheses] Dr. Mohammad Samir Hossain, 2009</ref> One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from [[life]]. As a point in time, death would seem to refer to the moment at which life ends. However, determining when death has occurred requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is problematic because there is little consensus over how to define life. It is possible to define life in terms of consciousness. When consciousness ceases, a living organism can be said to have died. One of the notable flaws in this approach, however, is that there are many organisms which are alive but probably not conscious (for example, single-celled organisms). Another problem with this approach is in defining consciousness, which has many different definitions given by modern scientists, psychologists and philosophers. This general problem of defining death applies to the particular challenge of defining death in the context of medicine. |
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Other definitions for death focus on the character of cessation of something.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary</ref> In this context "death" describes merely the state where something has ceased, for example, life. Thus, the definition of "life" simultaneously defines death. |
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Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human's death have been problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation of [[heart]]beat ([[cardiac arrest]]) and of [[breath]]ing, but the development of [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]] and prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. Events which were [[causality|causally]] linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of [[life support]] devices, [[organ transplants]] and [[artificial pacemaker]]s. |
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Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "[[brain death]]" or "biological death" to define a person as being clinically dead; people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of [[consciousness]]. However, suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during certain [[non-rapid eye movement sleep|sleep]] stages, and especially a [[coma]]. In the case of sleep, [[electroencephalography|EEGs]] can easily tell the difference. |
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However, the category of "brain death" is seen by some scholars to be problematic. For instance, Dr. Franklin Miller, senior faculty member at the Department of Bioethics, National Institutes of Health, notes: "By the late 1990s, however, the equation of brain death with death of the human being was increasingly challenged by scholars, based on evidence regarding the array of biological functioning displayed by patients correctly diagnosed as having this condition who were maintained on mechanical ventilation for substantial periods of time. These patients maintained the ability to sustain circulation and respiration, control temperature, excrete wastes, heal wounds, fight infections and, most dramatically, to gestate fetuses (in the case of pregnant "brain-dead" women)."<ref name=Miller>FG Miller "Death and organ donation: back to the future" Journal of Medical Ethics 2009;35:616-620</ref> |
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Those people maintaining that only the [[neo-cortex]] of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of [[cognition|cognitive]] function, as evidenced by the death of the [[cerebral cortex]]. All hope of recovering human thought and [[personality psychology|personality]] is then gone given current and foreseeable medical technology. However, at present, in most places the more conservative definition of death – irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex – has been adopted (for example the [[Uniform Determination Of Death Act]] in the [[United States]]). In 2005, the [[Terri Schiavo case]] brought the question of brain death and artificial sustenance to the front of [[Politics of the United States|American politics]]. |
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Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain [[drugs]], [[hypoglycemia]], [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]], or [[hypothermia]] can suppress or even stop brain activity on a temporary basis. Because of this, hospitals have protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals under defined conditions. |
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In certain cultures, death is more of a process than a single event. It implies a slow shift from one spiritual state to another.<ref>1991 Metcalf, Peter & Richard Huntington. Celebrations of Death: The Anthropology of Mortuary Ritual. Cambridge Press, New York. Print.</ref> |
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===Legal=== |
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{{See also|Legal death}} |
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[[File:Deadconfederate.jpg|thumb|upright|A dead [[Confederate States Army|Confederate soldier]] sprawled out in [[Petersburg, Virginia]], 1865, during the [[American Civil War]]]] |
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In the United States, a person is dead by law if a Statement of Death or [[Death certificate]] is approved by a licensed medical practitioner. Various legal consequences follow death, including the removal from the person of what in legal terminology is called [[personhood]]. |
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The possession of brain activities, or capability to resume brain activity, is a [[necessary and sufficient conditions|necessary condition]] to legal personhood in the United States. "It appears that once brain death has been determined ... no criminal or civil liability will result from disconnecting the life-support devices." (Dority v. Superior Court of [[San Bernardino County, California|San Bernardino County]], 193 Cal.Rptr. 288, 291 (1983)) |
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===Misdiagnosed=== |
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{{See also|Premature burial}} |
