Indo-Pakistani war of 1965: Difference between revisions
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mohandas k ghandi is terrible he was trying to killl buddha but when buddha died there was noone left too help pakistan win the cold harsh wat it was so sadd |
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{{Warbox |
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|conflict=Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 |
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|partof=the [[Indo-Pakistani Wars]] |
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|campaign= |
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|colour_scheme=background:#91ACDB |
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|image=[[Image:Introduction Images from the 1965 War.JPG|300px]] |
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|caption='''Clockwise from top''': Indian troops march off captured Pakistani SSG Commandos who were parachuted into India; An Indian fighter jet attacking a Pakistani train station; A burning Pakistani [[M48 Patton]] Tank; Pakistani [[F-86 Sabre]]s on a bombing run over India; Pakistan Army attacking at the front-lines in India. |
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|casus=Pakistan backed guerillas' infiltration into [[Jammu & Kashmir]], India |
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|date=[[August]]<!--Specific date differs due to several reasons--> - [[September 21]], [[1965]] |
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|place=[[Indian subcontinent]] |
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|result=Strategic Stalemate. |
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|combatant1=<center>[[Image:Flag of India.svg|65px|border]]<br> [[India]] |
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|combatant2=<center>[[Image:Flag of Pakistan.svg|65px|border]]<br> [[Pakistan]] |
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|commander1=[[Joyanto Nath Chaudhuri]]<br>[[Harbakhsh Singh]] |
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|commander2=[[Ayub Khan]]<br>[[Musa Khan]] |
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|strength1= |
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|strength2= |
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|casualties1=3,264 killed<ref name=lsqh>[http://164.100.24.219/rsq/quest.asp?qref=60605 Official Government of India Statement giving numbers of KIA - Parliament of India Website]</ref> <br>8,623 wounded<ref name=lsqh /><br>(From July to ceasefire) |
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|casualties2=3,800 killed<ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0189) Library of Congress Country Studies]</ref><br>(September 6 - 22)<br>4,000 - 8,000 killed/ captured<ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050603/main2.htm Kashmiris didn’t back Pakistan in 1965: Gohar] [[The Tribune]] [[June 2]], [[2005]]</ref><ref name="Khan">[http://www.defencejournal.com/may98/thewayitwas4.htm Opinion: The Way it was 4: extracts from Brig (Retd) ZA Khan's book] May 1998, Defence Journal</ref><ref name ="Khaleej">[http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticle.asp?xfile=data/subcontinent/2005/September/subcontinent_September293.xml§ion=subcontinent&col= Ayub misled nation in ’65 war: Nur Khan] [[8 September]], [[2005]] [[Khaleej Times]]</ref> (July to [[September 6]]) |
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|notes= |
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}} |
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{{Campaignbox Indo-Pakistani Wars}} |
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The '''Indo-Pakistani War of 1965''' was a culmination of [[skirmish]]es that took place between April 1965 and September 1965 between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. It was known as the '''Second Kashmir War''' which was fought between India and Pakistan over the region of [[Kashmir]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|the first]] having been fought in [[1947]]. The war began following the failure of Pakistan's [[Operation Gibraltar]] which was designed to infiltrate and invade [[Jammu and Kashmir]]. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. It ended in a [[United Nations]] (UN) mandated [[ceasefire]]. |
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Much of the war was fought by the countries' land forces in the region of Kashmir and along the [[International Border]] (IB) between India and Pakistan. This war saw the largest amassing of troops in Kashmir, a number that was overshadowed only during the [[2001-2002 India-Pakistan standoff|2001-2002 military standoff]] between India and Pakistan. Most of the war was fought on land by each country's [[infantry]] and [[armored]] units, with substantial backing from their air forces. Many details of this war, like those of most [[Indo-Pakistani Wars]], remain unclear and riddled with [[media bias]]es. |
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== Pre-war escalation == |
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[[Image:TIME Sep 17, 1965.jpg|thumb|right|180px| A [[TIME]] magazine cover on the war. This was the first time that the international media covered a conflict between the two neighbours on a significant scale.]] |
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[[Image:1965 Infiltrators.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A declassified US State Department telegram that confirms the existence of hundreds of "infiltrators" in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. Dated during the events running up to the 1965 war.]] |
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Since Independence, both nations were in contention over several issues, primarily on border disputes. Kashmir was a major divisive issue between both the nations, but other border disputes existed, most notably over the [[Rann of Kutch]], a barren region in the Indian state of [[Gujarat]]. Though the erstwhile princely state of [[Junagadh]] was integrated into India, its borders, especially in the marshlands to the west were ambiguous. This gave rise to a dispute between Pakistan and India. On [[March 20]], [[1965]], and again in April 1965, fighting broke out between India and Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch. Initially involving the border police from both nations, the disputed area soon witnessed intermittent skirmishes between the countries' armed forces. In June the same year, [[British Prime Minister]] [[Harold Wilson]] successfully persuaded both countries to end hostilities and set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute. The verdict, which came later in 1968, saw Pakistan gaining 350 square miles (900 km²) of the Rann of Kutch, as against its original claim of 3500 sq miles.<ref name=Rann>Bhushan, Bharat. [http://www.southasianmedia.net/Magazine/Journal/7_competitive_methodologies.htm "Tulbul, Sir Creek and Siachen: Competitive Methodologies"]. <u>South Asian Journal</u>. March 2005, [[Encyclopedia Britannica]] and [http://www.unidir.ch/pdf/articles/pdf-art267.pdf Open Forum - UNIDIR] </ref> |
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After its successes in the Rann of Kutch, Pakistan, under the leadership of General [[Ayub Khan]], is said to have believed that the [[Indian Army]] was unable to defend itself against a quick military campaign in the disputed territory of [[Kashmir]], following a loss to [[China]] in 1962.<ref name=globalsecurity>http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-pak_1965.htm "Indo-Pakistan War of 1965"]. <u>Globalsecurity.com</u>.</ref> Pakistan believed that the population of [[Kashmir]] was generally discontented with Indian rule and that a resistance movement could be ignited by a few infiltrating [[saboteur]]s. This was codenamed '''[[Operation Gibraltar]]'''.<ref name=grandslam>Amin, Agha Humayun. Maj (Retd). [http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/sept/grand-slam.htm "Grand Slam — A Battle of Lost Opportunities"]. <u>Defence Journal</u>. September 2000</ref> However, the Pakistani infiltrators were soon discovered, aided primarily by the local Kashmiris themselves and the entire operation ended in a complete disaster. |
