View source for Indo-Mediterranean

{{Short description|Indian Ocean-Mediterranean region}}
[[File:Canal de Suez.jpg|thumb|159x159px|From 1869 onwards, the [[Suez Canal]] (depicted above) has offered a direct Indo-Mediterranean maritime route, and has become the main intermediate trade corridor in the region.<ref>{{Citation |last=Aubert |first=Jean-Jacques |title=2 Trajan's Canal: River Navigation from the Nile to the Red Sea? |date=2015-01-01 |work=Across the Ocean: Nine Essays on Indo-Mediterranean Trade |pages=33–42 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004289536/B9789004289536_004.xml |access-date=2024-05-30 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-28953-6}}</ref>]]
The '''Indo-Mediterranean''' is the region comprising the [[Mediterranean world]], the [[Indian Ocean world]], and their connecting regions in the vicinity of the [[Suez Canal]].

== History ==

=== Ancient era ===
{{See also|Spice trade|Ancient Suez Canal|Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations}}
From around 3000 BCE to 1000 CE, connectivity within [[Afro-Eurasia]] was centered upon the Indo-Mediterranean region;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burke |first=Edmund |date=2009 |title=Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40542756 |journal=Journal of World History |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=186 |issn=1045-6007 |jstor=40542756}}</ref> [[William Dalrymple]] has argued that connectivity in Eurasia centered on this region, which he refers to as part of a "[[The Golden Road: How Ancient India Transformed the World|Golden Road]]", until 1200 CE and the rise of the [[Silk Road]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ghosh |first=Paramita |date=2024-03-12 |title=Building a new road |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2024/Mar/12/building-a-new-road-3 |access-date=2024-08-29 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> However, Southeast Asia was only loosely connected to the Indo-Mediterranean trade, primarily receiving a few Mediterranean objects through the filter of South Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoppál |first1=Krisztina |last2=Bellina |first2=Bérénice |last3=Dussubieux |first3=Laure |date=May 2024 |title=Southeast Asia and the Mediterranean World at the Turn of the First Millennium ce: Networks, Commodities and Cultural Reception |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-archaeological-journal/article/southeast-asia-and-the-mediterranean-world-at-the-turn-of-the-first-millennium-ce-networks-commodities-and-cultural-reception/1F34EB90DD00A9F1045137BA977D2531 |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=291–314 |doi=10.1017/S0959774323000264 |issn=0959-7743|hdl=10831/107793 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Indo-Roman_trade.jpg|thumb|Roman trade in the Indian subcontinent according to the ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' 1st century CE|left]]
In the second half of the first century BCE, the [[Roman Empire]] emerged with a unified realm and control over the Mediterranean, allowing for more investment and wealth generation; this [[Pax Romana]] allowed Rome to become involved in the [[Indian Ocean trade]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Schörle |first=Katia |title=3 Pearls, Power, and Profit: Mercantile Networks and Economic Considerations of the Pearl Trade in the Roman Empire |date=2015-01-01 |work=Across the Ocean: Nine Essays on Indo-Mediterranean Trade |pages=43–54 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004289536/B9789004289536_005.xml |access-date=2024-05-30 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-28953-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pollard |first=Elizabeth Ann |date=2009 |title=Pliny's Natural History and the Flavian Templum Pacis: Botanical Imperialism in First-Century C. E. Rome |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40542802 |journal=Journal of World History |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=309–338 |jstor=40542802 |issn=1045-6007}}</ref> Their 32 CE [[Roman conquest of Egypt|conquest of Egypt]] better positioned them to be involved in the region, with Indian ambassadors coming to Rome in increasing numbers as the [[Indo-Roman trade relations|Indo-Roman trade]] began to greatly expand in volume;<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/37958 |title=Rome and the Worlds beyond its Frontiers |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |editor-last=Slootjes |editor-first=Daniëlle |pages=167 |hdl=20.500.12657/37958 |language=English |editor-last2=Peachin |editor-first2=Michael}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sidebotham |first=Steven E. |date=January 2016 |title=A conference on Indo-Mediterranean commerce - Federico de Romanis and Marco Maiuro (eds.), Across the Ocean: Nine Essays on Indo-Mediterranean Trade (Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition vol. 41; Brill, Leiden 2015). Pp. ix + 204, figs. 6, maps 7 including colour. ISBN 978-90-04-28919-2. EUR 99/$128. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-archaeology/article/abs/conference-on-indomediterranean-commerce-de-romanis-federico-and-maiuro-marco-edd-across-the-ocean-nine-essays-on-indomediterranean-trade-columbia-studies-in-the-classical-tradition-vol-41-brill-leiden-2015-pp-ix-204-figs-6-maps-7-including-colour-isbn-9789004289192-eur-99128/50EFC31EA1EAF945AC3B2040F1AD6FEF |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=29 |pages=915–919 |doi=10.1017/S1047759400073001 |issn=1047-7594}}</ref> Greek merchants settled on the west coast of India to facilitate the trade,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malekandathil |first=Pius |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rN69iFj1PJoC&pg=PR7 |title=Maritime India: Trade, Religion and Polity in the Indian Ocean |date=2010 |publisher=Primus Books |isbn=978-93-80607-01-6 |language=en}}</ref> with Romans celebrating the luxury products and wealth thusly acquired.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Zarmakoupi |first=Mantha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc-OAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 |title=Designing for Luxury on the Bay of Naples: Villas and Landscapes (c. 100 BCE - 79 CE) |date=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-967838-9 |language=en}}</ref> The Indo-Mediterranean also facilitated interactions between India and the Mesopotamians, Anatolians and Greeks in different time periods;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dandekar |first=R.N. |date=1970 |title=Some Aspects of the Indo-Mediterranean Contacts |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/039219217001807102 |journal=Diogenes |language=en |volume=18 |issue=71 |pages=18–38 |doi=10.1177/039219217001807102 |issn=0392-1921}}</ref> many actors were involved in facilitating trade throughout this region, including Egyptians, [[Nabataeans|Nabateans]] and Palmyrenes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simmons |first=Jeremy A. |date=November 2023 |title=Behind gold for pepper: The players and the game of Indo-Mediterranean trade |journal=Journal of Global History |language=en |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=343–364 |doi=10.1017/S1740022823000165 |issn=1740-0228|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Some evidence is present to suggest that Indo-Mediterranean trade may have also involved a "northern route" through the [[Caspian Sea]] and [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schneider |first=Pierre |url=https://hal.science/hal-01376630 |title=From India to the Black Sea : an overlooked trade route? |date=2017}}</ref>

