View source for India and weapons of mass destruction

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox
| bodystyle        = width:30.0em<!--WMD infobox template that follows should (be set to) match-->;
| above            = Republic of India
| image            = [[File:India (orthographic projection).svg|150px|center|Location of India]]
| labelstyle       = width:60%;padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;<!--({{longitem}})-->
| datastyle        = white-space:nowrap;
| label1           = Nuclear programme<br />start date
| data1            = {{start date and age|1967|df=y|br=y|p=y}}
| label2           = First nuclear<br />weapon test
| data2            = {{start date and age|1974|05|18|df=y|br=y|p=y}}{{ref|first-overall|a}}
| label3           = First fusion<br />weapon test
| data3            = {{start date and age|1998|05|11|df=y|br=y|p=y}}{{ref|first-fusion|b}}
| label4           = Most recent test
| data4            = {{start date and age|1998|05|13|df=y|br=y|p=y}}
| label5           = Largest-yield test
| data5            = {{convert|45|ktonTNT|lk=on}};<br /> Scale down of 200 kt model {{ref|yield|c}}
| label6           = Number of tests<br />to date
| data6            = 4 (6 Devices fired)
| label7           = Peak stockpile
| data7            = 172 warheads (2024)<ref name="stock">{{Cite web |date=2024-06-17 |title=Role of nuclear weapons grows as geopolitical relations deteriorate—new SIPRI Yearbook out now {{!}} SIPRI |url=https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2024/role-nuclear-weapons-grows-geopolitical-relations-deteriorate-new-sipri-yearbook-out-now |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=www.sipri.org |language=en}}</ref>
| label8           = Current stockpile
| data8            = 172 warheads (2024)<ref name="stock"/>
| label9           = Maximum missile<br />range
| data9            = [[Agni-V]] {{hyphen}} {{convert|7000|to|8000|km|disp=br}}
| label10          = NPT Party
| data10           = '''No'''
| belowstyle       = border-top:1px solid #aaa;background:none;font-size:90%;
| below            = {{plainlist|
* {{note|first-overall|a}}&nbsp;''[[Smiling Buddha]]''
* {{note|first-fusion|b}}&nbsp;Declared ([[Pokhran-II]])
* {{note|yield|c}}&nbsp;Declared<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=52814|title=Press Statement by Dr. Anil Kakodkar and Dr. R. Chidambaram on Pokhran-II tests|website=Press Information Bureau, Government of India|access-date=17 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Parashar |first=Sachin |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kalam-certifies-Pokharan-II-Santhanam-stands-his-ground/articleshow/4942911.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105024206/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-08-28/india/28199613_1_santhanam-thermonuclear-device-pokhran |url-status=live |archive-date=5 November 2012 |title=Kalam certifies Pokharan II, Santhanam stands his ground |date=28 August 2009 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=31 August 2010}}</ref> ([[Pokhran-II]])
* {{note|stockpile|d}}&nbsp;2024 estimate<ref name="nuclearweapons1">{{cite web|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.| author-link1 = Hans M. Kristensen|last2=Norris|first2=Robert S.|url=https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/|title=Status of World Nuclear Forces|website=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|access-date=2023-06-04|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat|website=Arms Control Association|publisher=ACA|access-date=23 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Modernization of nuclear weapons continues; number of peacekeepers declines: New SIPRI Yearbook out now|url=https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2018/modernization-nuclear-weapons-continues-number-peacekeepers-declines-new-sipri-yearbook-out-now|website=sipri.org|publisher=SIPRI|date=18 June 2018|access-date=23 April 2019}}</ref>
* {{note|max-range|e}}&nbsp;[[Agni V]]<!--
    --><ref name="Saran">{{cite web|url=http://www.irgamag.com/component/k2/item/2400|title=Is India's Nuclear Deterrent Credible? {{smaller|(Statement given by Shyam Saran, Chairman of India's National Security Advisory Board)}}|last1=Saran|first1=Shyam|date=25 April 2013|website=irgamag.com|quote="[…]&nbsp;These include a modest arsenal, nuclear-capable aircraft and missiles, both in fixed underground silos as well as&nbsp;[…] mounted on mobile rail and road-based platforms. These land-based missiles include both Agni-II (1,500&nbsp;km) as well as Agni-III (2,500&nbsp;km) missiles. The range and accuracy of further versions&nbsp;– for example, Agni V (5,000&nbsp;km), which was tested successfully only recently&nbsp;– will improve with the acquisition of further technological capability and experience"|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130701001442/http://www.irgamag.com/component/k2/item/2400|archive-date=1 July 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><!--
    --><ref name="it4j13">{{cite news|title=New chief of India's military research complex reveals brave new mandate|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/indias-nuclear-counterstrike-response-time-to-be-in-minutes-drdo-chief/1/286691.html|access-date=4 July 2013|newspaper=India Today|date=4 July 2013}}</ref><!--
    --><ref name="bs23d13">{{cite news|title=Strategic Forces Command fires AGNI-3 successfully|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/strategic-forces-command-fires-agni-3-successfully-113122300765_1.html|access-date=23 December 2013|newspaper=Business Standard|date=23 December 2013}} (Second operational test firing by the [[Strategic Forces Command]]).</ref>
}}
}}
{{Weapons of mass destruction |width=22.0em}}

[[India]] possesses [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear weapons]] and previously developed [[chemical weapon]]s. Although India has not released any official statements about the size of its nuclear arsenal, recent estimates suggest that India has 172 nuclear weapons<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /> and has produced enough weapons-grade plutonium for up to 200 nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kristensen |first1=Hans M. |last2=Norris |first2=Robert S. |title=Indian nuclear forces, 2017 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |date=5 July 2017 |volume=73 |issue=4 |page=205 |doi=10.1080/00963402.2017.1337998|bibcode=2017BuAtS..73d.205K |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 1999, India was estimated to have {{convert|800|kg}} of separated [[reactor-grade plutonium]], with a total amount of {{convert|8300|kg}} of civilian plutonium, enough for approximately 1,000 nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=India's Nuclear Weapons Program|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaArsenal.html|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=26 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Albright |first=David |date=11 October 2000 |title=India's and Pakistan's Fissile Material and Nuclear Weapons Inventories, end of 1999 |url=http://www.isis-online.org/publications/southasia/stocks1000.html |access-date=26 June 2012 |publisher=Institute for Science and International Security}}</ref> India has conducted nuclear weapons tests in a pair of series namely ''[[Smiling Buddha|Pokhran I]]'' and ''[[Pokhran-II|Pokhran II]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wheeler |first1=Travis |last2=Byrne |first2=Heather |date=30 May 2018 |title=The story of Pokhran: Tests that established India as nuclear power, became cornerstone of Atal Bihari Vajpayee's tenure as PM |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/05/20-years-after-pokhran-ii-have-nuclear-weapons-made-india-more-secure/ |website=The Diplomat}}</ref>