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For its part, Pakistan claimed to have been concerned by the attempts of India to absorb [[Kashmir]] - a state that is internationally recognised as "disputed", into the Indian union by way Articles 356 and 357 of the [[Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]] allowing the [[President|President of India]] to declare President's Rule in the disputed state. |
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== The war == |
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[[Image:Ichhogil Canal (1965 Indo-Pak War) .jpg|thumb|right|220px|Pakistan's Ichogil Canal was a vital barrier that needed to be crossed by Indian troops. This bridge across the canal was destroyed by the Pakistan Army before retreating.]] |
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On [[August 15]], [[1965]], Indian forces crossed the ceasefire line and launched an attack on Pakistan administered [[Kashmir]]. Pakistani reports cite this attack as unprovoked.<ref name=storyofpakistan>[http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A068&Pg=5 "The Lahore Offensive"]. <u>Storyofpakistan.com</u>. 1 June 2003</ref> Indian reports cite the attack as a response to the massive armed infiltrations by Pakistan.<ref name=official65>Chakravorty, BC. [http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/History/1965War/ "The Indo-Pak War, 1965"]. History Division, Ministry of Defence. <u>Government of India</u>. 1992</ref> Initially, the Indian Army met with considerable success in the northern sector (Kashmir). After launching a prolonged artillery barrage against Pakistan, India was able to capture three important mountain positions. However, by the end of the month both sides were on even footing as Pakistan had made progress in areas such as [[Tithwal]], [[Uri]] and [[Punch valley|Punch]] and India had gains in Pakistan Administered Kashmir (sometime referred as [[Pakistan Occupied Kashmir]]), having captured the [[Haji Pir Pass]] eight kilometers inside Pakistani territory.<ref name=loc>http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0189) "A Country Study: India"]. Library of Congress. <U>Government of the United States</u>. September 1995</ref> Following the failure of Operation Gibraltar, that resulted in territorial gains and rapid Indian advances in Kashmir, Pakistan launched a bold counter attack on [[September 1]], [[1965]] to reclaim vital posts in Kashmir lost to India. This attack, called '''"[[Operation Grand Slam]]"''' was intended to capture the vital town of [[Akhnoor]] in Jammu and thus sever communications and cut off supply routes to Indian troops. Attacking with an overwhelming ratio of troops and technically superior tanks, Pakistan was on the verge of springing a surprise against Indian forces, who were caught unprepared and suffered heavy losses.<ref name=loc /> India then called in its [[Indian Air Force|air force]] to target the Pakistani attack in the southern sector. The next day, Pakistan retaliated, and its [[Pakistan Air Force|air force]] attacked Indian forces and air bases in both [[Kashmir]] and [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. But Operation Grand Slam failed to achieve its aim as the Pakistan Army was unable to capture the town. This became one of the turning points in the war, as India decided to relieve pressure on its troops in Kashmir by attacking Pakistan further south. |
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[[Image:Brig.Hari Singh at Barkee Capture.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Lt. Col. [[Hari Singh (soldier)|Hari Singh]] of the Indian [[Indian 1st Armoured Division|18th Cavalry]] posing outside a captured Pakistani police station (Barkee) in Lahore District.]] |
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India crossed the [[International Border]] (IB) on the Western front on [[September 6]], marking an official beginning of the war.<ref name=storyofpakistan /> On September 6, the 15th Infantry Division of the Indian Army, under [[World War II]] veteran Major General Prasad battled a massive counterattack by Pakistan near the west bank of the [[Ichhogil Canal]] ([[BRB Canal]]), which was a ''de facto'' border of India and Pakistan. The General's entourage itself was ambushed and he was forced to flee his vehicle. A second, this time successful, attempt to cross over the Ichhogil Canal was made through the bridge in the village of [[Barki]], just east of [[Lahore]]. This brought the Indian Army within the range of [[Lahore International Airport]], and as result the [[United States]] requested a temporary ceasefire to allow it to evacuate its citizens in [[Lahore]]. One unit of the Jat regiment, 3 Jat had also crossed the Ichogil canal and captured<ref>Brigadier Desmond E Hayde, "The Battle of Dograi and Batapore", Natraj Publishers, New Delhi, 2006</ref> the town of Batapore (Jallo Mur to Pakistan) on the west side of the canal, threatening Lahore on the very start of the war. |
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The same day, a counter offensive consisting of an armored division and infantry division supported by [[Pakistan Air Force]] [[F-86 Sabre|Sabres]] forced the Indian 15th Division to withdraw to its starting point. Although 3 Jat suffered minimal casualties, the bulk of the damage being taken by Ammunition and stores vehicles, the higher commanders however, had no information of 3 Jat's capture of Batapore and misleading information led to the command to withdraw from Batapore and Dograi to Ghosal-Dial. This move brought extreme disappointment<ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050918/edit.htm#1 The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Opinions<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> to Lt-Col Desmond Hayde, CO of 3 Jat. Dograi was eventually recaptured by 3 Jat on [[21 September]], for the second time but after a much harder battle due to Pakistani reinforcements. |
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[[Image:1965pakantitankgun.jpg|thumb|220px|left|A Pakistan Army 106mm [[recoilless rifle]] position during the war.]] |
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On the days following [[September 9]], both nations' premiere formations were routed in unequal battles. [[Indian 1st Armoured Division|India's 1st Armored Division]], labelled the "pride of the Indian Army", launched an offensive towards [[Sialkot]]. The Division divided itself into two prongs and came under heavy Pakistani tank fire at [[Taroah]] and was forced to withdraw. Similarly, Pakistan's pride, the 1st Armored Division, pushed an offensive towards [[Khemkaran]] with the intent to capture [[Amritsar]] (a major city in [[Punjab, India]]) and the bridge on [[River Beas]] to [[Jalandhar]]. The Pakistani 1st Armored Division never made it past Khem Karan and by the end of [[September 10]] lay disintegrated under the defences of the Indian 4th Mountain Division at what is now known as the [[Battle of Asal Uttar|Battle of ''Asal Uttar'']] (Real Answer literally, or Fitting Response as the more appropriate English equivalent). The area became known as 'Patton Nagar' (Patton Town) as Pakistan lost or abandoned nearly 100 mostly [[USA|US]] made [[Patton tank]]s. |
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The war was heading for a stalemate, with both nations holding territory of the other. The Indian army suffered 3,000 battlefield deaths, while Pakistan suffered no less than 3,800. The Indian army was in possession of 710 mile² (1,840 km²) of Pakistani territory and the Pakistan army held 210 mile² (545 km²) of Indian territory. The territory occupied by India was mainly in the fertile Sialkot, Lahore and Kashmir sectors,<ref>The Story of My Struggle By Tajammal Hussain Malik 1991, Jang Publishers, pp 78</ref> while Pakistani land gains were primarily in [[desert]]s opposite [[Sindh]] and in [[Chumb]] in the northern sector.<ref>Khaki Shadows by General K.M. Arif, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-579396-X, 2001</ref> |