=== Medieval era ===
{{See also|Greater Middle East}}[[File:Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg|thumb|250x250px|The expansion of the [[Caliphate]] in the Mediterranean region from 622 to 750 AD. {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under [[Muhammad]], 622–632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], 632–661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the [[Umayyad]] Caliphate, 661–750}}]]
The expansion of the first [[Early Muslim conquests|Arab Muslim empires]] from the 7th century onward, which conquered much of the Mediterranean, played a role in bridging the Indo-Mediterranean together.<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79–96 [80].</ref> 

By the 14th century, buoyed by the emergence of overlapping trading networks from the western regions of Africa to the east coast, central [[sub-Saharan Africa]] became more involved in Indo-Mediterranean trade, with the Indo-Mediterranean generally going on to become more economically unified by the [[spread of Islam]].<ref>[https://www8.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/journals/MqJlBLaw/2006/9.html# ''The Black Road – Trade and State-Building in Medieval Sub-Saharan Africa''] S R Luttrell</ref>

=== Modern era ===
{{See also|Portuguese maritime exploration}}
[[File:British empire.png|left|thumb|[[British Empire|British imperial dominance]] was achieved by the 20th century in much of the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] and the Indian Ocean.]]
Rising Western dominance and changes in communication technologies in the Indo-Mediterranean began to reshape dynamics in the region by the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ilbert |first=Robert |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/fawa11426 |title=Modernity and Culture from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean, 1890--1920 |date=2002 |publisher=Columbia University Press |doi=10.7312/fawa11426}}</ref>

The 1869 completion of the Suez Canal furthered [[European colonialism]] in Asia and Africa, as it enabled direct passage through the Indo-Mediterranean rather than by travelling [[Cape Route|around Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Behind the Enduring Relevance of the Suez Canal Is the Long Shadow of European Colonialism |url=https://thewire.in/history/suez-canal-relevance-europe-colonialism |access-date=2024-10-04 |website=The Wire |language=en}}</ref> Around that time, British planners contemplated building an Indo-Mediterranean railway to shore up lines of communication with [[British India]] in case the Suez Canal was blocked.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stratton |first=Morton B. |date=1944 |title=British Railways and Motor Roads in the Middle East--1918-1930 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/141053 |journal=Economic Geography |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=116–129 |doi=10.2307/141053 |jstor=141053}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cameron |first=Verney Lovett |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iG06AQAAMAAJ |title=Our Future Highway to India |date=1880 |publisher=Macmillan and Company |language=en}}</ref>

