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[[Hahaha
[[Image:Diopsis.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Integrated circuit of [[Atmel]] Diopsis 740 [[System on Chip]] showing memory blocks, logic and input/output pads around the periphery]][[Image:Microchips.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Microchips ([[EPROM]] memory) with a transparent window, showing the integrated circuit inside. Note the fine silver-colored wires that connect the integrated circuit to the pins of the package. The window allows the memory contents of the chip to be erased, by exposure to strong [[ultraviolet light]] in an eraser device.]]
== damnn ==

<nowiki>[.. you just got punked :D.. love you man !]]]</nowiki>
In [[electronics]], an '''integrated circuit''' (also known as '''IC''', '''microcircuit''', '''microchip''', '''silicon chip''', or '''chip''') is a miniaturized [[electronic circuit]] (consisting mainly of [[semiconductor device]]s, as well as [[passive component]]s) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of [[semiconductor]] material. Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics.

A [[hybrid circuit|hybrid integrated circuit]] is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board.

This article is about monolithic integrated circuits.

==Introduction==

Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that [[semiconductor device]]s could perform the functions of [[vacuum tube]]s, and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in [[semiconductor fabrication|semiconductor device fabrication]]. The integration of large numbers of tiny [[transistor]]s into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete [[electronic component]]s. The integrated circuit's [[mass production]] capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors.

There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by [[photolithography]] and not constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore, much less material is used to construct a circuit as a packaged IC die than as a discrete circuit. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power (compared to their discrete counterparts), because the components are small and close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square [[millimeter|mm]] to around 350 [[millimeter|mm]]², with up to 1 million [[transistor]]s per [[millimeter|mm]]².

==Invention==
===The birth of the IC===
[[Image:Kilby solid circuit.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jack Kilby]]'s original integrated circuit]]
The integrated circuit was conceived by a radar scientist, [[Geoffrey Dummer|Geoffrey W.A. Dummer]] (1909-2002), working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]], and published at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in [[Washington, D.C.]] on [[May 7]] [[1952]].<ref>[http://www.epn-online.com/page/22909/the-hapless-tale-of-geoffrey-dummer-this-is-the-sad-.html "The Hapless Tale of Geoffrey Dummer"], (n.d.), (HTML), ''Electronic Product News'', accessed July 8, 2008.</ref> He gave many symposiums publicly to propagate his ideas.

Dummer unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956.

The integrated circuit was independently co-invented by [[Jack Kilby]] of [[Texas Instruments]]<ref name="TIJackBuilt">[http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/kilbyctr/jackbuilt.shtml ''The Chip that Jack Built''], (c. 2008), (HTML), Texas Instruments, accessed May 29, 2008.</ref> and [[Robert Noyce]] of [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] <ref>http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/collection/people.php?id=1234633&lid=1 ''Robert Noyce'', (n.d.), (online), IEEE Virtual Museum, accessed July 8, 2008.</ref> around the same time. Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958 and successfully demonstrated the first working integrated circuit on September 12, 1958.<ref name="TIJackBuilt"/> Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part of the invention of the integrated circuit.<ref>Nobel Web AB, (October 10, 2000),([http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2000/press.html ''The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000''],
Retrieved on May 29, 2008</ref> Robert Noyce also came up with his own idea of integrated circuit, half a year later than Kilby. Noyce's chip had solved many practical problems that the microchip developed by Kilby had not. Noyce's chip, made at Fairchild, was made of [[silicon]], whereas Kilby's chip was made of [[germanium]].

Early developments of the integrated circuit go back to 1949, when the German engineer [[Werner Jacobi]] ([[Siemens AG]]) filed a patent for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device <ref name="jacobi1949">{{patent|DE|833366|W. Jacobi/SIEMENS AG: „Halbleiterverstärker“ priority filing on April 14, 1949, published on May 15, 1952.}}</ref> showing five transistors on a common substrate arranged in a 3-stage [[amplifier]] arrangement. Jacobi discloses small and cheap [[hearing aid]]s as typical industrial applications of his patent. A commercial use of his patent has not been reported.