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===Aerial warfare=== |
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:''See Main articles: [[Aerial warfare in 1965 India Pakistan War]].<br>[[Indian Air Force#Second Kashmir War 1965|Indian]] and [[Pakistan Air Force#Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|Pakistan]] accounts on the air war.'' |
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[[Image:PAFF-86s.jpg|thumb|220px|PAF F-86 aircraft which took part in the war]] |
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The war saw the [[Indian Air Force]] and the [[Pakistani Air Force]] being involved in full scale combat for the first time since independence. Though the two forces had previously faced off in the [[First Kashmir War]] during the late 1940s, it was limited in scale compared to the '65 conflict. |
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The two countries have made contradictory claims of combat losses during the war and hardly any neutral sources have thoroughly verified the claims of either country. The [[Pakistan Air Force]] (PAF) claimed it shot down 104 IAF planes losing only 19 in the process. Whilst the [[Indian Air Force]] (IAF) claimed it shot down 73 PAF planes losing only 35 itself. According to Indian figures, the overall [[attrition]] rate was 2.16% for Pakistan Air Force and 1.49% for IAF.<ref>[http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Books/Review-Airwar65.html Book Review]</ref> India also pointed out that despite PAF claims of losing only a squadron of combat craft, Pakistan had been seeking urgent help from [[Indonesia]], [[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Turkey]] and [[China]], for additional aircraft within 10 days of the beginning war. |
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Pakistan's main strike force comprised the U.S. made [[F-86 Sabre]] jets, which claimed a fair share of Indian planes, though remaining vulnerable to the diminutive [[Folland Gnat]], nicknamed "[[Folland Gnat#"Sabre Slayer"|Sabre Slayer]]".<ref>Please see the main article [[Folland Gnat#"Sabre Slayer"|Sabre Slayer]] for the complete list on this issue including sources.</ref> The [[F-104 Starfighter]] of the PAF was by far the fastest fighter plane operating in the subcontinent at that time.Unlike the PAF whose planes largely consisted of American craft, IAF flew an assortment of planes from [[De Havilland Vampire|Vampires]] to [[Hawker Hunters]], many of which were outdated in comparison to PAF planes. |
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=== Tank battles === |
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[[Image:18Cav on move.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Tanks of 18th Cavalry (Indian Army) on the move during the 1965 Indo-Pak War.]] |
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:''Main Article: [[Quotes on Indo Pak Tank Battles|International assessments on the tank battles]]'' |
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The 1965 war witnessed some of the largest Tank Battles since [[World War II]]. The Pakistani Army had both a numerical advantage in tanks as well as better equipment overall.<ref>[http://www.defencejournal.com/jul99/history-pak-army.htm A history of the Pakistan Army] - Defence Journal, Pakistan</ref> Pakistani Armour was largely American made, mainly Patton tanks but also many [[M4 Sherman]] Tanks, some [[M24 Chaffee]] Light Tanks and [[M36 Jackson]] [[tank destroyers]] with 90mm guns.<ref>[http://www.milweb.net/webverts/22995/ 90mm M36 GUN MOTOR CARRIAGE “Jackson”] ''Post W.W.II, the M36 was employed by the [[US Army]] in Korea and was distributed to friendly nations including France, where it was used in Indo-China (Vietnam), Pakistan..''</ref> The bulk of India's tank fleet were older [[M4 Sherman]] tanks, moreover, the Sherman tanks on the Indian side were of mixed quality, some were up gunned with the French High velocity CN 75 50 and could hold their own, whilst some older models were still equipped with the inferior M3 75 mm. Some Indian and all Pakistani Sherman Tanks were equipped with the same M1 76mm gun. Besides the M4 tanks India also fielded the British made [[Centurion Tank]] Mk 7 with the 105mm [[Royal Ordnance L7]], [[AMX-13]], [[PT-76]], and [[M3 Stuart]] Light Tanks. Pakistan also fielded more and more modern artillery and its guns out ranged those of the Indian artillery, according to Pakistan's Major General T.H. Malik.<ref>[http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/pakistan/aminkhemkaran.html The Battle for Ravi-Sutlej Corridor 1965 A Strategic and Operational Analysis] Major A.H. Amin, [[December 30]], [[2001]] Orbat</ref> Despite the qualitative and numerical edge of Pakistani armour,<ref name="Dennis">The Widening Gulf: Asian Nationalism and American Policy By Selig Seidenman Harrison Published 1978 |
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Free Press, pp 269</ref> overall Pakistan was outfought on the battlefield by India which made progress into the Lahore-Sialkot sector whilst halting Pakistan's counteroffensive on [[Amritsar]].<ref name="Devin">The Consequences of Nuclear Proliferation: Lessons from South Asia By Devin T. Hagerty Page 70 Published by MIT Press</ref> By the end of the war, Pakistan's newer and more potent [[M47 Patton|Patton M-47]] and [[M48 Patton|M-48]]s proved to be too sophisticated in Pakistani hands,<ref name ="Heginbotham">India and Japan: The Emerging Balance of Power in Asia By Columbia University East Asian Institute, Stanley J. Heginbotham, William Howard Wriggins. By Columbia University East Asian Institute, Published 1971, pp 254</ref> and they were also sometimes employed in a faulty manner, often charging prepared defenses, such as the defeat of Pakistan's 1st Armored Division at Assal Uttar. India's tank formations saw highs and lows themselves. India's attack at the [[Battle of Chawinda]] by its own 1st Armored Division and supporting units was turned back. One true winner to emerge was India's Centurion battle tank with its 105mm gun and heavy armor which proved superior to the overly complex Pattons and their exaggerated reputations.<ref name ="Heginbotham" /> |
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===Naval hostilities=== |
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[[Image:Ussdiablo.jpg|thumb|Pakistan's PNS Ghazi, was the only submarine between the warring nations and was claimed by Pakistan to have posed a serious threat to Indian Navy, though India denied it.<!--Actual image is of USS Diablo, i.e. before it was rechristened PNS Ghazi when Pakistan purchased it, but it is the same vessel, nonetheless.-->]] |
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The navies of both India and Pakistan played no prominent role in the war of 1965, although Pakistani accounts dispute this.<ref name="Navy">South Asia's Nuclear Security Dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China By Lowell Dittmer, pp 77 ''</ref> On [[September 7]], a [[flotilla]] of the [[Pakistani Navy]] carried out a small scale bombardment of the Indian coastal town and radar station of [[Dwarka]], which was 200 miles (300 km) south of the Pakistani port of [[Karachi]]. Codenamed [[Operation Dwarka]], it however, did not fulfill its primary objectives and there was no immediate retaliatory response from India. Later, the Indian fleet from Bombay sailed to Dwarka to patrol off that area to deter further bombardment. Nonetheless, foreign authors have noted that the "insignificant bombardment"<ref>India's Quest for Security: defence policies, 1947-1965 By Lorne John Kavic, , 1967, University of California Press, pp 190</ref> of the town was a "limited engagement, with no strategic value."<ref name="Navy" /> |