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There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then "coming back to life", sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when [[embalming]] procedures are about to begin. From the mid-18th century onwards, there was an upsurge in the public's fear of being mistakenly buried alive,<ref>{{Harvnb|Bondeson|2001|p=77}}</ref> and much debate about the uncertainty of the signs of death. Various suggestions were made to test for signs of life before [[burial]], ranging from pouring vinegar and pepper into the corpse's mouth to applying red hot pokers to the feet or into the [[rectum]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bondeson|2001|pp=56, 71.}}</ref> Writing in 1895, the physician J.C. Ouseley claimed that as many as 2,700 people were buried prematurely each year in England and Wales, although others estimated the figure to be closer to 800.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bondeson|2001|p=239}}</ref> |
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In cases of [[electric shock]], [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]] (CPR) for an hour or longer can allow stunned [[nerve]]s to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an [[emergency department|emergency room]].<ref name=Limmer>Limmer, D. et al. (2006). Emergency care (AHA update, Ed. 10e). [[Prentice Hall]].</ref> This "diving response", in which [[metabolism|metabolic activity]] and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with [[cetacea]]ns called the [[mammalian diving reflex]].<ref name=Limmer/> |
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As medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have to be re-evaluated in light of the ability to restore a person to vitality after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when CPR and defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a decisive indicator of death). The lack of electrical brain activity may not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead. Therefore, the concept of [[information theoretical death]] has been suggested as a better means of defining when true death occurs, though the concept has few practical applications outside of the field of [[cryonics]]. |
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There have been some scientific attempts to bring dead organisms back to life, but with limited success.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,160903,00.html |title=Blood Swapping Reanimates Dead Dogs |publisher=Foxnews.com |date=2005-06-28 |accessdate=2010-05-23}}</ref> In [[science fiction]] [[scenario]]s where such technology is readily available, [[real death]] is distinguished from reversible death. |
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==Causes== |
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{{See also|List of causes of death by rate|List of preventable causes of death}} |
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The leading cause of death in [[developing countries]] is [[infectious disease]]. The leading causes of death in [[developed countries]] are [[atherosclerosis]] ([[heart disease]] and [[stroke]]), [[cancer]], and other diseases related to [[obesity]] and [[aging]]. These conditions cause loss of [[homeostasis]], leading to [[cardiac arrest]], causing loss of [[oxygen]] and nutrient supply, causing irreversible deterioration of the [[Human brain|brain]] and other [[tissue (biology)|tissues]]. Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds die of age-related causes.<ref name= "doi10.2202/1941-6008.1011"/> In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.<ref name="doi10.2202/1941-6008.1011"/> With improved medical capability, dying has become [[respite care|a condition to be managed]]. Home deaths, once commonplace, are now rare in the developed world. |
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[[File:Body of John Paul II Daniel Scioli.jpg|thumb|left|The body of Pope [[John Paul II]] lying in state in [[St. Peter's Basilica]], 2005]] |
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In [[developing nations]], inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern [[medical technology]] makes death from [[infectious diseases]] more common than in [[developed countries]]. One such disease is [[tuberculosis]], a bacterial disease which killed 1.7 million people in 2004.<ref name="WHO2004data">[[World Health Organization]] (WHO). [http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/index.html Tuberculosis Fact sheet N°104 – Global and regional incidence.] March 2006, Retrieved on 6 October 2006.</ref> [[Malaria]] causes about 400–900 million cases of fever and 1–3 million deaths annually.<ref>{{cite web |author=Chris Thomas, Global Health/Health Infectious Diseases and Nutrition |url=http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/mch/ch/techareas/malaria_brief.html |title=USAID's Malaria Programs |publisher=Usaid.gov |date=2009-06-02 |accessdate=2010-05-23}}</ref> [[AIDS]] death toll in [[Africa]] may reach 90–100 million by 2025.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/mar/04/aids |title=Aids could kill 90 million Africans, says UN |publisher=Guardian |date=2005-03-04 |accessdate=2010-05-23 |location=London}}</ref><ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/03/AR2006060300229.html ''AIDS Toll May Reach 100 Million in Africa''], [[Washington Post]]</ref> |
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According to [[Jean Ziegler]], who was the [[United Nations]] Special reporter on the Right to Food from 2000 to March 2008, mortality due to [[malnutrition]] accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide approximately 62 million people died from all causes and of those deaths more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in [[micronutrients]].<ref>[[Jean Ziegler]], ''L'Empire de la honte'', Fayard, 2007 ISBN 978-2-253-12115-2 p.130.</ref> |
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[[Tobacco]] smoking killed 100 million people worldwide in the 20th century and could kill 1 billion people around the world in the 21st century, a [[WHO]] Report warned.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080210092031.htm |title=Tobacco Could Kill One Billion By 2100, World Health Organization Report Warns |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=2008-02-11 |accessdate= 2010-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/02/08/2157587.htm |title=Tobacco could kill more than 1 billion this century: World Health Organization |publisher=Abc.net.au |date=2008-02-08 |accessdate=2010-05-23}}</ref> |
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Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] and [[physical fitness|physical activity]], but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human [[longevity]]. The [[evolution of aging|evolutionary cause of aging]] is, at best, only just beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death.<ref>{{cite journal |last=SJ Olshanksy et al. |title=Longevity dividend: What should we be doing to prepare for the unprecedented aging of humanity? |journal=[[The Scientist]] |volume=20 |pages=28–36 |year=2006 |url=http://www.grg.org/resources/TheScientist.htm |accessdate=2007-03-31 |ref=harv}}</ref> |