A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares (wafers), each one containing a single miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which looked very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by [[Jack Kilby]], and led to the short-lived Micromodule Program (similar to 1951's [[Project Tinkertoy]]).<ref>George Rostky, (n. d.),[http://www.eetimes.com/special/special_issues/millennium/milestones/kilby.html "Micromodules: the ultimate package"], (HTML), ''EE Times'', accessed July 8, 2008.</ref> However, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design: the IC.

The aforementioned Noyce credited [[Kurt Lehovec]] of [[Sprague Electric]] for the ''principle of [[p-n junction isolation]]'' caused by the action of a biased p-n junction (the diode) as a key concept behind the IC.<ref>Kurt Lehovec's patent on the isolation p-n junction: {{US patent|3029366}} granted on [[April 10]] [[1962]], filed [[April 22]] [[1959]]. Robert Noyce credits Lehovec in his article &ndash; "Microelectronics", ''[[Scientific American]]'', September 1977, Volume 23, Number 3, pp. 63&ndash;9.</ref>

See: [[vacuum tube#Other variations|Other variations of vacuum tubes]] for precursor concepts such as the [[Loewe 3NF]].

==Generations==
===SSI, MSI, LSI===<!-- This section is linked from [[PDP-11]] -->

The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "'''Small-Scale Integration'''" ('''SSI'''), they used circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens.
SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the [[Minuteman missile]] and [[Apollo program]] needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems; the [[Apollo guidance computer]] led and motivated the integrated-circuit technology{{Fact|date=October 2008}}, while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-production.
These programs purchased almost all of the available integrated circuits from 1960 through 1963, and almost alone provided the demand that funded the production improvements to get the production costs from $1000/circuit (in 1960 dollars) to merely $25/circuit (in 1963 dollars).{{Fact|date=May 2007}} They began to appear in consumer products at the turn of the decade, a typical application being [[FM]] inter-carrier sound processing in [[television]] receivers.
The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "'''Medium-Scale Integration'''" ('''MSI''').
They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages.
Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "'''Large-Scale Integration'''" ('''LSI''') in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.
Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4000 transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors.

===VLSI===

{{main|Very-large-scale integration}}
[[Image:80486DX2 200x.png|right|thumb|Upper interconnect layers on an [[Intel 80486]]DX2 microprocessor die.]]

The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing through the present, was "Very Large-Scale Integration" ([[VLSI]]). This could be said to start with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues beyond several billion transistors as of 2007.
There was no single breakthrough that allowed this increase in complexity, though many factors helped. Manufacturing moved to smaller rules and cleaner fabs, allowing them to produce chips with more transistors with adequate yield, as summarized by the [[International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors]] (ITRS). [[Electronic Design Automation|Design tools]] improved enough to make it practical to finish these designs in a reasonable time. The more energy efficient [[CMOS]] replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. Better texts such as the landmark textbook by [[Carver Mead|Mead]] and [[Lynn Conway|Conway]] helped schools educate more designers, among other factors.

In 1986 the first one megabit [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] chips were introduced, which contained more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million transistor mark in 1989 and the billion transistor mark in 2005<ref>Peter Clarke, EE Times: ''Intel enters billion-transistor processor era'', 14 November 2005</ref>. The trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors <ref>Antone Gonsalves, EE Times, ''Samsung begins production of 16-Gb flash'', 30 April 2007</ref>.

===ULSI, WSI, SOC, 3D-IC===

To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term '''ULSI''' that stands for "'''Ultra-Large Scale Integration'''" was proposed for chips of complexity of more than 1 million transistors.

[[Wafer-scale integration]] (WSI) is a system of building very-large integrated circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed.

[[System-on-a-Chip]] (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be complex and costly, and building disparate components on a single piece of silicon may compromise the efficiency of some elements. However, these drawbacks are offset by lower manufacturing and assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals among the components are kept on-die, much less power is required (see Packaging, above).

[[Three Dimensional Integrated Circuit]] (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit. Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster operation.