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According to some Pakistani sources, one maiden submarine, [[PNS Ghazi]] kept the [[Indian Navy]]'s aircraft carrier [[INS Vikrant]] besieged in [[Bombay]] throughout the war. Indian sources claim that it was not their intention to get into a naval conflict with Pakistan, but to restrict the war to a land-based conflict.<ref>[http://www.nwc.navy.mil/press/Review/2002/spring/art4-sp2.htm THE INDIAN END OF THE TELESCOPE India and Its Navy] by [[Vice Admiral]] Gulab Hiranandani, Indian Navy (Retired), [[Naval War College Review]], Spring 2002, Vol. LV, No. 2</ref> Moreover, the ship was under refit in dry dock at that time and not even deployed. Even Pakistani defence writers have discounted claims that the Indian Navy was bottled up in harbour due to a single submarine, instead stating that 75% of the Indian Navy was under maintenance in harbour.<ref>[http://www.defencejournal.com/march98/pak3wars1.htm Iqbal F Quadir] - Pakistan's Defence Journal</ref> |
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Further south towards [[Bombay]], there were unconfirmed reports of underwater attacks by the [[Indian Navy]] against what they suspected were American-supplied Pakistani [[submarines]]. |
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=== Covert operations === |
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[[Image:SSG Commandos Parachute Drop.jpg|thumb|right|Pakistani troops drop from a C-130 Hercules onto Indian territory]] |
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A number of covert operations were launched by the [[Pakistan Army]] to infiltrate Indian [[airbase]]s and sabotage them.<ref name=DJ1>[http://www.defencejournal.com/july98/1965war.htm Defence Journal: SSG in the 1965 War]</ref> The SSG ([[Special Services Group]]) [[commando]]s were [[parachute]]d into enemy territory and, according to the then Chief of Army Staff General [[Musa Khan]], about 135 commandos were airdropped at three airfields. Given that the Indian targets ([[Halwara]], [[Pathankot]] and [[Adampur]]) were deep into enemy territory only 22 commandos made it back alive and the stealth operation proved ineffective. Of those remaining, 93 were taken prisoner, and 20 were killed in encounters with the army, police or civilians<ref>[http://www.pakdef.info/pakmilitary/army/regiments/ssg.html Pak Def - SSG Regiment]</ref> The daring attempt proved to be an "unmitigated disaster"<ref name=DJ1 /> with one of the Commanders of the operations, Major Khalid Butt being captured. Despite the failed mission, Pakistan sources claim that it had impacted some of the planned Indian operations, as the 14 Indian Division was diverted to hunt for paratroopers, the next morning the PAF found the road filled with transport and destroyed many transport vehicles.<ref>[http://www.defencejournal.com/may98/thewayitwas1.htm Defence Journal: The Way it was] Extracts from Pakistan Army [[Brigadier]] (Retd) ZA Khan's book</ref> The reason for this failure is attributed to the fact that they were not provided maps, proper briefing and worst of all with no planning or preparation<ref name="fightergap">[http://www.defencejournal.com/may98/fightergap1.htm The Fighter Gap] by Shoab Alam Khan in [[Defence Journal]]</ref> In response to this India announced rewards for any Pakistani [[spy|spies]] or paratroopers.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,842104-9,00.html Ending the Suspense] September 17, 1965, TIME magazine</ref> Meanwhile, in Pakistan, there was a scare that India had retaliated with its own covert ops by sending commandos deep into Pakistan territory,<ref name="fightergap" /> but this was later known to be unfounded.<ref>[http://www.defencejournal.com/2002/february/manto.htm Remembering Our Warriors Brig (Retd) Shamim Yasin Manto S.I.(M), S.Bt, Q&A session: ("How would you assess the failures and successes of the SSG in the 1965 War?")] February 2002, Defence Journal</ref> |
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== Losses == |
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India and Pakistan hold widely divergent claims on the damage they have inflicted on each other and the amount of damage suffered by them. The following summarizes each nation's claims. |
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{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 0.90em;" |
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! |
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!Indian claims<ref name=bharatrakshak>[http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1965War/Chapter10.html Ceasefire & After<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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!Pakistani claims<ref name=defjournal>[http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/sept/grand-slam.htm Grand Slam - A Battle of Lost Opportunities<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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!Independent Sources<ref name=globalsecurity>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-pak_1965.htm Indo-Pakistan War of 1965<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://onwar.com/aced/chrono/c1900s/yr65/fkashmir1965.htm onwar]</ref> |
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|- |
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|Casualties |
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| - |
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| - |
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|2,763 Indian soldiers, 3,800 Pakistani soldiers |
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|- |
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|Combat flying effort |
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| 4,073+ combat sorties |
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| 2,279 combat sorties |
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|- |
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|- |
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|Aircraft lost |
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|35 [[Indian Air Force|IAF]] (official), 73 [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF]].Other sources<ref>Bharat-Rakshak.com http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Misc/Loss1965.html</ref> based on the Official Indian Armed Forces History<ref>Official History of IAF in 65 War http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/History/1965War/PDF/1965Chapter09.pdf</ref> put actual IAF losses at 71 including 19 accidents (non combat sortie rate is not known) and PAF's combat losses alone at 43. |
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|19 PAF, 104 IAF |
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|20 PAF, Pakistan claims India rejected neutral arbitration,<ref> John Fricker an Englishman writing a book about the war http://www.chowk.com/show_article.cgi?aid=00001093&channel=civic%20center</ref> India retorts that the neutral arbitration by John Fricker was nothing but a commissioned work. ({{cite book |
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| last = Singh |
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| first = Pushpindar |
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| authorlink = Pushpindar Singh |
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| title = Fiza ya, Psyche of the Pakistan Air Force |
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| publisher = Himalayan Books |
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| year = 1991 |
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| id = ISBN 81-7002-038-7 }} ) |
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|- |
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|Aerial victories |
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|17 + 3 (post war) |
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|30 |
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| - |
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|- |
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|Tanks destroyed |