=== Contemporary era ===
[[File:IMEC and its connections.png|thumb|The proposed [[India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor]].]]The United States became the dominant power in the Indo-Mediterranean, taking over from the British, starting with the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-30 |title=The 1956 Suez Crisis: Israel's geopolitical turning point |url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-826811 |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en}}</ref> In recent years, the U.S. has had to compete with China in the region, and so it has furthered its ties with India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amin |first=Huma |date=2020-01-14 |title=United States Presence in Indian Ocean: Counter Strategy For China |url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2020/01/14/united-states-presence-in-indian-ocean-counter-strategy-for-china/ |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=Modern Diplomacy |language=en-US}}</ref>

Italian foreign policy planners have recently been examining Italy's modern role in the "Enlarged Mediterranean", including its ties to the Indo-Mediterranean and the [[Indo-Pacific]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Coticchia |first1=Fabrizio |last2=Mazziotti di Celso |first2=Matteo |date=2024-01-10 |title=Still on the same path? Italian foreign and defence policy in the Enlarged Mediterranean |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13629395.2023.2294252 |journal=Mediterranean Politics |language=en |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1080/13629395.2023.2294252 |issn=1362-9395}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shenoy |first=Vas |date=2021-12-30 |title=Exploring Draghi's Italy and its relation with India |url=https://decode39.com/2580/draghi-italy-india-vas-shenoy/ |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=Decode39 |language=en-US}}</ref> They see the Red Sea as particularly important due its bridging role in the Indo-Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite web |last=gateway |date=2023-08-17 |title=Connecting Italy’s Mediterranean and India’s Ocean |url=https://www.gatewayhouse.in/italys-mediterranean-indias-ocean/ |access-date=2024-11-16 |website=Gateway House |language=en}}</ref>

A currently proposed initiative to handle trade in the Indo-Mediterranean is the [[India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor]] (IMEC). Indian External Affairs Minister [[S. Jaishankar]] affirmed the initiative in 2024, citing the historical importance and rising trade taking place in the region.<ref>{{Cite news |title=At CII Conclave, Jaishankar lays out vision for stronger India-Mediterranean ties |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/at-cii-conclave-jaishankar-lays-out-vision-for-stronger-india-mediterranean-ties-101725633246222.html |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

The [https://cnky.in/the-indo-mediterranean-initiative-imi/ Indo-Mediterranean Initiative (IMI)]<ref>{{Cite web |title=How the Indo-Mediterranean Initiative will strengthen India-Italy ties |url=https://www.firstpost.com/world/how-the-indo-mediterranean-initiative-will-strengthen-india-italy-ties-13784459.html}}</ref> was launched on the 16th of June 2024 at [[Ara Pacis]] under the leadership of Senator [[Giulio Terzi di Sant'Agata]], former foreign Minister of [[Italy]] hosted<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-17 |title=India and Italy strengthen ties with Indo-Mediterranean initiative |url=https://www.wionews.com/world/india-and-italy-strengthen-ties-with-indo-mediterranean-initiative-732626 |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=WION |language=en-us}}</ref> by the [[Indian Chamber of Commerce]]'s Chief Representative for Italy, Vas Shenoy. The initiative aims to track IMEC, bring together decision makers, thinkers, policy experts in the IMEC countries to discuss the security, future and strategy of the Indo-Mediterranean. 

== See also ==

* [[Afro-Asia]]
** [[Northeast Africa]]
*** [[Berenice Troglodytica]], a historical Egyptian port serving Indo-Mediterranean trade<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kotarba-Morley |first=Anna M. |date=2015-07-03 |title=The Port of Berenike Troglodytica on the Red Sea: A Landscape-Based Approach to the Study of its Harbour and its Role in Indo-Mediterranean Trade |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0067270X.2015.1092208 |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |language=en |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=422–423 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2015.1092208 |issn=0067-270X}}</ref>
* [[Global Southeast]]
* [[Indo-Atlantic]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* [https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/28346 Entre mers—Outre-mer: Spaces, Modes and Agents of Indo-Mediterranean Connectivity]
* [https://www.persee.fr/doc/topoi_1764-0733_2017_act_15_1_3016 Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean: one world, two seas, multiple routes?]
* [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0725513601067000005 Porous Connections: The Mediterranean and the Red Sea]
{{Regions of the world}}
[[Category:Indo-Mediterranean|*]]