India is a member of three [[multilateral export control regime]]s — the [[Missile Technology Control Regime]], [[Wassenaar Arrangement]] and [[Australia Group]]. It has signed and ratified the [[Biological Weapons Convention]] and the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]]. India is also a subscribing state to the [[International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation|Hague Code of Conduct]]. India has signed neither the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]] nor the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]], considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.{{sfn|Kumar|2010}} India previously possessed [[chemical weapons]], but voluntarily destroyed its entire stockpile in 2009 — one of the seven countries to meet the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]] extended deadline.<ref name="india">{{cite web |date=14 May 2009 |title=India destroys its chemical weapons stockpile |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news531700.html |access-date=27 August 2013 |publisher=[[Zee News]]}}</ref>

India maintains a "[[no first use]]" nuclear policy and has developed a [[nuclear triad]] capability as a part of its "[[Minimum Credible Deterrence]]" doctrine.{{sfn|Nair|2007}}{{sfn|Pandit|2009}}<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last= |date=7 January 2022 |title=Official Spokesperson's response to a media query regarding the Joint Statement on Preventing Nuclear War and Avoiding Arms Races |url=https://www.mea.gov.in/response-to-queries.htm?dtl/34743/Official_Spokespersons_response_to_a_media_query_regarding_the_Joint_Statement_on_Preventing_Nuclear_War_and_Avoiding_Arms_Races |access-date=12 January 2022 |website=Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India}}</ref>

== Biological weapons ==
{{Further|History of biological warfare}}

India has ratified the [[Biological Weapons Convention]] (BWC) and pledges to abide by its obligations. There is no clear evidence, circumstantial or otherwise, that directly points toward an offensive BW program. India does possess the scientific capability and infrastructure to launch an offensive BW program. In terms of delivery, India also possesses the capability to produce [[Aerosol spray|aerosols]] and has numerous potential delivery systems ranging from [[Aerial application|crop dusters]] to sophisticated [[ballistic missile]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |title=Research Library: Country Profiles: India Biological Chronology |url=http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/india/biological/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604055018/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/India/Biological/index.html |archive-date=4 June 2011 |access-date=16 July 2010 |publisher=[[Nuclear Threat Initiative]]}}</ref> No information exists in the public domain suggesting interest by the Indian government in the delivery of biological agents by these or any other means. To reiterate the latter point, in October 2002, then-President [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]] asserted that "India will not make biological weapons. It is cruel to human beings".<ref name="ReferenceA" />

== Chemical weapons ==
{{Further|Chemical weapon}}

In 1992,  India signed the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] (CWC), becoming one of the original signatories of the CWC in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|title=Member State – India|url=https://www.opcw.org/about-opcw/member-states/member-states-by-region/asia/member-state-india/|website=OPCW|access-date=5 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026045513/https://www.opcw.org/about-opcw/member-states/member-states-by-region/asia/member-state-india/|archive-date=26 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> and ratified it on 2 September 1996. According to India's ex-Army Chief [[Krishnaswamy Sundarji|General Sundarji]], a country having the capability of making nuclear weapons does not need to have chemical weapons, since the dread of chemical weapons could be created only in those countries that do not have nuclear weapons. Others suggested that the fact that India has found chemical weapons dispensable highlighted its confidence in the conventional weapons system at its command.

In June 1997, India declared its stock of chemical weapons (1,045 tonnes of [[Sulfur mustard|sulphur mustard]]).<ref name="dominicantoday.com">{{cite web |date=30 December 2007 |title=India to destroy chemical weapons stockpile by 2009 |url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/world/2007/12/30/26543/India-to-destroy-chemical-weapons-stockpile-by-2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907155755/http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/world/2007/12/30/26543/India-to-destroy-chemical-weapons-stockpile-by-2009 |archive-date=7 September 2013 |access-date=30 April 2013 |work=[[Dominican Today]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=Smithson, Amy Gaffney, Frank Jr. |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-3987660.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106050759/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-3987660.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 November 2012 |title=India declares its stock of chemical weapons  |access-date=30 April 2013 |website=India Abroad}}</ref> By the end of 2006, India had destroyed more than 75 percent of its chemical weapons/material stockpile and was granted an extension for destroying the remaining stocks by April 2009 and was expected to achieve 100 percent destruction within that time frame.<ref name="dominicantoday.com"/> India informed the [[United Nations]] in May 2009 that it had destroyed its stockpile of chemical weapons in compliance with the international Chemical Weapons Convention. With this India has become the third country after [[South Korea]] and [[Albania]] to do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news531700.html |title= India destroys its chemical weapons stockpile |publisher=[[Zee News]] |date=14 May 2009 |access-date=30 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="in.news.yahoo.com">Ritu Sharma (14 May 2009). [http://in.news.yahoo.com/43/20090514/812/tnl-india-destroys-its-chemical-weapons.html India destroys its chemical weapons stockpile]. IANS. Yahoo News. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521195550/http://in.news.yahoo.com/43/20090514/812/tnl-india-destroys-its-chemical-weapons.html|date=21 May 2009}}.</ref> This was cross-checked by inspectors of the United Nations.

India has an advanced commercial [[chemical industry]], and produces the bulk of its chemicals for domestic consumption. It is also widely acknowledged that India has an extensive civilian chemical and pharmaceutical industry and annually exports considerable quantities of chemicals to countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, and Taiwan.<ref name="nti.org">{{cite web |title=Research Library: Country Profiles: India Biological Chronology |url=http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/india/chemical/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411054933/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/India/Chemical/index.html |archive-date=11 April 2010 |access-date=16 July 2010 |publisher=[[Nuclear Threat Initiative]]}}</ref>

== Nuclear weapons ==
{{see also|India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement}}
{{Further|Strategic Forces Command}}
As early as 26 June 1946, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], soon to be India's first Prime Minister, announced: {{cquote|As long as the world is constituted as it is, every country will have to devise and use the latest devices for its protection. I have no doubt India will develop her scientific researches and I hope Indian scientists will use the atomic force for constructive purposes. But if India is threatened, she will inevitably try to defend herself by all means at her disposal.<ref>B. M. Udgaonkar, [http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jan25/articles20.htm ''India’s nuclear capability, her security concerns and the recent tests''], Indian Academy of Sciences, January 1999.</ref>}}

Nehru pursued a policy of formally foregoing nuclear weapons while at the same time constructing a civilian nuclear energy program and by extension the capability to make a nuclear bomb. This policy was motivated by a conventional weapons superiority over its rivals Pakistan and China.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|title=The Varieties of Hedgers: India, Japan, West Germany, Brazil and Argentina, Sweden and Switzerland|date=2020-12-31|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780691223063-005/html|work=Seeking the Bomb: Strategies of Nuclear Proliferation|pages=53–126|publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.1515/9780691223063-005|isbn=978-0-691-22306-3|access-date=2022-01-20}}</ref> India built its first research reactor in 1956 and its first plutonium reprocessing plant by 1964.<ref>[http://barc.gov.in/reactor/index.html Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Apsara Research Reactor |url=http://www.nti.org/facilities/818/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419042039/http://www.nti.org/facilities/818/ |archive-date=19 April 2015 |access-date=12 April 2015 |publisher=Nuclear Threat Initiative}}</ref><ref>[https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//NSAEBB/NSAEBB187/IN03.pdf Plutonium Plant at Trombay]. [[National Security Archive]]. 1964.</ref> India's nuclear programme can trace its origins to March 1944 and its [[India's three-stage nuclear power programme|three-stage]] efforts in technology were established by [[Homi Jehangir Bhabha]] when he founded the nuclear research center, the [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Chengappa|first=Raj|title=Weapons of peace : the secret story of India's quest to be a nuclear power|year=2000|publisher=Harper Collins Publishers, India|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-7223-330-3}}</ref><ref name="Nuclear weapon archive">{{cite web |date=30 March 2001 |title=India's Nuclear Weapons Program. The Beginning: 1944–1960 |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaOrigin.html |access-date=15 January 2013 |publisher=Nuclear weapon archive}}</ref>