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===Autopsy=== |
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An [[autopsy]], also known as a ''postmortem examination'' or an ''obduction'', is a [[medical procedure]] that consists of a thorough [[examination]] of a human [[dead body|corpse]] to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any [[disease]] or [[injury]] that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized [[physician|medical doctor]] called a [[pathologist]]. |
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[[File:The Anatomy Lesson.jpg|thumb|upright|An autopsy is portrayed in ''[[The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp]]'', by [[Rembrandt]]]] |
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Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. A forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from [[next of kin]] may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together. Autopsy is important in a medical environment and may shed light on mistakes and help improve practices. |
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A "necropsy" is an older term for a postmortem examination, unregulated, and not always a medical procedure. In modern times the term is more often used in the postmortem examination of the corpses of animals. |
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==Life extension== |
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{{Main|Life extension}} |
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[[Life extension]] refers to an increase in [[maximum life span|maximum]] or [[life expectancy|average lifespan]], especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the [[senescence|processes of aging]]. Average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to [[accident]]s and age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as [[cancer]], or [[cardiovascular disease]]. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], [[exercise]] and avoidance of hazards such as [[tobacco smoking|smoking]]. Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of [[aging]] for a species inherent in its [[gene]]s. Currently, the only widely recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is [[calorie restriction]]. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by [[tissue engineering|periodic replacement of damaged tissues]], or by [[nanobiotechnology|molecular repair]] or [[rejuvenation (aging)|rejuvenation]] of deteriorated cells and tissues. |
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Researchers of life extension are a subclass of biogerontologists known as "biomedical [[gerontologist]]s". They try to understand the nature of aging and they develop treatments to reverse aging processes or to at least slow them down, for the improvement of health and the maintenance of youthful vigor at every stage of life. Those who take advantage of life extension findings and seek to apply them upon themselves are called "life extensionists" or "longevists". The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply available anti-aging methods in the hope of living long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed, which given the rapidly advancing state of biogenetic and general medical technology, could conceivably occur within the lifetimes of people living today. |
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==Location== |
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Before about 1930, most people died in their own homes, surrounded by family, and comforted by clergy, neighbors, and doctors making [[house call]]s.<ref name="isbn0-8018-1762-5">{{cite book |author=Ariès, Philippe |authorlink=Philippe Ariès |title=Western attitudes toward death: from the Middle Ages to the present |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |year=1974 |pages=87–89 |isbn= 0-8018-1762-5}}</ref> By the mid-20th century, half of all Americans died in a hospital.<ref name="isbn0-679-41461-4">{{cite book |author=Nuland, Sherwin B. |authorlink=Sherwin B. Nuland |title=How we die: Reflections on life's final chapter |publisher=A.A. Knopf |location=New York |year=1994 |pages=254255 |isbn=0-679-41461-4}}</ref> By the start of the 21st century, only about 20 to 25% of people in developed countries died outside of a medical institution.<ref name="isbn0-679-41461-4"/><ref name="pmid16299059">{{cite journal |author=Ahmad S, O'Mahony MS |title=Where older people die: a retrospective population-based study |journal=QJM |volume=98 |issue=12 |pages=865–70 |date=December 2005 |pmid=16299059 |doi=10.1093/qjmed/hci138}}</ref><ref name="pmid11535743">{{cite journal |author=Cassel CK, Demel B |title=Remembering death: public policy in the USA |journal=J R Soc Med |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=433–6 |date=September 2001 |pmid=11535743 |pmc=1282180}}</ref> The shift away from dying at home, towards dying in a professionalized medical environment, has been termed the "Invisible Death".<ref name="isbn0-679-41461-4"/> |
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==Society and culture== |
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{{Main|Death and culture}} |
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[[File:Hertig Karl skymfande Klaus Flemings lik, målning av Albert Edelfelt från 1878.jpg|thumb|The regent duke Charles (later king [[Charles IX of Sweden]]) insulting the corpse of [[Klaus Fleming]]. [[Albert Edelfelt]], 1878.]] |
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[[File:Placid death.JPG|thumb|Dead bodies can be [[mummified]] either naturally, as this one [[Mummies of Guanajuato|from Guanajuato]], or by intention, as [[Ancient Egyptian burial customs|those in ancient Egypt]].]] |
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Death is the center of many traditions and organizations; customs relating to death are a feature of every culture around the world. Much of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as the [[afterlife]] and the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death. The [[disposal of human corpses]] does, in general, begin with the [[last offices]] before significant time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment or [[cremation]]. This is not a unified practice, however, as in [[Tibet]] for instance the body is given a [[sky burial]] and left on a mountain top. Proper preparation for death and techniques and ceremonies for producing the ability to transfer one's spiritual attainments into another body ([[reincarnation]]) are subjects of detailed study in Tibet.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mullin|1999|p=}}</ref> [[Mummification]] or [[embalming]] is also prevalent in some cultures, to retard the rate of [[Decomposition|decay]]. |