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|128 [[Indian Army|Indian tanks]],<ref name=Patton>[http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Patton2.html Patton Nagar [www.bharat-rakshak.com]<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> 152 [[Pakistan Army|Pakistani tanks]] captured, 150 [[Pakistan Army|Pakistani tanks]] destroyed.<ref name=Patton /> Officially 471 Pakistani tanks destroyed and 38 captured<ref>PC Lal, "My years with the IAF", Lancer International, New Delhi</ref> |
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|165 Pakistan tanks<ref>[http://www.pakdef.info/pakmilitary/army/tanks/patton.html M47 & M48 Patton in Pakistani Service] - PakDef.Info</ref> |
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|200 Pakistani tanks |
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|- |
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|Land area won |
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|1,500 [[mile|mi]]<sup>2</sup> (2,400 [[kilometer|km]]<sup>2</sup>) of Pakistani territory |
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|2,000 mi² (3,000 km²) of Indian territory |
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|India held 710 mi² (1,840 km²) of Pakistani territory and Pakistan held 210 mi² (545 km²) of Indian territory |
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|} |
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There have been few neutral assessments of the damages of the war, some of the neutral assessments are mentioned below:- |
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*According to the [[United States]] [[Library of Congress Country Studies]]: |
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<blockquote> |
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The war was militarily inconclusive; each side held prisoners and some territory belonging to the other. Losses were relatively heavy--on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan. Most Pakistanis, schooled in the belief of their own martial prowess, refused to accept the possibility of their country's military defeat by "Hindu India" and were, instead, quick to blame their failure to attain their military aims on what they considered to be the ineptitude of Ayub Khan and his government.<ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?cstdy:8:./temp/~frd_GrWa:: United states Library of Congress Country Studies.]</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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*[[TIME]] magazine analyzing the conflict,<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,834413-2,00.html Silent Guns, Wary Combatants], October 1, 1965, [[TIME]] Magazine</ref> reported that India held 690 Mi<sup>2</sup> of Pakistan territory while Pakistan held 250 Mi<sup>2</sup> of Indian territory in Kashmir and Rajasthan, but had lost half its armour. |
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<blockquote> |
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Cut off from U.S. and British arms supplies, denied Russian aid, and severely mauled by the larger Indian armed forces, Pakistan could continue the fight only by teaming up with Red China and turning its back on the U.N. ... India, by contrast, is still the big gainer in the war. Shastri had united the nation as never before. |
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</blockquote> |
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*An excerpt from [[Stanley Wolpert]]'s ''India'',<ref>[http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft0489n6j7&chunk.id=d0e4022&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e4019&brand=eschol&query=martial%20arts#] ''India'' by Stanley Wolpert. Published: University of California Press, 1990</ref> summarizing the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, is as follows: |
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<blockquote> |
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In three weeks the second IndoPak War ended in what appeared to be a draw when the embargo placed by Washington on U.S. ammunition and replacements for both armies forced cessation of conflict before either side won a clear victory. India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's chagrin. |
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</blockquote> |
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*Dennis Kux's ''"India and the United States estranged democracies"'' also provides a summary of the war.<ref> "India and the United States estranged democracies", 1941-1991, ISBN 1-4289-8189-6, DIANE Publishing, Pg 238</ref> |
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<blockquote> |
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Although both sides lost heavily in men and materiel, and neither gained a decisive military advantage, India had the better of the war. New Delhi achieved its basic goal of thwarting Pakistan's attempt to seize Kashmir by force. Pakistan gained nothing from a conflict which it had instigated. |
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</blockquote> |
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== Ceasefire == |
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On [[September 22]], the [[United Nations Security Council]] unanimously passed a resolution that called for an unconditional ceasefire from both nations. The war ended the following day. The [[Soviet Union]], led by Premier [[Alexey Kosygin]], brokered a ceasefire in [[Tashkent Agreement|Tashkent]] (now in [[Uzbekistan]]), where Indian Prime Minister [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] and Pakistani President Ayub Khan signed an agreement to withdraw to pre-August lines no later than [[February 25]],[[1966]]. The ceasefire though, was criticized by many hardliners and laymen alike in Pakistan who, relying solely on official reports and the controlled Pakistani press, believed that the leadership had surrendered military gains, leading to student riots.<ref name="Victoria>Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War By Victoria Schofield Published 2003, by I.B.Tauris ISBN 1860648983 pp112</ref> Pakistan State's reports had suggested that their military was performing admirably in the war - which they blamed as being initiated by India - and thus the [[Tashkent Declaration]] was seen as having forfeited the gains.<ref>[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_10-6-2005_pg3_2 CONTROVERSY: Why Gohar Ayub is wrong about 1965 — Khalid Hasan] quoting Pakistan author [[Husain Haqqani]]: ''"The Pakistani people were told by the state that they had been victims of aggression and that the aggression had been repelled with the help of God."''...''"official propaganda convinced the people of Pakistan that their military had won the war."'' Daily Times, [[June 10]], [[2005]]</ref> Some recent books published by Pakistani authors, including one by ex-[[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] chief titled "The Myth of 1965 Victory",<ref>Can the ISI change its spots? By Akhtar Payami, [[Dawn (newspaper)]] October 7, 2006</ref> allegedly exposed such Pakistani fabrications about the war, but were bought out by Pakistan Army to prevent its sale because it was "too sensitive".<ref>[http://archive.gulfnews.com/articles/06/10/01/10071494.html Army attempts to prevent book sales by Amir Mir] Gulf News [[October 1]], [[2006]] [http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?NewsID=1056075 Musharraf buys all copies of sensitive ‘65 war]Daily News & Analysis </ref><ref>[http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/publication.cfm?program=CORE&ctype=article&item_id=1560 Inside Story of Musharraf-Mahmood Tussle by Hassan Abbas] - (Belfer Center for International Affairs, [[John F. Kennedy School of Government]])</ref> |