==Advances in integrated circuits==

[[Image:153056995 5ef8b01016 o.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The integrated circuit from an [[Intel]] 8742, an 8-bit [[microcontroller]] that includes a [[CPU]] running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of [[RAM]], 2048 bytes of [[EPROM]], and [[Input/output|I/O]] in the same chip.]]
Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the [[microprocessor]]s or "'''cores'''", which control everything from [[computer]]s to [[cellular phone]]s to digital [[microwave oven]]s. Digital [[Random access memory|memory chips]] and [[Application-specific integrated circuit|ASICs]] are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are important to the modern [[information society]]. While cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low [[Electric power|power]] logic (such as [[CMOS]]) to be used at fast switching speeds.

ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per unit area can be used to decrease cost and/or increase functionality—see [[Moore's law]] which, in its modern interpretation, states that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. In general, as the feature size shrinks, almost everything improves—the cost per unit and the switching power consumption go down, and the speed goes up. However, ICs with [[nanometer]]-scale devices are not without their problems, principal among which is leakage current (see [[subthreshold leakage]] for a discussion of this), although these problems are not insurmountable and will likely be solved or at least ameliorated by the introduction of [[high-k Dielectric|high-k dielectric]]s. Since these speed and power consumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. This process, and the expected progress over the next few years, is well described by the [[International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors]] (ITRS).

==Popularity of ICs==
{{main|Microchip revolution}}

Only a half century after their development was initiated, integrated circuits have become ubiquitous. [[Computer]]s, [[cellular phone]]s, and other [[digital]] [[appliance]]s are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies. That is, modern [[computing]], [[communication]]s, [[manufacturing]] and [[transport]] systems, including the [[Internet]], all depend on the existence of integrated circuits. Indeed, many [[scholar]]s believe that the [[digital revolution]]&mdash;brought about by the [[microchip revolution]]&mdash;was one of the most significant occurrences in the [[history]] of [[humankind]].

==Classification==

[[Image:cmosic.JPG|thumb|A [[CMOS]] [[4000 series|4000]] IC in a [[Dual in-line package|DIP]]]]
Integrated circuits can be classified into [[analog circuit|analog]], [[digital circuit|digital]] and [[mixed-signal integrated circuit|mixed signal]] (both analog and digital on the same chip).

Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of [[logic gate]]s, [[flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]]s, [[multiplexer]]s, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically [[microprocessor]]s, [[digital signal processors|DSP]]s, and micro controllers work using binary mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals.

Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and [[operational amplifier]]s, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like [[Amplifier|amplification]], [[active filter]]ing, [[demodulation]], [[Frequency mixer|mixing]], etc. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.

ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as [[analog-to-digital converter|A/D converter]]s and [[digital-to-analog converter|D/A converter]]s. Such circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference.

==Manufacture==
===Fabrication===

{{main|Semiconductor fabrication}}

[[Image:Silicon chip 3d.png|right|thumb|200px|Rendering of a small [[standard cell]] with three metal layers ([[dielectric]] has been removed). The sand-colored structures are metal interconnect, with the vertical pillars being contacts, typically plugs of tungsten. The reddish structures are polysilicon gates, and the solid at the bottom is the crystalline silicon bulk.]]

The [[semiconductor]]s of the [[periodic table]] of the [[chemical element]]s were identified as the most likely materials for a ''[[solid state (electronics)|solid state]] [[vacuum tube]]'' by researchers like [[William Shockley]] at [[Bell Laboratories]] starting in the 1930s. Starting with [[copper oxide]], proceeding to [[germanium]], then [[silicon]], the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, silicon [[monocrystal]]s are the main [[Substrate (printing)|substrate]] used for ''integrated circuits (ICs)'' although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as [[gallium arsenide]] are used for specialized applications like [[LEDs]], [[lasers]], [[solar cells]] and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating [[crystal]]s without defects in the [[crystalline structure]] of the semiconducting material.
[[Semiconductor]] ICs are fabricated in a layer process which includes these key process steps:
*Imaging
*Deposition
*Etching

The main process steps are supplemented by doping, cleaning and polarization steps.
Mono-crystal [[silicon]] [[wafer (electronics)|wafers]] (or for special applications, [[silicon on sapphire]] or [[gallium arsenide]] wafers) are used as the ''substrate''. [[Photolithography]] is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be [[Doping (Semiconductors)|doped]] or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically [[aluminum]]) tracks deposited on them.
*Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each defined by photolithography, and normally shown in different colors. Some layers mark where various dopants are diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers), some define where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), some define the conductors (polysilicon or metal layers), and some define the connections between the conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components are constructed from a specific combination of these layers.