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Legal aspects of death are also part of many cultures, particularly the settlement of the deceased [[estate (law)|estate]] and the issues of [[inheritance]] and in some countries, [[inheritance tax]]ation. |
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[[File:Grave stone2.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Gravestones in [[Kyoto]], Japan]] |
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[[Capital punishment]] is also a culturally divisive aspect of death. In most jurisdictions where capital punishment is carried out today, the death penalty is reserved for premeditated [[murder]], [[espionage]], [[treason]], or as part of [[military justice]]. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as [[adultery]] and [[sodomy]], carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as [[apostasy]], the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many [[Use of capital punishment by nation|retentionist]] countries, [[drug trafficking]] is also a capital offense. In China [[Trafficking in human beings|human trafficking]] and serious cases of [[political corruption|corruption]] are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world [[courts-martial]] have imposed death sentences for offenses such as [[cowardice]], [[desertion]], [[insubordination]], and [[mutiny]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shotatdawn.org.uk/ |title=Shot at Dawn, campaign for pardons for British and Commonwealth soldiers executed in World War I |accessdate=2006-07-20 |publisher=Shot at Dawn Pardons Campaign}}</ref> |
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Death in warfare and in [[suicide attack]] also have cultural links, and the ideas of [[dulce et decorum est pro patria mori]], [[mutiny]] punishable by death, grieving relatives of dead soldiers and [[death notification]] are embedded in many cultures. Recently in the western world, with the supposed increase in terrorism following the [[September 11 attacks]], but also further back in time with suicide bombings, [[kamikaze]] missions in [[World War II]] and suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history, death for a cause by way of suicide attack, and [[martyrdom]] have had significant cultural impacts. |
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[[Suicide]] in general, and particularly [[euthanasia]], are also points of cultural debate. Both acts are understood very differently in different cultures. In [[Japan]], for example, ending a life with honor by [[seppuku]] was considered a desirable death, whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, [[suicide]] is viewed as a sin. Death is [[death (personification)|personified]] in many cultures, with such symbolic representations as the [[Grim Reaper]], [[Azrael]] and [[Father Time]]. |
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==In biology== |
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After death the remains of an organism become part of the [[biogeochemical cycle]]. Animals may be [[necrophagy|consumed]] by a [[predator]] or a [[scavenger]]. [[Organic material]] may then be further decomposed by [[detritivore]]s, organisms which recycle [[detritus]], returning it to the environment for reuse in the [[food chain]]. Examples of detritivores include [[earthworm]]s, [[woodlice]] and [[dung beetles]]. |
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[[Microorganism]]s also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler molecules. Not all materials need to be decomposed fully, however. [[Coal]], a [[fossil fuel]] formed over vast tracts of time in [[swamp]] ecosystems, is one example. |
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===Natural selection=== |
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{{Main|competition (biology)|natural selection|extinction}} |
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Contemporary [[history of evolutionary thought|evolutionary theory]] sees death as an important part of the process of [[natural selection]]. It is considered that organisms less [[adaptation|adapted]] to their environment are more likely to die having produced fewer offspring, thereby reducing their contribution to the [[gene pool]]. Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading at worst to [[extinction]] and, more positively, making the process possible, referred to as [[speciation]]. Frequency of [[biological reproduction|reproduction]] plays an equally important role in determining species survival: an organism that dies young but leaves numerous offspring displays, according to [[Charles Darwin|Darwinian]] criteria, much greater [[Darwinian fitness|fitness]] than a long-lived organism leaving only one. |
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===Extinction=== |
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{{Main|Extinction}} |
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[[File:ExtinctDodoBird.jpeg|thumb|upright|A [[dodo]], the bird that became a byword in English for species extinction<ref name="Diamond">{{cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared |authorlink=Jared Diamond |title= [[Guns, Germs, and Steel]] |publisher=[[W. W. Norton]] |year=1999 |isbn=0-393-31755-2 |pages=43–44 |chapter=Up to the Starting Line}}</ref>]] |
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Extinction is the cessation of existence of a species or group of [[taxa]], reducing [[biodiversity]]. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the [[population bottleneck|capacity to breed and recover]] may have been lost before this point). Because a species' potential [[range (biology)|range]] may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as [[Lazarus taxon|Lazarus taxa]], where species presumed extinct abruptly "reappear" (typically in the [[fossil|fossil record]]) after a period of apparent absence. New species arise through the process of [[speciation]], an aspect of [[evolution]]. New varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an [[ecological niche]] – and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. |
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===Evolution of ageing=== |
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{{Main|Evolution of ageing}} |