India's loss to China in a brief [[Sino-Indian War|Himalayan border war]] in October 1962, provided the New Delhi government impetus for developing nuclear weapons as a means of deterring potential Chinese aggression.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nationalinterest.org/article/jfks-overshadowed-crisis-7073?page=show |title=JFK's Overshadowed Crisis  |publisher=[[The National Interest]] |author=Bruce Riedel |author-link=Bruce Riedel |date=28 June 2012 |access-date = 7 July 2012}}</ref>  By 1964 India was in a position to develop nuclear weapons.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 May 2016 |agency=PTI |title=India could have gone nuclear as early as 1964: US intelligence |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-could-have-gone-nuclear-as-early-as-1964-us-intelligence/articleshow/52340895.cms |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=The Times of India}}</ref> Prime Minister [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] opposed developing nuclear weapons but fell under intense political pressure, including elements within the ruling [[Indian National Congress]]. India was also unable to obtain security guarantees from either the United States or the Soviet Union. As a result, Shastri announced that India would pursue the capability of what it called "[[peaceful nuclear explosion]]s" that could be weaponized in the future.<ref name=":1" />

India first tested a nuclear device in 1974 (code-named "[[Smiling Buddha]]"), under Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] as a peaceful nuclear explosion. The test used plutonium produced in the Canadian-supplied [[CIRUS reactor]], and raised concerns that nuclear technology supplied for peaceful purposes could be diverted to weapons purposes.  This also stimulated the early work of the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]].<ref>[http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/India/Nuclear/2296_6267.html India Profile. Nuclear Chronology 1974–1975.] Nuclear Threat Initiative. 2006. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001012955/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/india/nuclear/2296_6267.html|date=1 October 2008}}</ref> During the 1970s and the 1980s Prime Ministers Indira Gandhi, [[Morarji Desai]], and [[Rajiv Gandhi]] opposed weaponizing its nuclear program beyond PNE and theoretical research. In 1982, Indira Gandhi refused to allow the [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]] to develop active nuclear weapons but also approved the [[Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme]] that would develop missiles to deliver a nuclear warhead if India developed one. India also supported international [[nuclear non-proliferation]] and [[arms control]] efforts.<ref name=":1"/>

The situation changed again in the late 1980s after the 1987 [[Operation Brasstacks|Brasstacks crisis]] and the beginning of the [[Pakistani nuclear arsenal|Pakistani nuclear weapons program]]. In 1989, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi gave Defense Secretary [[Naresh Chandra]] approval to develop the bomb. Chandra continued the program through successive governments in the 1990s after Gandhi lost power in the [[1989 Indian general election|1989 general election]]. India most likely completed weaponized nuclear warheads around 1994.<ref name=":1"/> India performed further nuclear tests in 1998 (code-named "[[Operation Shakti]]") under Prime Minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]]. In 1998, as a response to the continuing tests, the United States and Japan imposed sanctions on India, which have since been lifted.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wagner |first=Alex |date=2001 |title=Bush Waives Nuclear-Related Sanctions on India, Pakistan |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2001_10/sanctionsoct01 |publisher=Arms Control Association}}</ref>

===Neutron bombs===
[[Rajagopala Chidambaram|R Chidambaram]], who headed India's [[Pokhran-II]] nuclear tests, said in a 1999 interview with the [[Press Trust of India]] that India is capable of producing a [[neutron bomb]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Karp |first=Jonathan |date=17 August 1999 |title=India Discloses It Is Able To Build a Neutron Bomb |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB934836102919955535 |url-access=subscription |work=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref>

===India's no-first-use policy===
India has a declared nuclear [[No first use|no-first-use]] policy and is in the process of developing a [[nuclear doctrine]] based on "[[credible minimum deterrence]]." In August 1999, the Indian government released a draft of the doctrine<ref name="NFU">{{cite web |date=17 August 1999 |title=Draft Report of National Security Advisory Board on Indian Nuclear Doctrine |url=http://www.indianembassy.org/policy/CTBT/nuclear_doctrine_aug_17_1999.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091205231912/http://www.indianembassy.org/policy/CTBT/nuclear_doctrine_aug_17_1999.html |archive-date=5 December 2009 |publisher=Embassy of India, Washington DC |access-date=30 April 2013}}</ref> which asserts that nuclear weapons are solely for deterrence and that India will pursue a policy of "retaliation only". The document also maintains that India "will not be the first to initiate a nuclear [[Pre-emptive nuclear strike|first strike]], but will respond with punitive retaliation should deterrence fail" and that decisions to authorize the use of nuclear weapons would be made by the Prime Minister or his 'designated successor(s)'.<ref name="NFU" /> According to the NRDC, despite the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan in 2001–2002, India remained committed to its nuclear no-first-use policy.

India's [[Strategic Nuclear Command]] was formally established in 2003, with an [[Indian Air Force]] officer, Air Marshal Tej Mohan Asthana, as the Commander-in-Chief. The Joint Services SNC is the custodian of all of India's nuclear weapons, [[missiles]] and defense assets. It is also responsible for executing all aspects of India's nuclear policy. However, the civil leadership, in the form of the CCS ([[Cabinet Committee on Security]]) is the only body authorised to order a nuclear strike against another offending strike. The [[National Security Advisor (India)|National Security Advisor]] [[Shivshankar Menon]] reiterated a policy of "no first use" against nuclear weapon states and "non-use against non-nuclear weapon states" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of [[National Defence College, India|National Defence College]] in New Delhi on 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's "strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 21, 2010 |title=Speech by NSA Shri Shivshankar Menon at NDC on 'The Role of Force in Strategic Affairs' |url=http://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/798/Speech+by+NSA+Shri+Shivshankar+Menon+at+NDC+on+The+Role+of+Force+in+Strategic+Affairs |access-date=27 July 2015 |publisher=Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India}}</ref><ref>[http://www.indiablooms.com/NewsDetailsPage/newsDetails211010n.php NSA Shivshankar Menon at NDC (Speech) : india Blooms]  {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810110309/http://www.indiablooms.com/NewsDetailsPage/newsDetails211010n.php |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> In April 2013 [[Shyam Saran]], convener of the [[National Security Advisory Board]], affirmed that regardless of the size of a nuclear attack against India, be it a miniaturised version or a "big" missile, India will [[massive retaliation|retaliate massively]] to inflict unacceptable damage.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bagchi |first=Indrani |date=30 April 2013 |title=Even a midget nuke strike will lead to massive retaliation, India warns Pak |newspaper=The Economic Times |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/even-a-midget-nuke-strike-will-lead-to-massive-retaliation-india-warns-pak/articleshow/19795988.cms |access-date=30 April 2013}}</ref>