*In a self-aligned [[CMOS]] process, a [[transistor]] is formed wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a diffusion layer.

*[[resistor|Resistive structures]], meandering stripes of varying lengths, form the loads on the circuit. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity determines the resistance.

*[[capacitor|Capacitive structures]], in form very much like the parallel conducting plates of a traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the "plates", with insulating material between the plates. Owing to limitations in size, only very small capacitances can be created on an IC.

*More rarely, [[inductor|inductive structures]] can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated by [[gyrator]]s.
Since a CMOS device only draws current on the ''transition'' between [[boolean algebra (logic)|logic]] [[State (computer science)|state]]s, CMOS devices consume much less current than [[bipolar transistor|bipolar]] devices.

A [[random access memory]] is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a [[microprocessor]] will have memory on the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.) Although the structures are intricate &ndash; with widths which have been shrinking for decades &ndash; the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although [[light]] [[wave]]s in the [[visible spectrum]] cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features. Thus [[photon]]s of higher frequencies (typically [[ultraviolet]]) are used to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, [[electron microscope]]s are essential tools for a [[industrial process|process]] [[engineer]] who might be [[debugging]] a fabrication process.

Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process known as [[wafer testing]], or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of which is called a ''die''. Each good [[die (integrated circuit)|die]] (plural ''dice'', ''dies'', or ''die'') is then connected into a package using aluminum (or [[gold]]) wires which are [[welding|welded]] to ''pads'', usually found around the edge of the die. After packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE used during wafer probing. Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost of fabrication on lower cost products, but can be negligible on low [[yield]]ing, larger, and/or higher cost devices.

As of 2005, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a ''[[semiconductor]] fab'') costs over a billion US Dollars to construct<ref>For example, Intel Fab 28 cost 3.5 billion USD, while its neighboring Fab 18 cost 1.5 billion USD http://www.theinquirer.net/default.aspx?article=29958</ref>, because much of the operation is automated. The most advanced processes employ the following techniques:
* The wafers are up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate).
* Use of 65 nanometer or smaller chip manufacturing process. [[Intel]], [[IBM]], [[NEC]], and [[AMD]] are using 45 nanometers for their [[central processing unit|CPU]] chips, and AMD[http://news.com.com/2061-10791_3-6145549.html] and NEC have started using a 65 nanometer process. IBM and AMD are [http://www.itjungle.com/breaking/bn121206-story03.html in development] of a 45&nbsp;nm process using [[immersion lithography]].
* [[Copper-based chips|Copper interconnects]] where copper wiring replaces aluminum for interconnects.
* [[Low-K]] dielectric insulators.
* [[Silicon on insulator]] (SOI)
* [[Strained silicon]] in a process used by [[IBM]] known as [[strained silicon directly on insulator]] (SSDOI)

===Packaging===
{{Main|Integrated circuit packaging}}

The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the [[dual in-line package]] (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to [[pin grid array]] (PGA) and [[leadless chip carrier]] (LCC) packages. [[Surface mount]] packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by [[small-outline integrated circuit]] -- a carrier which occupies an area about 30 &ndash; 50% less than an equivalent [[dual in-line package|DIP]], with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package has "gull wing" leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches.
[[Small-outline integrated circuit]] (SOIC) and [[PLCC]] packages. In the late 1990s, [[PQFP]] and [[thin small-outline package|TSOP]] packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end [[microprocessor]]s. Intel and AMD are currently transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to [[land grid array]] (LGA) packages.
[[Ball grid array]] (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. [[Flip-chip Ball Grid Array]] packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery.

Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the [[printed circuit board]] have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself.