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Inquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age (a notable exception being [[hydra (genus)|hydra]], which may be [[biological immortality|biologically immortal]]). The evolutionary origin of [[senescence]] remains one of the fundamental puzzles of biology. [[Gerontology]] specializes in the science of human aging processes. |
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==See also== |
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<!--Note: Please do not add links already in the body of the text. See the guidelines for the 'See also' section here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Guide_to_layout#See_also--> |
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{{refbegin|4}} |
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* [[Cadaveric spasm]] |
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* [[Coffin birth]] |
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* [[Day of the Dead]] |
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* [[Dead bell]] |
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* [[Death drive]] |
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* [[Death erection]] |
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* [[Death messengers]] |
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* [[Death rattle]] |
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* [[Death row]] |
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* [[Dying declaration]] |
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* [[End-of-life care]] |
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* [[Ethereal being]] |
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* [[Faked death]] |
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* [[Ghost]] |
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* [[International Necronautical Society]] |
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* [[Karōshi]] |
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* [[Last Rites]] |
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* [[List of preventable causes of death]] |
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* [[Makeshift memorial]] |
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* [[Nats (spirits), outer|Nats (spirits)]] |
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* [[Near death experience]] |
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* [[Origin of death myth]] |
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* [[Post-mortem interval]] |
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* [[Spiritual death]] |
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* [[Survivalism (life after death)]] |
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* [[Taboo on the dead]] |
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* [[Thanatology]] |
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* [[Thanatosensitivity]] |
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* [[Vampire]] |
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* [[Yurei]] |
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* [[Zombie]] |
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{{refend}} |
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==References== |
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{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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;Bibliography |
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{{refbegin}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Bondeson |first=Jan |title=Buried Alive: the Terrifying History of our Most Primal Fear |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2001 |isbn=0-393-04906-X |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Mullin |first=Glenn H. |year=2008 |title=Living in the Face of Death: The Tibetan Tradition |origyear=1998 |publisher=Snow Lion Publications |location=Ithica, New York |isbn=978-1-55939-310-2 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}} |
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{{refend}} |
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==External links== |
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{{wikiquote}} |
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{{Commons category}} |
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{{Wiktionary}} |
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* {{dmoz|Society/Death}} |
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* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/death/#2 Death (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)] |
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* [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18368186 Doctors Change the Way They Think About Death] |
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* [http://rack1.ul.cs.cmu.edu/is/deathtypes Causes of Death 1916] How the medical profession categorized causes of death |
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* [http://www.benbest.com/lifeext/causes.html Causes of Death] |
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* [http://www.elijahwald.com/origin.html George Wald: The Origin of Death] A biologist explains life and death in different kinds of organisms in relation to evolution. |
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* [http://www.lensculture.com/schels.html Before and After Death] Interviews with people dying in hospices, and portraits of them before, and shortly after, death |
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* [http://www.nsc.org/news_resources/injury_and_death_statistics/Pages/TheOddsofDyingFrom.aspx Odds of dying from various injuries or accidents] Source: [[National Safety Council]], United States, 2001 |
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{{s-start}} |
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{{succession box |title=[[Human growth pattern|Stages of human development]] |before=[[Old age]] |after=[[Decomposition]] |years=Death}} |
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{{s-end}} |
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{{Humandevelopment}} |
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{{death}} |
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[[Category:Death| ]] |
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[[Category:Demography]] |
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[[Category:Life]] |
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[[ar:موت]] |
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[[an:Muerte]] |
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[[arc:ܡܘܬܐ]] |