In 2016, [[Defence Minister of India|Defence Minister]] [[Manohar Parrikar]] questioned the no-first-use policy, asking why India should "bind" itself when it is a "responsible nuclear power". Later he clarified that this was his personal opinion.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Why-bind-ourselves-to-%E2%80%98no-first-use-policy%E2%80%99-says-Parrikar-on-India%E2%80%99s-nuke-doctrine/article16442100.ece|title=Why bind ourselves to 'no first use policy', says Parrikar on India's nuke doctrine|date=10 November 2016|work=The Hindu|access-date=17 August 2019|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Defence Minister [[Rajnath Singh]] in 2019 said that in the future, India's no-first-use policy might change depending upon the "circumstances".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/no-first-use-nuclear-policy-depends-on-circumstances-rajnath-singh/article29109149.ece|title='No First Use' nuclear policy depends on circumstances: Rajnath Singh|date=16 August 2019|work=The Hindu|access-date=17 August 2019|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |agency=Reuters |date=16 August 2019 |title=India Says Committed to 'No First Use' of Nuclear Weapons for Now |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2019/08/16/world/asia/16reuters-india-nuclear.html |access-date=17 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817004126/https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2019/08/16/world/asia/16reuters-india-nuclear.html |archive-date=17 August 2019 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In a January 2022 statement, however, the [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]] reiterated India's doctrine of "maintaining a credible minimum deterrence based on a No First Use posture and non-use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon states".<ref name=":0"/><ref>{{Cite news|last=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=8 January 2022|title=India hails statement by 5 world powers to stop nuclear weapons|work=[[Business Standard]]|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/india-hails-statement-by-5-world-powers-to-stop-nuclear-weapons-122010701208_1.html#:~:text=Arindam%20Bagchi%2C%20the%20spokesperson%20in,non%2Dnuclear%2Dweapon%20states.|access-date=12 January 2022}}</ref>

===Indian nuclear triad===
{{See also|Nuclear triad}}
India's nuclear triad is a military force structure that includes three parts:

* Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs): Land-based nuclear missiles
* Submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs): Nuclear-missile-armed submarines
* Strategic bombers: Aircraft with nuclear bombs and missiles 

The purpose of India's nuclear triad is to increase nuclear deterrence by reducing the chance of an enemy destroying all of India's nuclear forces in a first-strike attack. This ensures that India can still launch a second strike.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/indias-nuclear-triad-still-a-work-in-progress|title=India’s nuclear triad: still a work in progress}}</ref> 

Here are some details about India's nuclear triad: 

* [[INS Arighaat]]: India's second nuclear submarine, INS Arighaat, has improved nuclear propulsion technology that allows it to operate more stealthily. It can carry up to four K-4 SLBMs or up to 12 K-15 SLBMs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sunday-guardian.com/analysis/needed-a-nuclear-triad|title=Needed, a nuclear triad|publisher=Sunday-guardian.com|access-date=2 June 2013|archive-date=3 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503233228/http://www.sunday-guardian.com/analysis/needed-a-nuclear-triad|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=General|first=Lt|url=http://www.spsnavalforces.net/story.asp?mid=23&id=3|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130703105545/http://www.spsnavalforces.net/story.asp?mid=23&id=3|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 July 2013|title=Indian Navy's Capability Perspective – SP's Naval Forces|publisher=Spsnavalforces.net|access-date=23 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defencenow.com/news/551/india-to-construct-two-more-arihant-nuclear-submarines-for-navy.html|title=India To Construct Two More Arihant Nuclear Submarines For Navy|publisher=Defence Now|date=28 February 2012|access-date=2 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712032120/http://www.defencenow.com/news/551/india-to-construct-two-more-arihant-nuclear-submarines-for-navy.html|archive-date=12 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> 
* [[INS Arihant]]: India's first nuclear submarine, INS Arihant, was commissioned in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/INS-Arihant-What-Indias-new-nuclear-submarine-could-mean-for-the-world/articleshow/51169525.cms|title=INS Arihant: What India's new nuclear submarine could mean for the world - Times of India|work=indiatimes.com|access-date=24 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628133044/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/INS-Arihant-What-Indias-new-nuclear-submarine-could-mean-for-the-world/articleshow/51169525.cms|archive-date=28 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/india-nears-completion-of-nuclear-triad-with-armed-submarine-1281635|title=India Nears Completion Of Nuclear Triad With Armed Submarine|work=ndtv.com|access-date=24 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213235720/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/india-nears-completion-of-nuclear-triad-with-armed-submarine-1281635|archive-date=13 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
* No-first-use policy: India's policy is to not use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon states and to only use them in self-defense against nuclear weapon states.<ref name="NFU" /> 

====Air-launched nuclear weapons====
[[File:Dassault Mirage 2000.jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Mirage 2000]] of the Indian Air Force is believed to be assigned the nuclear strike role, operating from Maharajpur Air Force Station.]]
Nuclear-armed [[fighter-bomber]]s were India's first and only nuclear-capable strike force until 2003 when the country's first land-based nuclear ballistic missiles were fielded.<ref name="auto"/>

In addition to their [[Attack aircraft|ground-attack]] role, it is believed that the [[Dassault Mirage 2000]]s and [[SEPECAT Jaguar]]s of the [[Indian Air Force]] are able to provide a secondary nuclear-strike role.<ref>Hans M. Kristensen, Robert S. Norris (14 July 2012). [http://www.openbriefing.org/issuedesks/nuclearissues/indian-nuclear-forces-2012/ Indian nuclear forces, 2012]. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820113841/http://www.openbriefing.org/issuedesks/nuclearissues/indian-nuclear-forces-2012/|date=20 August 2014}}</ref> The SEPECAT Jaguar was designed to be able to carry and deploy nuclear weapons and the Indian Air Force has identified the jet as being capable of delivering Indian nuclear weapons.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130514044336/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-10-17/news/34525680_1_jaguar-strike-fighters-stealth-fifth-generation-fighter-aircraft-rafale-fighters India plans to impart power punch to Jaguar fighters], October 2012.</ref> The most likely delivery method would be the use of bombs that are [[Unguided bomb|free-falling and unguided]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdi.org/issues/nukef&f/database/innukes.html |title=CDI Nuclear Issues Area – Nuclear Weapons Database: French Nuclear Delivery Systems |publisher=cdi.org |access-date=16 July 2010}}</ref>

Three airbases with four squadrons of Mirage 2000H (about 16 aircraft with 16 bombs from 1st and 7th squadrons of the 40th Wing at [[Maharajpur Air Force Station]]) and Jaguar IS/IB (about 32 aircraft with 32 bombs from one squadron each at [[Ambala Air Force Station]] and [[Air Force Area (Gorakhpur)|Gorakhpur Air Force Station]]) aircraft are believed to be assigned the nuclear strike role.<ref name="auto"/>