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India reported a number of ceasefire violations by Pakistan besides the expected exchange of [[small arms]] and artillery fire. India charged Pakistan with 585 violations in 34 days, while Pakistan countered with accusations of 450 incidents by India.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,901761,00.html A Cease-Fire of Sorts November 5, 1965] - [[TIME]]</ref> India reported that Pakistan utilized the ceasefire to intrude and capture an Indian village of Chananwalla in the [[Fazilka]] sector. This was recaptured by Indian troops on 25 December. On October 10, a [[B-57 Canberra]] on loan to the PAF was damaged by 3 [[SA-2]] missiles fired from the IAF base at [[Ambala]]. Pakistan claims that the pilot, S/L Rashid Meer flew the aircraft back but given that it suffered further damage when the nose wheel did not extend<ref>"[[The India-Pakistan Air War of 1965]]", Jagan Mohan and Samir Chopra, Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 2005</ref> while landing, the aircraft is a possible write off. Another Pakistani Army Auster was shot down on [[16 December]], killing one Pakistani Army Captain. Yet again, on [[2 February]] [[1967]], an AOP was shot down by IAF Hunters. |
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The ceasefire between the two neighboring rivals only lasted six years before war broke out once again in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]. |
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== Intelligence failures == |
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=== Indian miscalculations === |
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[[Image:65 war.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[Life magazine]] cover story on the war showing an Indian soldier in Kashmir with a [[bazooka]].]] |
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Strategic miscalculations by both nations ensured that the result of this war remained a stalemate. The Indian Army failed to recognize the presence of heavy Pakistani artillery and armaments in Chumb and suffered significant losses as a result. The "[http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/History/1965War/PDF/index.html Official History of the 1965 War]", drafted by the [[Defence Minister of India|Ministry of Defence of India]] in 1992 was a long suppressed document that outlined intelligence and strategic blunders by India during the war. According to the document, on [[September 22]] when the [[Security Council]] was pressing for a ceasefire, the Indian Prime Minister asked the commanding Gen. Chaudhuri if India could possibly win the war, were he to hold off accepting the ceasefire for a while longer. The general replied that most of India's frontline ammunition had been used up and the Indian Army had suffered considerable tank loss. |
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It was found later that only 14% of India's frontline ammunition had been fired and India held twice the number of tanks than Pakistan did. By this time, the Pakistani Army itself had used close to 80% of its ammunition. Air Chief Marshal (retd) P.C. Lal, who was the Vice Chief of Air Staff during the conflict, points to the lack of coordination between the [[Indian Air Force|IAF]] and the Indian army. Neither side revealed its battle plans to the other. The battle plans drafted by the Ministry of Defence and General Chaudhari, did not specify a role for the Indian Air Force in the order of battle. This attitude of Gen. Chaudhari was referred to by ACM Lal as the "Supremo Syndrome", a patronizing attitude sometimes attributed to the Indian army towards the other branches of the Indian Military.<ref>[http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1965War/Chapter10.html Ceasefire & After<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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=== Pakistani miscalculations === |
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The Pakistani Army's failures started from the drawing board itself, with the supposition that a generally discontent Kashmiri people would rise to the occasion and revolt against their Indian rulers, bringing about a swift and decisive surrender of Kashmir. For whatever reason, the Kashmiri people did not revolt, and on the contrary provided the Indian Army with enough information for them to learn of [[Operation Gibraltar]] and the fact that the Army was battling not insurgents, as they had initially supposed, but Pakistani Army regulars. The Pakistani army failed to recognize that the Indian policy makers would attack the southern sector and open up the [[theater (military)|theater of conflict]]. Pakistan was forced to dedicate troops to the southern sector to protect Sialkot and Lahore instead of penetrating into Kashmir. |
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[[Image:Mcconaughy20oct1965a.jpg|thumb|220px|Telegram from USA's [[Karachi]] [[Embassy]]: "Continuing propaganda re[garding] achievements of Pak forces seems to have convinced most that only Pak forbearance saved the Indians from disaster."]] |
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"[[Operation Grand Slam]]", which was launched by Pakistan to capture [[Akhnoor]], a town north-east of [[Jammu]] and a key region for communications between Kashmir and the rest of India, was also a failure. Many Pakistani critics have criticized the Ayub Khan administration for being indecisive during Operation Grand Slam. They claim that the operation failed because Ayub Khan knew the importance of Akhnur to India (having called it India's "[[jugular vein]]") and did not want to capture it and drive the two nations into an all out war. Despite progress made in Akhnur, General Ayub Khan for some inexplicable reason relieved the commanding [[Major General Akhtar Hussain Malik]] of charge and replaced him with Gen. [[Yahya Khan]]. A 24 hour lull ensued, which allowed the Indian army to regroup in Akhnur and oppose a lackluster attack headed by General Yahya Khan. "The enemy came to our rescue", asserted the Indian Chief of Staff of the Western Command. Later, Akhtar Hussain Malik accused Ayub Khan for planning Operation Gibraltar which was doomed to fail and for relieving him of his command at a crucial moment in the war and threatened to expose the truth about the war and the army's failure, though he later dropped the idea for fear of being banned.<ref>[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_19-9-2004_pg7_30 Musharraf, the ‘poor man’s Ataturk’ By Khalid Hasan] September 19, 2004 [[Daily Times]]</ref> |
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Some authors have noted that Pakistan might have been emboldened by a [[Military exercise|war game]] - conducted in March 1965 at the Institute of Defence Analysis, USA - that concluded that in the event of a war, Pakistan would win.<ref>The Crisis Game: Simulating International Conflict by Sidney F. Giffin</ref><ref>[http://in.rediff.com/news/2005/sep/06war1.htm 1965 decided fate of the subcontinent] [http://www.proutworld.org/features/kashmir.htm Kashmir By Susmit Kumar, Ph.D.]</ref> Other authors like Stephen Philip Cohen, have consistently viewed that Pakistan Army "acquired an exaggerated view of the weakness of both India and the Indian military... the 1965 war was a shock".<ref>{{cite book | author=Stephen Philip Cohen | title=The Idea of Pakistan | publisher=Brookings Institution Press | year=2004|id=ISBN 0-8157-1502-1}} Page 103</ref> Pakistani [[Air Marshal]] and [[Commander-in-Chief]] of PAF during the war, [[Nur Khan]] later said that the Pakistan Army, and not India, was to be blamed for starting the war.<ref>[http://www.nation.com.pk/daily/july-2006/15/index8.php Noor Khan for early end to army rule] - Pakistan Daily [[The Nation (newspaper)|The Nation]]</ref><ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/NEWS/World/Indo-Pak_Ties/A_word_from_Pak_1965_was_wrong/articleshow/msid-1222586,curpg-3.cms A word from Pak: 1965 was 'wrong'] [[The Times of India]] [[September 6]], [[2005]]]</ref> However [[propaganda]] in Pakistan about the war continued; the war was not rationally analyzed in Pakistan,<ref>[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007%5C06%5C01%5Cstory_1-6-2007_pg3_1 Editorial: The army and the people] Daily Times [[June 1]], [[2007]]</ref><ref>[http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/nov/pak-army.htm The Pakistan Army From 1965 to 1971 ''Analysis and reappraisal after the 1965 War''] by Maj (Retd) Agha Humayun Amin</ref> with most of the blame being heaped on the leadership and little importance given to intelligence failures that persisted until the debacle of the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]], when Pakistan was comprehensively defeated and dismembered by India, leading to the creation of [[Bangladesh]]. |