When multiple dies are put in one package, it is called SiP, for ''[[System In Package]]''. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, it's called an MCM, or [[Multi-Chip Module]]. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy.

==Other developments==

In the 1980s [[programmable logic device|programmable integrated circuits]] were developed. These devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a single chip to be programmed to implement different LSI-type functions such as [[logic gate]]s, [[adder (electronics)|adders]], and [[processor register|registers]]. Current devices named [[FPGA]]s (Field Programmable Gate Arrays) can now implement tens of thousands of LSI circuits in parallel and operate up to 550 MHz.
The techniques perfected by the integrated circuits industry over the last three decades have been used to create microscopic machines, known as [[MEMS]]. These devices are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. Example commercial applications include [[DLP]] [[projector]]s, [[inkjet printer]]s, and [[accelerometer]]s used to deploy automobile [[airbag]]s.
In the past, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed using CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or [[Atheros]]'s 802.11 card.

Future developments seem to follow the multi-microprocessor paradigm, already used by the Intel and AMD dual-core processors. Intel recently unveiled a prototype, "not for commercial sale" chip that bears a staggering 80 microprocessors. Each core is capable of handling its own task independently of the others. This is in response to the heat-versus-speed limit that is about to be reached using existing transistor technology. This design provides a new challenge to chip programming. [[X10 (programming language)|X10]] is the new open-source programming language designed to assist with this task. <ref>Biever, C. "Chip revolution poses problems for programmers", New Scientist (Vol 193, Number 2594)</ref>

==Silicon graffiti==

Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are sometimes referred to as [[Chip art|Chip Art]], ''Silicon Art'', ''Silicon Graffiti'' or ''Silicon Doodling''. For an overview of this practice, see the article [http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/careers/careerstemplate.jsp?ArticleId=p030202 The Secret Art of Chip Graffiti], from the IEEE magazine ''Spectrum'' and the [http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/creatures/index.html Silicon Zoo].

==Key industrial and academic data==

{{Cleanup-laundry|date=January 2008}}

===Notable ICs===

*The [[555 timer IC|555]] common [[multi-vibrator]] sub-circuit (common in electronic timing circuits)
*The [[741 operational amplifier]]
*[[7400 series]] [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] logic building blocks
*[[4000 series]], the [[CMOS]] counterpart to the 7400 series
*[[Intel 4004]], the world's first [[microprocessor]]
*The [[MOS Technology 6502]] and [[Zilog Z80]] microprocessors, used in many [[home computer]]s of the early 1980s