====Land-based ballistic missiles====
[[File:Agni-V during its first test flight.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Agni-V]] during its first test flight on 19 April 2012]]
The estimated 68 nuclear warheads<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |title=Indian nuclear forces, 2017 |first1=Hans M.|last1=Kristensen|first2=Robert S.|last2=Norris|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|volume=73|issue=4|pages=205–209|doi=10.1080/00963402.2017.1337998|year = 2017|bibcode=2017BuAtS..73d.205K|doi-access=free}}</ref> of land-based nuclear weapons of India are under the control of and deployed by the [[Strategic Forces Command]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=155897|title=Successful Test launch of AGNI V|website=Press Information Bureau, Government of India|access-date=18 August 2019}}</ref> using a variety of vehicles and launching silos. They currently consist of six different types of [[ballistic missile]]s, the [[Agni-I]], the [[Agni-II]], [[Agni-III]], [[Agni-IV]], [[Agni-V]], [[Agni-P]], and the Army's variant of the [[Prithvi (missile)|Prithvi missile]] family – the Prithvi-I. However, the Prithvi missiles are less useful for delivering nuclear weapons because they have a shorter range and must be deployed very close to the [[India–Pakistan border]].<ref name=":1"/> Additional variants of the Agni missile series have recently been inducted including the most recent, the [[Agni-IV]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Gupta |first=Shishir |date=14 August 2018 |title=Agni-V set to be inducted by December after one more test |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/agni-v-to-undergo-one-more-pre-induction-test/story-a9OcIgjWaRUyMbBoSOnM5M.html |access-date=18 February 2020 |website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> and the [[Agni-V]], which is currently being deployed.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Pubby|first=Manu|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/confident-of-doubling-range-of-the-astra-will-be-the-most-lethal-air-to-air-missile-drdo-chief/articleshow/72120351.cms|title=Confident of doubling range of the Astra, will be the most lethal air to air missile: DRDO Chief|date=19 November 2019|work=The Economic Times|access-date=18 February 2020}}</ref> [[Agni-VI]] is also under development, with an estimated range of 10,000–12,000&nbsp;km and features such as [[Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]]s (MIRVs) or [[Maneuverable reentry vehicle]]s (MARVs).<ref>{{cite news |title=Advanced Agni-6 missile with multiple warheads likely by 2017 |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/advanced-agni-6-missile-with-multiple-warheads-likely-by-2017-113050800034_1.html |access-date=1 October 2013|newspaper=Business Standard India |date=7 May 2013 |last1=Shukla |first1=Ajai }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Subramanian |first=T.S. |title=Agni-VI all set to take shape |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/agnivi-all-set-to-take-shape/article4379416.ece?homepage=true |access-date=1 October 2013|newspaper=The Hindu |date=4 February 2013 }}</ref>
[[File:Agni-V missile during rehearsal of Republic Day Parade 2013.jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Agni-V]] ballistic missile at the Republic Day parade.]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+ {{bigger|Land-based ballistic missiles}}
|-
! Name 
! Type
! Range (km)
! Status
|-
| '''[[Prithvi (missile)|Prithvi-I]]'''{{nbsp|2}} || [[Short-range ballistic missile]] || 150 || rowspan="10" | Deployed
|-
| '''[[Prithvi (missile)|Prithvi-II]]'''{{nbsp|2}} || Short-range ballistic missile || 250–350
|-
| '''[[Prithvi (missile)|Prithvi-III]]'''{{nbsp|2}} || Short-range ballistic missile || 350–600
|-
| '''[[Agni-I]]'''   ||  [[Medium-range ballistic missile]] || 700
|-
| '''[[Shaurya missile|Shaurya]]'''   ||  [[Medium-range ballistic missile]] || 700–1900
|-
| '''[[Agni-P]]'''|| Medium-range ballistic missile || 1,000–2,000
|- 
|'''[[Agni-II]]'''  || Medium-range ballistic missile || 2,000–3,000
|- 
| '''[[Agni-III]]''' || Intermediate-range ballistic missile || 3,500–5,000
|-
| '''[[Agni-IV]]'''  || Intermediate-range ballistic missile || 4000 
|-
| '''[[Agni-V]]'''   || Intercontinental ballistic missile || 7,000–8,000
|-
| '''[[Agni-VI]]'''  || Intercontinental ballistic missile       || 10,000–12,000 || Under development
|-
|[[Surya missile|'''Surya''']]
|Intercontinental ballistic missile
|~16,000
|Unconfirmed
|}

====Sea-based ballistic missiles====
[[File:B05 SLBM (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Sagarika (missile)|K-15 Sagarika]] SLBM]]
The [[Indian Navy]] has developed two sea-based delivery systems for nuclear weapons, completing Indian ambitions for a [[nuclear triad]], which may have been deployed in 2015.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Peri|first1=Dinakar|title=India's Nuclear Triad Finally Coming of Age|url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/06/indias-nuclear-triad-finally-coming-of-age/|access-date=10 March 2015|agency=The Diplomat|date=12 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=7 July 2014 |agency=PTI |title=Nuclear triad weapons ready for deployment: DRDO |url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/lvVxsu1L5GPLvD7Z5j3baJ/Nuclear-triad-weapons-ready-for-deployment-DRDO.html |publisher=Livemint}}</ref>
[[File:Arihant_1.jpg|thumb|A conceptual drawing of [[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']]]]
The first is a submarine-launched system consisting of at least four 6,000-tonne ([[Nuclear submarine|nuclear-powered]]) [[ballistic missile submarine]]s of the [[Arihant class submarine|''Arihant'' class]]. The first vessel, [[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], was commissioned in August 2016. She is the first nuclear-powered submarine to be built by India.<ref>{{cite news|last=Unnithan|first=Sandeep|title=The secret undersea weapon|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/The+secret+undersea+weapon/1/3659.html|access-date = 11 November 2012|newspaper=India Today|date=28 January 2008}}</ref><ref name="IT">"Indian nuclear submarine", ''India Today'', August 2007 edition</ref> A [[CIA]] report claimed that Russia provided technological aid to the naval nuclear propulsion program.<ref name=eipyi>{{cite news|title=Russia helped India's nuke programme: CIA|url=http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=18265|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130122191933/http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=18265|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 January 2013|access-date=2 January 2013|agency=Press Trust of India|date=9 January 2003}}</ref><ref name="tda">{{cite news |last=Naqvi |first=Jawed |date=9 January 2009 |title=Russia helped Indian nuclear programme, says CIA |newspaper=The Dawn |url=http://archives.dawn.com/2003/01/10/top5.htm |access-date=2 January 2013}}</ref> The submarines will be armed with up to 12 [[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika]] (K-15) missiles armed with nuclear warheads. Sagarika is a [[submarine-launched ballistic missile]] with a range of 700&nbsp;km. This missile has a length of 8.5 meters, weighs seven tonnes and can carry a pay load of up to 50&nbsp;kg.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/02/27/stories/2008022757940100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080229234524/http://www.hindu.com/2008/02/27/stories/2008022757940100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 February 2008 |title=Sagarika missile test-fired successfully |date=27 February 2008 |access-date = 31 August 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Sagarika has already been test-fired from an underwater pontoon, but now [[DRDO]] is planning a full-fledged test of the missile from a submarine and for this purpose may use the services of the [[Russian Navy]].<ref name=autogenerated5>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/06astra.htm |title=Coming from India's defense unit: ASTRA missile |work=Rediff.com |date=31 December 2004 |access-date = 31 August 2010}}</ref> India's [[DRDO]] is also working on a submarine-launched ballistic missile version of the Agni-III missile, known as the Agni-III SL. According to Indian defence sources, the Agni-III SL will have a range of {{convert|3500|km}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/holnus/000200805071441.htm |title=Agni-III test-fired successfully |publisher=Hinduonnet.com |date=7 May 2008 |access-date=31 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606185112/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/holnus/000200805071441.htm |archive-date=6 June 2011 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> The new missile will complement the older and less capable Sagarika submarine-launched ballistic missiles. However, the ''Arihant'' class ballistic missile submarines will be only capable of carrying a maximum of four Agni-III SL.