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== Involvement of other nations== |
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The United States of America fixed a military embargo with both countries in which it dealed military supplies and hardware to both countries (especially Pakistan). The US was apprehensive in that the ammunitions provided were displayed as a battle against [[communism]] used by the countries to fight one another. The American mindset was considered a bang to the Pakistani front due to the majority of its ammunitions being provided by America. In turn, this would cause Pakistan to believe that it could not continue war beyond September.<ref>[http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2004/oct/gillOct04.asp CCC]</ref> Following the decision, other [[NATO]] allies (including the UK) discontinued providing artillery sources to the nations. Both before and during the war, [[China]] had been a major military associate of Pakistan and had invariably admonished India, with whom it had [[Sino-Indian War|fought a war in 1962]]. There were also reports of Chinese troop movements on the Indian border to support Pakistan.<ref>[http://www.transnational.org/SAJT/forum/power/1998/pow12-08.html Pakistan and India Play With Nuclear Fire By Jonathan Power] The Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research</ref> As such, India agreed to the UN mandate in order to avoid a war on both borders. Though India's [[Non-Aligned Movement]] had a little help from nations, Pakistan gained assistance from countries of [[Asia]] that included [[Turkey]], [[Iran]] and [[Indonesia]]. The [[USSR]] was more neutral than most other nations during the war and even invited both nations to host talks in [[Tashkent]]. |
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== Consequences of the war == |
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===India=== |
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The war had created a tense state of affairs in its aftermath. Though the war was indecisive, Pakistan suffered much heavier material and personnel casualties compared to India. Many war historians believe that had the war continued, with growing loss and decreasing supplies, Pakistan would have been eventually defeated. India's decision to declare ceasefire with Pakistan caused some outrage among the Indian populace, who believed they had the upper hand. Both India and Pakistan increased their defense spending and the [[Cold War]] politics had taken roots in the subcontinent. The Indian Military, which was already undergoing rapid expansions, made improvements in [[Command and control (military)|command and control]] to address some shortcomings. Partly as a result of the inefficient information gathering, India established the [[Research and Analysis Wing]] for external [[espionage]] and [[Intelligence agency|intelligence]]. India viewed the American policy during the war as biased, since Pakistan had started the war but the US did little to restrain Pakistan.<ref>Title: India and the United States estranged democracies, 1941-1991, ISBN 1-4289-8189-6, DIANE Publishing</ref> India slowly started aligning with the [[Soviet Union]] both politically and militarily. This would be cemented formally years later before the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]. In light of the previous war against the Chinese, the performance in this war was viewed as a "politico-strategic" victory in India. The Indian premier, Shastri was hailed as a hero in [[India]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47067/India The 1965 war with Pakistan] - [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref> |
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===Pakistan=== |
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Many Pakistanis rated the performance of their military positively. [[September 6]] is celebrated as 'Defence Day' in Pakistan in commemoration of the successful defence of [[Lahore]] against the Indian army. Pakistani Air Force's performance was seen in much better light compared to that of the ground troops. The myth of a mobile, hard hitting Pakistan Army was badly dented in the war as critical breakthroughs were not made.<ref>[http://www.defencejournal.com/march98/pak3wars1.htm Pakistan And Its Three Wars by Vice Adm (Retd) Iqbal F Quadir] - Defence Journal, Pakistan</ref> Several Pakistani writers criticized the military's ill-founded belief that their "[[Martial Race]]" of soldiers could defeat India in the war.<ref>Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat Richard H. Shultz, Andrea Dew: "''The Martial Races Theory had firm adherents in Pakistan and this factor played a major role in the under-estimation of the Indian Army by Pakistani soldiers as well as civilian decision makers in 1965.''"</ref><ref>[http://www.defencejournal.com/2001/november/sepoy.htm An Analysis The Sepoy Rebellion of 1857-59 by AH Amin] ''The army officers of that period were convinced that they were a martial race and the Hindus of Indian Army were cowards. This myth was largely disproved in 1965''</ref> Moreover, the end game left a lot to desire as Pakistan had lost more ground than gained and more importantly did not achieve the goal of occupying Kashmir, which has been viewed by many impartial observers as a defeat for Pakistan.<ref>[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm Profile of Pakistan] - [[U.S. Department of State]], [http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people5/Coll/coll-con5.html Failure of U.S.'s Pakistan Policy] - Interview with [[Steve Coll]]</ref><ref>[http://www.fas.org/news/pakistan/1994/940912.htm Speech of Bill McCollum] in [[United States House of Representatives]] September 12, 1994</ref><ref>South Asia in World Politics By Devin T. Hagerty, 2005 Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 0-7425-2587-2, pp 26</ref> Many high ranking Pakistani officials and military experts later criticized the faulty planning in [[Operation Gibraltar]] that ultimately led to the war. The Tashkent declaration was further seen as a raw deal in Pakistan though few citizens realised the gravity of the situation that existed at the end of the war. Under the advice of [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]], Pakistan's then foreign minister, Ayub Khan had raised very high expectations among the people of Pakistan about the superiority - if not invincibility - of its armed forces,<ref>[http://www.pakistanlink.com/Opinion/2004/Sept04/17/05.html Dr. Ahmad Faruqui]</ref> but Pakistan's inability to attain its military aims during the war, created a political liability on Ayub.<ref name="Hassan Abbas">{{cite book | author=Hassan Abbas | title=Pakistan's Drift Into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and America's War on Terror | publisher=M.E. Sharpe | year=2004|id=ISBN 0-7656-1497-9}}, pp52 </ref> The defeat of its Kashmiri ambitions in the war led to the army's invincibility being challenged by an increasingly vocal opposition.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3227709.stm BBC]</ref> And with the war creating a huge financial burden, [[Economy of Pakistan|Pakistan's economy]] which had witnessed rapid progress in the early 60s, took a severe beating.<ref>[http://www.pakistanembassy.no/fpolicy.html Embassy of Pakistan]</ref><ref>[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_3-6-2002_pg3_4 Second opinion: The insidious logic of war Khaled Ahmed’s Urdu Press Review] Daily Times [[June 3]], [[2002]]</ref> |