===Manufacturers===

A list of notable manufacturers; some operating, some defunct:
*[[Agere Systems]] (now part of [[LSI Logic]] formerly part of [[Lucent]], which was formerly part of [[AT&T]])
*[[Agilent Technologies]] (formerly part of [[Hewlett-Packard]], spun-off in 1999)
*[[Alcatel]]
*[[Altera]]
*[[AMD]] (Advanced Micro Devices; founded by ex-Fairchild employees)
*[[Analog Devices]]
*[[ATI Technologies]] (Array Technologies Incorporated; acquired parts of [[Tseng Labs]] in 1997; in 2006, became a wholly-owned subsidiary of AMD)
*[[Atmel]] (co-founded by ex-Intel employee)
*[[Broadcom]]
*[[MOS Technology|Commodore Semiconductor Group]] (formerly MOS Technology)
*[[Cypress Semiconductor]]
*[[Fairchild Semiconductor]] (founded by ex-Shockley Semiconductor employees: the "[[Traitorous Eight]]")
*[[Freescale Semiconductor]] (formerly part of [[Motorola]])
*[[Fujitsu]]
*[[Genesis Microchip]]
*[[MOS Technology|GMT Microelectronics]] (formerly Commodore Semiconductor Group)
*[[Hitachi, Ltd.]]
*[[Horizon Semiconductors]]
*[[IBM]] (International Business Machines)
*[[Infineon Technologies]] (formerly part of [[Siemens AG|Siemens]])
*[[Integrated Device Technology]]
*[[Intel]] (founded by ex-Fairchild employees)
*[[Intersil]] (formerly Harris Semiconductor)
*[[Lattice Semiconductor]]
*[[Linear Technology]]
*[[LSI Logic]] (founded by ex-Fairchild employees)
*[[Maxim Integrated Products]]
*[[Marvell Technology Group]]
*[[Microchip Technology]] Manufacturer of the PIC microcontrollers
*[[MicroSystems International]]
*[[MOS Technology]] (founded by ex-Motorola employees)
*[[Mostek]] (founded by ex-Texas Instruments employees)
*[[National Semiconductor]] (aka "NatSemi"; founded by ex-Fairchild employees)
*[[Nordic Semiconductor]] (formerly known as Nordic VLSI)
*[[Nvidia]] (acquired IP of competitor [[3dfx]] in 2000; 3dfx was co-founded by ex-Intel employee)
*[[NXP Semiconductors]] (formerly part of [[Philips]])
*[[ON Semiconductor]] (formerly part of [[Motorola]])
*[[Parallax, Inc. (company)|Parallax Inc.]]Manufacturer of the BASIC Stamp and Propeller Microcontrollers
*[[PMC-Sierra]] (from the former Pacific Microelectronics Centre and Sierra Semiconductor, the latter co-founded by ex-NatSemi employee)
*[[Renesas Technology]] (joint venture of [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]] and [[Mitsubishi Electric Corporation|Mitsubishi Electric]])
*[[Rohm]]
*[[Samsung Electronics]] (Semiconductor division)
*[[STMicroelectronics]] (formerly SGS Thomson)
*[[Texas Instruments]]
*[[Toshiba]]
*[[TSMC]] (Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company. semiconductor foundry)
*[[u-blox]] (Fabless GPS semiconductor provider)
*[[VIA Technologies]] (founded by ex-Intel employee) (part of [[Formosa Plastics Group]])
*[[Volterra Semiconductor]]
*[[Xilinx]] (founded by ex-ZiLOG employee)
*[[ZiLOG]] (founded by ex-Intel employees) (part of [[Exxon]] 1980&ndash;89; now owned by [[Texas Pacific Group|TPG]])

===VLSI conferences===

*[[ISSCC]] &ndash; IEEE [[International Solid-State Circuits Conference]]
*CICC &ndash; IEEE [[Custom Integrated Circuit Conference]]
*[[ISCAS]] &ndash; IEEE [[International Symposium on Circuits and Systems]]
*VLSI &ndash; IEEE [[International Conference on VLSI Design]]
*DAC &ndash; [[Design Automation Conference]]
*ICCAD &ndash; [[International Conference on Computer-Aided Design]]
*ESSCIRC &ndash; [[European Solid-State Circuits Conference]]
*ISLPED &ndash; [[International Symposium on Low Power Electronics and Design]]
*ISPD &ndash; [[International Symposium on Physical Design]]
*ISQED &ndash; [[International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design]]
*DATE &ndash; [[Design Automation and Test in Europe]]
*ICCD &ndash; [[International Conference on Computer Design]]
*IEDM &ndash; IEEE [[International Electron Devices Meeting]]
*GLSVLSI &ndash; IEEE [[Great Lakes Symposium on VLSI]]
*ASP-DAC &ndash; [[Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference]]
*MWSCAS &ndash; IEEE [[Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems]]
*ICSVLSI &ndash; IEEE [[Computer Society Annual Symposium on VLSI]]
* [[IEEE Symposia on VLSI Circuits and Technology]]

===VLSI journals===

*ED &ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/ted.htm IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices]
*EDL &ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/edl.htm IEEE Electron Device Letters]
*CAD &ndash; [[IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems]], [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/tcadics.htm IEEE web site for this journal]
*JSSC &ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/jssc.html IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits]
*VLSI &ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tvlsi.html IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems]
*CAS II &ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tcs2.html IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Analog and Digital Signal Processing]
*SM &ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tsm.html IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing]
*SSE &ndash; Solid-State Electronics
*SST &ndash; Solid-State Technology
*TCAD &ndash; Journal of Technology Computer-Aided Design

==Branch pages==

*[[Clean room]]
*[[Current mirror]]
*[[Ion implantation]]