The second is a ship-launched system based around the short-range ship-launched Dhanush ballistic missile (a variant of the [[Prithvi (missile)|Prithvi missile]]). It has a range of around 300&nbsp;km. In the year 2000, the short-range missile was test-fired from [[INS Subhadra (P51)|INS ''Subhadra'']] (a [[Sukanya class patrol craft|''Sukanya'' class patrol craft]]). INS ''Subhadra'' was modified for the test and the missile was launched from the reinforced helicopter deck. The results were considered partially successful.<ref name="nrdc.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nudb/datab20.asp |title=Nuclear Data – Table of Indian Nuclear Forces, 2002 |publisher=NRDC |access-date = 16 July 2010}}</ref> In 2004, the missile was again tested from INS ''Subhadra'' and this time the results were reported successful.<ref name="bharat-rakshak.com">Arun Vishwakarma (2005). [http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MISSILES/Prithvi.html Prithvi SRBM]. Bharat Rakshak. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918064715/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MISSILES/Prithvi.html|date=18 September 2009}}</ref> In December 2005 the missile was tested again, but this time from the [[destroyer]] [[INS Rajput (D51)|INS ''Rajput'']]. The test was a success with the missile hitting the land based target.<ref name="domain-b.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.domain-b.com/aero/20070331_fired.htm |title=Dhanush, naval surface-to-surface missile, test fired successfully |publisher=domain-b.com |date=31 March 2007 |access-date=31 August 2010}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ {{bigger|Sea-based ballistic missiles}}
|-
! Name 
! Type
! Range (km)
! Status
|-
| '''[[Prithvi missile|Dhanush]]''' ||[[Short-range ballistic missile]]|| 350 || rowspan="3" | Operational<ref>{{cite web |date=2 February 2015 |title=India s Dhanush Undergoes 1st Night Test – SP's Naval Forces |url=http://www.spsnavalforces.com/exclusive/?id=174&h=India-s-Dhanush-Undergoes-1st-Night-Test |access-date=27 July 2015 |website=SP's Naval Forces}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]'''{{nbsp|2}} ||[[Submarine-launched ballistic missile]]|| 700 
|-
| '''[[K-4 (SLBM)|K-4]]''' ||[[Submarine-launched ballistic missile]]|| 3,500 
|- 
| '''[[K-5 (ballistic missile)|K-5]]''' ||[[Submarine-launched ballistic missile]]|| 5,000 || rowspan="2" | Under Development<ref>{{cite web |last1=Keck |first1=Zachary |title=India's First Ballistic Missile Sub to Begin Sea Trials |url=https://thediplomat.com/2013/07/indias-first-ballistic-missile-sub-to-begin-sea-trials/ |website=The Diplomat |date=30 July 2013}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[K-6 (missile)|K-6]]''' || [[Submarine-launched ballistic missile]]|| 6,000 
|}

== Thermonuclear weapons ==
[[File:ShaktiBomb.jpg|right|thumb|Shakti-1 thermonuclear device]]
On 11 May 1998, India announced that it had detonated a thermonuclear bomb in its [[Pokhran-II|Operation Shakti]] tests ("Shakti-I", specifically, in Hindi the word 'Shakti' means power).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Burns |first=John F. |date=1998-05-12 |title=India Sets 3 Nuclear Blasts, Defying a Worldwide Ban; Tests Bring a Sharp Outcry |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/12/world/india-sets-3-nuclear-blasts-defying-a-worldwide-ban-tests-bring-a-sharp-outcry.html |access-date=2019-12-24 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Pokhran – II tests were fully successful; given India capability to build nuclear deterrence: Dr. Kakodkar and Dr. Chidambaram |url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=52813 |access-date=2019-07-26 |website=pib.nic.in}}</ref> [[Samar Mubarakmand]], a Pakistani nuclear physicist, asserted that if Shakti-I had been a thermonuclear test, the device had failed to fire.<ref name="The News International">{{cite news |last=Khan |first=Kamran |date=30 May 1998 |title=Tit-for-Tat: Pakistan tested 6 nuclear devices in response to Indian's tests. |newspaper=The News International |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakTests.html |access-date=10 August 2011 |quote=One of these explosions were thermonuclear, we are doing research and can do a fusion test if asked, said by [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]]. 'These boosted devices are like a half way stage towards a thermonuclear bomb. They use elements of the thermonuclear process, and are effectively stronger Atom bombs', quoted by [[Munir Ahmad Khan]].}}</ref> However, [[Harold M. Agnew]], former director of the [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]], said that India's assertion of having detonated a staged thermonuclear bomb was very much believable.<ref name=":8">{{Cite news |last=Burns |first=John F. |date=1998-05-18 |title=Nuclear Anxiety: The Overview; India Detonated a Hydrogen Bomb, Experts Confirm |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/18/world/nuclear-anxiety-the-overview-india-detonated-a-hydrogen-bomb-experts-confirm.html |access-date=2019-07-26 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> India says that their thermonuclear device was tested at a controlled yield of {{convert|45|ktonTNT|abbr=on}} because of the proximity of the Khetolai village at about {{convert|5|km}}, to ensure that the houses in that village do not suffer significant damage.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=24 September 2009 |title=Press Statement by Dr. Anil Kakodkar and Dr. R. Chidambaram on Pokhran-II tests |url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=52814 |publisher=Press Information Bureau}}</ref> Another cited reason was that radioactivity released from yields significantly more than 45 [[Kilotons]] might not have been contained fully.<ref name=":6" /> After the [[Pokhran-II]] tests, [[Rajagopala Chidambaram]], former chairman of the [[Atomic Energy Commission of India]] said that India has the capability to build thermonuclear bombs of any yield at will.<ref name=":8" />

The yield of India's hydrogen bomb test remains highly debatable among the Indian science community and international scholars.<ref name="The Hindu, 2009">{{cite news |last=PTI |first=Press Trust of India |date=25 September 2009 |title=AEC ex-chief backs Santhanam on Pokhran-II |newspaper=The Hindu, 2009 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/aec-exchief-backs-santhanam-on-pokhranii/article24861.ece |access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref> The question of politicisation and disputes between Indian scientists further complicated the matter.<ref name="What Are the Real Yields of India's Test?">{{cite web |last=Sublette |first=Carey |display-authors=etal |title=What are the real yield of India's Test? |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaRealYields.html |access-date=18 January 2013 |publisher=What Are the Real Yields of India's Test?}}</ref>