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[[gn:Mano]] |
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[[az:Ölüm]] |
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[[bn:মৃত্যু]] |
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[[be:Смерць]] |
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[[be-x-old:Сьмерць]] |
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[[bg:Смърт]] |
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[[bo:ཤི་བ།]] |
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[[bs:Smrt]] |
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[[br:Marv]] |
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[[ca:Mort]] |
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[[ceb:Kamatayon]] |
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[[cs:Smrt]] |
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[[cy:Marwolaeth]] |
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[[da:Død]] |
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[[de:Tod]] |
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[[et:Surm]] |
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[[el:Θάνατος]] |
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[[myv:Кулома озкс]] |
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[[es:Muerte]] |
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[[eo:Morto]] |
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[[eu:Heriotza]] |
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[[fa:مرگ]] |
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[[hif:Maut]] |
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[[fr:Mort]] |
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[[fy:Dea]] |
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[[gl:Morte]] |
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[[gan:過世]] |
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[[gu:મરણ]] |
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[[ko:죽음]] |
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[[hy:Մահ]] |
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[[hi:मृत्यु]] |
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[[hr:Smrt]] |
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[[io:Morto]] |
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[[id:Kematian]] |
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[[ia:Morte]] |
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[[is:Dauði]] |
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[[it:Morte]] |
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[[he:מוות]] |
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[[kn:ಮರಣ]] |
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[[ka:სიკვდილი]] |
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[[kk:Өлім]] |
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[[sw:Mauti]] |
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[[ht:Lanmò]] |
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[[la:Mors]] |
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[[lv:Nāve]] |
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[[lt:Mirtis]] |
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[[ln:Liwâ]] |
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[[hu:Halál]] |
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[[mk:Смрт]] |
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[[ml:മരണം]] |
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[[mt:Mewt]] |
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[[mr:मृत्यू]] |
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[[arz:موت]] |
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[[ms:Ajal]] |
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[[mn:Үхэл]] |
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[[nah:Miquiztli]] |
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[[nl:Dood]] |
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[[ja:死]] |
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[[no:Død]] |
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[[nn:Død]] |
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[[oc:Mòrt]] |
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[[pnb:مرن]] |
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[[pap:Morto]] |
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[[pl:Śmierć]] |
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[[pt:Morte]] |
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[[ro:Moarte]] |
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[[qu:Wañuy]] |
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[[rue:Смерть]] |
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[[ru:Смерть]] |
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[[sah:Өлүү]] |
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[[sq:Vdekja]] |
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[[scn:Morti]] |
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[[simple:Death]] |
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[[sk:Smrť]] |
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[[sl:Smrt]] |
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[[cu:Съмрьть]] |
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[[szl:Śmjyrć]] |
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[[sr:Смрт]] |
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[[sh:Smrt]] |
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[[su:Paéh]] |
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[[fi:Kuolema]] |
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[[sv:Döden]] |
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[[tl:Kamatayan]] |
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[[ta:இறப்பு]] |
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[[te:మరణం]] |
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[[th:ความตาย]] |
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[[tr:Ölüm]] |
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[[uk:Смерть]] |
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[[ur:موت]] |
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[[vi:Chết]] |
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[[wa:Moirt]] |
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[[zh-classical:死]] |
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[[war:Kamatayon]] |
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[[yi:טויט]] |
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[[zh-yue:死]] |
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[[diq:Merg]] |
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[[bat-smg:Smertės]] |
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[[zh:死亡]] |
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