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Pakistan was taken aback by the lack of support by the [[United States]], an ally with whom the country had signed an Agreement of Cooperation. USA declared its neutrality in the war by cutting off military supplies to both sides,<ref name=globalsecurity /> leading Islamabad to believe that they were "betrayed" by the United States.<ref>[Economic Sanctions and American Diplomacy By Richard N. Haass, 1998, Council on Foreign Relations, ISBN 0876092121 pp172</ref> After the war, Pakistan would increasingly look towards [[People's Republic of China|China]] as a major source of military hardware and political support. Another negative consequence of the war was the growing resentment against the Pakistani government in [[East Pakistan]], particularly for the West Pakistan's obsession with Kashmir.<ref>Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age By Peter Paret, 1986, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198200978 pp802</ref> [[Bangladesh|Bengali]] leaders accused the government for not providing adequate security for East Pakistan during the conflict, even though large sums of money were taken from the east to finance the war for Kashmir.<ref>{{cite book | author=[[Rounaq Jahan]] | title=Pakistan: Failure in National Integration | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=1972 | id=ISBN 0-231-03625-6}} Pg 166-167</ref> In fact despite some PAF attacks being launched from East Pakistan (present day [[Bangladesh]]) during the war, India did not retaliate in that sector,<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/2005/12/25/ed.htm#4 Reflections on two military presidents By M.P. Bhandara] December 25, 2005, Dawn</ref> although East Pakistan was defended only by a two-infantry [[brigade]] division (14 Division) without any tank support.<ref>[http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/nov/pak-army.htm The Pakistan Army From 1965 to 1971 ''Yahya Khan as Army Chief-1966-1971''] by Maj (Retd) Agha Humayun Amin</ref> [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] was apprehensive of this situation, and the need for greater autonomy for the east led to [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|another war]] between India and Pakistan in 1971.. |
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== Further reading == |
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* ''An Army Its Role and Rule(A History or the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil 1947-1999) |
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By: Muhammad Ayub ISBN 0-8059-9594-3 |
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* ''India-Pakistan war, 1965'' Hari Ram Gupta |
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* ''Die to live: A selection of short stories based on the 1965 Indo-Pakistan war'' Muhammad Ismail Siddiqui. |
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* ''The war with Pakistan: A pictorial narration of the fifty days which rocked the sub-continent'' Dewan Berindranath |
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* ''First & Further reflections on the second Kashmir War'' (South Asia series) - 2 books by Louis Dupree. |
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* ''[[The India-Pakistan Air War of 1965]]'' P.V.S.Jagan Mohan and [http://www.sci.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~schopra Samir Chopra], Manohar Publishers |
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* ''War Dispatches'' [[Lt. General Harbaksh Singh]], Lancer International |
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* ''Indian Army after Independence'' Maj K C Praval, Lancer International |
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* ''Battle for Pakistan'' John Fricker, Ian Allan |
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* ''The Indo-Pakistan Conflict'' Russell Brines |
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* ''India Pakistan 1965 War: Role of Tanks'' Lt Col Bhupinder Singh, Pub u isher Unknown. |
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''The First Round: Indo-Pakistan War 1965'' by M Asghar Khan |
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== Notes == |
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{{reflist}} |
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== Sources and external links == |
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* [http://paki.in/wtf/2008/02/16/indo-pak-war-of-65-why-did-we-go-to-war/ - WTF - Indo-Pak war of ‘65. Why did we go to war?] |
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* [http://orbat.com/site/cimh/iaf/IAF_1965war_kills.pdf IAF Combat Kills - 1965 war],([[Center for Indian Military History]]) |
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*{{cite book | author=Mohammed [[Musa Khan]] | title= My Version: India-Pakistan War 1965 | publisher=Wajidalis | year=1983 | id= }} |
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* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0189) United States Library of Congress Country Studies - India] |
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*[http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/History/1965War/PDF/index.html Official History of the Indian Armed Forces in the 1965 War with Pakistan] |
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* [http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A068&Pg=5 Story of Pakistan] |
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*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-pak_1965.htm GlobalSecurity.org Indo-Pakistan War 1965] |
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*[http://www.defencejournal.com/2001/september/1965.htm Pakistan Columnist AH Amin analyzes the war.] |
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*[http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/sept/grand-slam.htm Grand Slam - A Battle of lost Opportunities, Maj (Retd) Agha Humayun Amin] — very detailed roll of events and analysis |
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*[http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1965War/Lal-65.htm A Critical Look at the 1965 Operations, Air Chief Marshall (retd) PC Lal] — dispassionate analysis |
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* [http://in.rediff.com/news/indpakwar05.htm The India-Pakistan War, 1965: 40 Years On] - From Rediff.com |
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*[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_7-9-2005_pg3_1 Lessons of the 1965 War from Daily Times (Pakistan)] |
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* [http://www.satribune.com/archives/sept04/P1_habook1.htm Pak Army's Kargil like disaster of 1965 - South Asia Tribune] |
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*[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/ayaz/20051021.htm Spirit of ’65 & the parallels with today - Ayaz Amir] |
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*[http://www.pakdef.info/pakmilitary/army/war/warindex.html Pakistan Army version of the War] - PakDef.info |
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*[http://www.ummat.com.pk/report_ummat/10022008-misc_reports/interview-10022008b.html Air Commodore Syed Sajjad Haider on 1965 war and surrounding events] |
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[[Category:Indo-Pakistan Wars]] |
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[[Category:Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|*]] |
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[[de:Zweiter Indisch-Pakistanischer Krieg]] |
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[[fr:Deuxième Guerre indo-pakistanaise]] |
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[[id:Perang India-Pakistan 1965]] |
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[[nl:Tweede Kasjmiroorlog]] |
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[[ru:Вторая индо-пакистанская война]] |
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[[fi:Toinen Intian–Pakistanin sota]] |
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Revision as of 18:08, 28 April 2008
mohandas k ghandi is terrible he was trying to killl buddha but when buddha died there was noone left too help pakistan win the cold harsh wat it was so sadd