==See also==

{{portalpar|Electronics|Nuvola_apps_ksim.png}}
;General topics
*[[Computer engineering]]
*[[Electrical engineering]]

;Related devices and terms
*[[MMIC]]
*[[Hybrid integrated circuit]]
*[[Printed circuit board]]
*[[Vacuum tube#Integrated circuit vacuum tubes|Integrated circuit vacuum tube]]

;IC device technologies
*[[Integrated injection logic]]
*[[Transistor–transistor logic|Transistor–transistor logic (TTL)]]
*[[Bipolar junction transistor]]
*[[Emitter Coupled Logic|Emitter-coupled logic (ECL)]]
*[[MOSFET]]
*[[NMOS logic|NMOS]]
*[[CMOS]]
*[[BiCMOS]]
*[[BCDMOS]]
*[[Gallium(III) arsenide|GaAs]]
*[[SiGe]]
*[[Mixed-signal integrated circuit]]
*[[RC delay]]

;Other
*[[Chip art]]
*[[Memristor]]
*[[Microcontroller]]
*[[Moore's law]]
*[[Semiconductor manufacturing]]
*[[Simulation]]
*[[Sound chip]]
*[[SPICE]], [[Hardware description language|HDL]], [[Automatic test pattern generation]]
*[[Zero insertion force|ZIF]]
*[[DatasheetArchive]]
*[[Three-dimensional integrated circuit]]

==References==

;Academic:
{{refbegin|2}}
* Mead, C. and Conway, L. (1980). ''Introduction to VLSI Systems''. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-04358-0.
* Hodges, D.A., Jackson H.G. and Saleh, R. (2003). ''Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits''. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-228365-3.
* Jan M. Rabaey, Anantha Chandrakasan, and Borivoje Nikolic (1996 - first edition). ''Digital Integrated Circuits, 2nd Edition'' ISBN 0-13-090996-3 ''
*[http://www.intel.com/technology/architecture-silicon/65nm-technology/index.htm Intel 65-Nanometer Technology]
* Marsh, S.P. ''Practical MMIC Design'' published by Artech House ISBN 1-59693-036-5
* {{cite book |author= Baker, R. Jacob |title=CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Revised Second Edition |publisher=Wiley-IEEE |location= |year=2008 |pages= |isbn=978-0-470-22941-5 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} http://CMOSedu.com/
{{refend}}
;Precursors and patents:
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==

{{Commons|Integrated circuit|Integrated circuit}}

'''General'''

*Krazit, Tom "[http://news.com.com/2061-10791_3-6145549.html - AMD's new 65-nanometer chips sip energy but trail Intel]," ''C-net'', 2006-12-21. Retrieved on January 8, 2007
*[http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/by-generic-number.html a large chart listing ICs by generic number] and [http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/by-mfr-number a larger one listing by mfr. number], both including access to most of the datasheets for the parts.
* ''Practical MMIC Design'' published by Artech House ISBN 1-59693-036-5
Author S.P. Marsh

'''Patents'''

*{{US patent|3138743|US3,138,743}} &ndash; Miniaturized electronic circuit &ndash; [[Jack Kilby|J. S. Kilby]]
*{{US patent|3138747|US3,138,747}} &ndash; Integrated semiconductor circuit device &ndash; J. S. Kilby
*{{US patent|3261081|US3,261,081}} &ndash; Method of making miniaturized electronic circuits &ndash; J. S. Kilby
*{{US patent|3434015|US3,434,015}} &ndash; Capacitor for miniaturized electronic circuits or the like &ndash; J. S. Kilby

'''Audio video'''
*[http://www.appliedmaterials.com/HTMAC/animated.html A presentation of the chip manufacturing process], from [[Applied Materials]]

'''Silicon graffiti'''
*[http://www.chipworks.com/silicon_art_gallery.aspx The Chipworks silicon art gallery]

'''Integrated circuit die photographs'''
*[http://diephotos.blogspot.com/ IC Die Photography] &ndash; A gallery of IC die photographs

{{Digital systems}}

[[Category:Integrated circuits| ]]

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[[zh:集成电路]]

Revision as of 20:42, 15 October 2008

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