In an interview in August 2009, the director for the 1998 test site preparations, K. Santhanam claimed that the yield of the thermonuclear explosion was lower than expected and that India should therefore not rush into signing the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty|CTBT]]. Other Indian scientists involved in the test have disputed K. Santhanam's claim,<ref>{{cite news |date=27 August 2009 |title=Former NSA disagrees with scientist, says Pokhran II successful |work=The Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/news/india/New-Article/articleshow/4941081.cms |access-date=20 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090830173039/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/news/india/New-Article/articleshow/4941081.cms |archive-date=30 August 2009}}</ref> arguing that Santhanam's claims are unscientific.<ref name=":7" /> British seismologist Roger Clarke argued that the magnitudes suggested a combined yield of up to {{convert|60|ktTNT|abbr=on}}, consistent with the Indian announced total yield of {{convert|56|ktTNT|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2 January 1999 |title=We have an adequate scientific database for designing ... a credible nuclear deterrent |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/static/html/fl1601/16010840.htm |journal=Frontline |access-date=21 July 2023 |archive-date=28 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028030113/https://frontline.thehindu.com/static/html/fl1601/16010840.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> U.S. seismologist Jack Evernden has argued that for correct estimation of yields, one should 'account properly for geological and seismological differences between test sites.<ref name=":6" />

However, India officially maintains that it can build thermonuclear weapons of various yields up to around {{convert|200|ktonTNT|abbr=on}} based on the [[Pokhran-II|Shakti-1]] thermonuclear test.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite journal |date=25 September 2009 |title=Nukes of 200kt yield possible: Architect of Pokhran-II |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Nukes-of-200kt-yield-possible-Architect-of-Pokhran-II/articleshow/5053406.cms |journal=The Times of India}}</ref>

== International response ==

India is not a signatory to either the NPT or the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]] (CTBT) but did accede to the [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]] in October 1963. Journalist, conspiracy theorist,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Douglas |first1=Gregory |title=Regicide: The Official Assassination of John F. Kennedy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GgMAAAACAAJ |publisher=Castle Hill Pub |language=en |date=2002|isbn=9781591482970 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Weber |first1=Mark |title=Not Quite the Hitler Diaries - Gestapo Chief (Review) |url=http://www.ihr.org/jhr/v20/v20n2p40_Douglas.html |website=www.ihr.org |access-date=28 January 2023}}</ref> and holocaust denier<ref>{{cite web |last1=Douglas |first1=Gregory |title=Conversations With The Crow |url=https://archive.org/details/conversations-with-the-crow-pdf/page/n55/mode/2up?q=gas+chambers |access-date=28 January 2023 |page=56}}</ref> Gregory Douglas claims CIA officer [[Robert Crowley (CIA)|Robert Crowley]] told him in an interview in 1993 that India's pursuit of the programme disturbed the United States and that the CIA assassinated Prime Minister [[Lal Bahadur Shastri|Shastri]] and [[Homi J. Bhabha|Homi Bhabha]] in 1966.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Douglas |first=Gregory |title=Conversations with the Crow |publisher=Basilisk Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780991175208 |pages=66–67 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Unrevealed |first=Files |date=2021-09-23 |title=Homi Bhabha's Death: An Unfortunate Accident or the Hands of the Crow |url=https://www.unrevealedfiles.com/homi-bhabhas-death-an-unfortunate-accident-or-the-hands-of-the-crow/ |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=Unrevealed Files |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/operative-spoke-of-cia-hand-in-1966-crash-report/articleshow/59826686.cms|title=Operative spoke of CIA hand in 1966 crash: Report|access-date=14 June 2024}}</ref> India is a member of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA), and four of its 17 nuclear reactors are subject to IAEA safeguards. India announced its lack of intention to accede to the NPT as late as 1997 by voting against the paragraph of a [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] Resolution<ref>{{UN document|docid=A-52-PV.67|body=General Assembly|type=Verbatim|session=52|meeting=67|anchor=pg015-bk01|date=9 December 1997|accessdate=22 August 2007 }}</ref> which urged all non-signatories of the treaty to accede to it at the earliest possible date.<ref name="UN_ARES5238">{{UN document|docid=A-RES-52-38|type=Resolution|body=General Assembly|session=52|highlight=rect_85,384_928,444|page=16|accessdate=22 August 2007}}</ref> India voted against the UN General Assembly resolution endorsing the [[CTBT]], which was adopted on 10 September 1996. India objected to the lack of provision for universal [[nuclear disarmament]] "within a time-bound framework." India also demanded that the treaty ban laboratory simulations. In addition, India opposed the provision in Article XIV of the CTBT that requires India's ratification for the treaty to enter into force, which India argued was a violation of its sovereign right to choose whether it would sign the treaty. In early February 1997, Foreign Minister I. K. Gujral reiterated India's opposition to the treaty, saying that "India favors any step aimed at destroying nuclear weapons, but considers that the treaty in its current form is not comprehensive and bans only certain types of tests."

In August 2008, the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) approved a safeguards agreement with India under which the former will gradually gain access to India's civilian [[nuclear reactor]]s.<ref>{{cite web |date=31 July 2008 |title=IAEA approves India nuclear inspection deal |url=http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2008/board010808.html |access-date=2 October 2008 |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency}}</ref> In September 2008, the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] granted India a waiver to access civilian nuclear technology and fuel from other countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/nuclear-suppliers-group-grants-india/story.aspx?guid={BA6E4022-DBC8-4B43-B9DE-62608913CB8A}&dist=hppr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920132538/http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/nuclear-suppliers-group-grants-india/story.aspx?guid=%7BBA6E4022-DBC8-4B43-B9DE-62608913CB8A%7D&dist=hppr |title=Nuclear Suppliers Group Grants India Historic Waiver&nbsp;— MarketWatch |publisher=Marketwatch.com |date=6 October 2008 |archive-date=20 September 2008 |access-date=2 October 2008 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> The implementation of this waiver makes India the only known country with [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear weapons]] which is not a party to the NPT but is still allowed to carry out nuclear commerce with the rest of the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5geN2RWjoN4oJhPibc7rhkyxMXfzg |title=AFP: India energised by nuclear pacts |agency=Agence France-Presse |access-date=2 October 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520182512/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5geN2RWjoN4oJhPibc7rhkyxMXfzg |archive-date=20 May 2011 }}</ref><ref name="auto1">R B Grover, "Opening up of international civil nuclear cooperation with India and related development", Progress in Nuclear Energy 101(2017) 161–167.</ref>

Since the implementation of the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]] waiver, India has signed nuclear deals with several countries including [[France]],<ref>{{cite web |date=25 January 2008 |agency=PTI |title=India, France agree on civil nuclear cooperation |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jan/25france.htm |access-date=16 July 2010 |work=Rediff.com}}</ref> [[United States]],<ref>{{cite web |date=9 October 2008 |agency=Reuters |title=Bush signs India-US nuclear deal into law |url=https://www.livemint.com/Home-Page/Rj2kxs3VrewKLs201H9ZOI/Bush-signs-IndiaUS-nuclear-deal-into-law.html |access-date=16 July 2010 |publisher=Livemint}}</ref> [[Mongolia]], [[Namibia]],<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=15 September 2009 |title=India, Mongolia sign civil, nuclear cooperation pact – India |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-Mongolia-sign-civilnuclear-cooperation-pact/articleshow/5011170.cms |url-status=live |access-date=16 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025093400/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-09-15/india/28093243_1_mongolia-sign-cooperation-pact-civil-nuclear |archive-date=25 October 2012}}</ref>  [[Kazakhstan]]<ref>{{cite news |author=Dutta |first=Sanjay |date=23 January 2009 |title=Kazakh nuclear, oil deals hang in balance |work=The Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Business/Kazakh_oil_deals_hang_in_balance/articleshow/4019306.cms |access-date=16 July 2010}}</ref> and [[Australia]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Haidar |first=Suhasini |date=2014-09-05 |title=India, Australia seal civil nuclear deal |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Nuclear-deal-will-finally-allow-Australian-uranium-to-India-Tony-Abbott/article60492831.ece |access-date=2022-04-07 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> while the framework for similar deals with [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]] are also being prepared.<ref>{{cite web |author= |date=18 January 2009 |title=UK, Canada eye India's nuclear business |url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20090080481&ch=1%2F18%2F2009%203%3A57%3A00%20PM |access-date=16 July 2010 |publisher=NDTV.com |archive-date=21 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221101724/http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20090080481&ch=1%2F18%2F2009%203%3A57%3A00%20PM |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Sitakanta Mishra, THE PAPER|title=India – From 'Nuclear Apartheid' to Nuclear Multi-Alignment|url=http://www.indrastra.com/2016/06/PAPERS-India-From-Nuclear-Apartheid-to-Nuclear-Multi-Alignment-002-06-2016-0017.html|publisher=IndraStra|date=12 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="auto1"/>

== Domestic legislation ==
India has several laws in whole or partial measure that deal with the regulation of weapons of mass destruction.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Rajagopalan |first1=Rajeswari Pillai |last2=Biswas |first2=Arka |date=2016 |title=Locating India within the Global Non-Proliferation Architecture: Prospects, Challenges and Opportunities |url=https://www.orfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/ORF_Monograph_NonProliferation.pdf |publisher=Observer Research Foundation |pages=13, 14, 44 |isbn=978-81-86818-18-3}}</ref> They include the Weapons of Mass Destruction and their Delivery Systems (Prohibition of Unlawful Activities) Act of 2005.<ref name=":2" /> In April 2022 a bill was tabled to amend the 2005 act to include the financing of proliferation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-06 |title=Explained: What are WMDs, the existing law on which India now wants to amend? |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/everyday-explainers/explained-weapons-of-mass-destruction-law-amendment-7856169/ |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|India}}

; Weapons of mass destruction
* [[India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement]]
* [[Weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[Nuclear Command Authority (India)]]

; Defense-related
* [[Integrated Space Cell#Military|Indian military satellites]]
* [[Guided missiles of India]]
* [[Indian Armed Forces]]
* [[Indian Human Spaceflight Programme]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{citation|last=Kumar|first=A. V.|date=1 May 2010|title=Reforming the NPT to Include India|work=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]|url=https://thebulletin.org/reforming-npt-include-india|access-date=1 November 2010|archive-date=7 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407061019/http://thebulletin.org/reforming-npt-include-india|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Nair|first=V. K.|year=2007|title=No More Ambiguity: India's Nuclear Policy|website=afsa.org|url=https://www.afsa.org/fsj/oct02/nair.pdf|access-date=7 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927041401/https://www.afsa.org/fsj/oct02/nair.pdf|archive-date=27 September 2007}}
* {{citation|last=Pandit|first=Rajat|date=27 July 2009|title=N-Submarine to Give India Crucial Third Leg of Nuke Triad|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/N-submarine-to-give-India-crucial-third-leg-of-nuke-triad/articleshow/4823578.cms|access-date=10 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811144548/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-07-27/india/28212143_1_nuclear-powered-submarine-ins-arihant-nuclear-submarine|url-status=live|archive-date=11 August 2011}}

== Further reading ==
* Abraham, Itty (1998). ''The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb. Science, Secrecy, and the Postcolonial State''. London and New York: [[Zed Books]]. {{ISBN|9788125016151}}.
* Perkovich, George (1999). ''India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation''. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-23210-5}}.
* Pahuja, Om Parkash (2001). ''India: A Nuclear Weapon State''. New Delhi: Ocean Books. {{ISBN|978-81-87100-69-0}}.
* Pant, Harsh V., Yogesh Joshi (2018). ''Indian Nuclear Policy.'' Oxford University Press. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=54468 online review]
* Szalontai, Balázs (2011). [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/npihp-working-paper-1-the-elephant-the-room ''The Elephant in the Room: The Soviet Union and India’s Nuclear Program, 1967–1989'']. Nuclear Proliferation International History Project Working Paper #1. Washington, D.C.: [[Woodrow Wilson Center Press]].
* Gurmeet Kanwal (2016). [https://carnegieendowment.org/2016/06/30/india-s-nuclear-force-structure-2025-pub-63988 ''India’s Nuclear Force Structure 2025'']. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
* Sarkar, Jayita (2022). ''[https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9781501764424/ploughshares-and-swords/#bookTabs=1 Ploughshares and Swords: India's Nuclear Program in the Global Cold War]''. Cornell University Press. [Free Download]

== External links ==
*[http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaOrigin.html Indian nuclear weapons program] at The Nuclear Weapon Archive
*At [[Nuclear Files]]:
*:[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/post-cold-war/india-pakistan/india-pakistan-conflict.htm Nuclear India's nuclear confrontation with Pakistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323104733/http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/post-cold-war/india-pakistan/india-pakistan-conflict.htm |date=23 March 2020 }}
*:[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/nuclear-stockpiles.htm Nuclear weapon stockpiles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418013952/http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/nuclear-stockpiles.htm |date=18 April 2009 }}
*[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/india/doctrine/ocp31.htm CIA on India's nuclear program]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926234034/http://frontierindia.net/missile-testing-ranges-of-india/ India's missile testing ranges]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080511001216/http://www.npt-webcast.info/index.php?p=stichworte Video interviews taken at the 2008 NPT PrepCom on the United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130423113515/http://alsos.wlu.edu/adv_rst.aspx?keyword=indian*nuclear*weapons*program&creator=&title=&media=all&genre=all&disc=all&level=all&sortby=relevance&results=10&period=15 Annotated bibliography for India's nuclear weapons program] at the [[Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues]].
*[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/nuclear-history-documents/ Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project], including a collection of primary-source documents on Indian nuclear development.
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/index.htm The National Security Archive's "Nuclear Vault"] features a number of compilations of declassified US government documents related to India's nuclear program.

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{{DEFAULTSORT:India And Weapons Of Mass Destruction}}
[[Category:Nuclear weapons programme of India]]
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[[Category:History of the Republic of India]]
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