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{{about|Jesus of Nazareth}} |
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{{Infobox Person |
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| name = Jesus of Nazareth |
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| image =Christus Ravenna Mosaic.jpg |
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| caption =6th-century [[mosaic]] of Jesus at [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo]] in [[Ravenna]]. Though [[Depiction of Jesus|depictions of Jesus]] are [[Cultural depictions of Jesus|culturally important]], no undisputed record of Jesus' appearance is known to exist. |
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| birth_date= 7–2 BC/BCE |
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| birth_place= [[Bethlehem]], [[Iudaea Province|Judea]] (traditional) |
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| death_place= [[Calvary]], Judea. (According to the [[New Testament]], he [[resurrection|rose]] on the third day after his death.) |
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| death_date= 26–36 AD/CE. |
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| death_cause= [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]] (Muslim scholars dispute the Gospel claim that Jesus was crucified) |
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| resting_place= Traditionally and temporarily, a garden tomb located in what is now the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]].<ref>[[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], ''Life of Constantine''</ref> |
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| occupation= [[Carpenter]], itinerant [[Prophet|preacher]], [[Rabbi]] |
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| home_town=[[Nazareth]], [[Galilee]], [[Israel|current Israel]] |
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| ethnicity = [[Jewish]] |
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}} |
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'''Jesus of Nazareth''' (7–2 [[Before Christ|BC]]/[[Before Common Era|BCE]]—26–36 [[Anno Domini|AD]]/[[Common Era|CE]]),<!-- |
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PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE WAY DATES ARE EXPRESSED IN THIS ARTICLE. Things are the way they are due to a long struggle to attain consensus, and unless you have attained consensus with other editors via the discussion page of this article, the dates should remain AS IS. Thank you!--><ref>Some of the historians and Biblical scholars who place the birth and death of Jesus within this range include [[D. A. Carson]], [[Douglas J. Moo]] and [[Leon Morris]]. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992, 54, 56</ref><ref> [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'', Scribner's, 1977, p. 71; [[John P. Meier]], ''A Marginal Jew'', Doubleday, 1991–, vol. 1:214; [[E. P. Sanders]], ''The Historical Figure of Jesus'', Penguin Books, 1993, pp. 10–11, and [[Ben Witherington III]], "Primary Sources," ''Christian History'' 17 (1998) No. 3:12–20.</ref> also known as '''Jesus Christ''', is the central figure of [[Christianity]] and is revered by most Christian churches as the [[Son of God]] and the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation of God]]. [[Islam]] considers [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]] a [[Prophets in Islam|prophet]], and he is an important figure in several other religions. |
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The principal sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the four [[canonical gospels]] though some scholars argue that other texts (such as the [[Gospel of Thomas]]) are as relevant as the canonical gospels to the historical Jesus.<ref>[[Amy-Jill Levine]], ''The Oxford History of the Biblical World'', New York, Oxford University Press, 1999, p 371, Chapter 10: Visions of Kingdoms: From Pompey to the First Jewish Revolt (63 BCE-70 CE)." M. Coogan et al. (eds.)</ref> |
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Most critical scholars in the fields of history and [[biblical studies]] believe that ancient texts on Jesus' life are at least partially accurate,<ref>[[Lee Strobel|Strobel, Lee]]. ''The Case for Christ: A Journalist's Personal Investigation of the Evidence for Jesus.'' Zondervan, 1998. ISBN 0310209307; Wright, N.T. ''The Challenge of Jesus: Rediscovering Who Jesus Was and Is.'' InterVarsity Press, 1999. ISBN 0830822003; Dunn, James D.G. ''The Evidence for Jesus." Westminster John Knox Press, 1985. ISBN 0664246982</ref><ref>Examples of authors who argue the [[Jesus myth hypothesis]]: [[Thomas L. Thompson]] ''The Messiah Myth: The Near Eastern Roots of Jesus and David '' (Jonathan Cape, Publisher, 2006); [[Michael Martin (philosopher)|Michael Martin]], ''The Case Against Christianity'' (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991), 36–72; [[J.M. Robertson|John Mackinnon Robertson]]</ref> |
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agreeing that Jesus was a [[Galilee|Galilean]] [[Jew]] who was regarded as a teacher and [[faith healing|healer]]. They also generally accept that he was [[baptism|baptized]] by [[John the Baptist]], and was [[crucifixion|crucified]] in [[Jerusalem]] on orders of the [[Roman governor|Roman Prefect]] of [[Iudaea Province|Judaea]] [[Pontius Pilate]], on the charge of [[sedition]] against the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>[[Raymond E. Brown]], ''The Death of the Messiah: From Gethsemane to the Grave'' (New York: Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library 1994), p. 964; D. A. Carson, et al., p. 50–56; [[Shaye J.D. Cohen]], ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah'', Westminster Press, 1987, p. 78, 93, 105, 108; [[John Dominic Crossan]], ''The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant'', HarperCollins, 1991, p. xi – xiii; Michael Grant, p. 34–35, 78, 166, 200; [[Paula Fredriksen]], ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews'', Alfred B. Knopf, 1999, p. 6–7, 105–110, 232–234, 266; John P. Meier, vol. 1:68, 146, 199, 278, 386, 2:726; E.P. Sanders, pp. 12–13; [[Geza Vermes]], Jesus the Jew (Philadelphia: Fortress Press 1973), p. 37.; [[Paul Maier|Paul L. Maier]], ''In the Fullness of Time'', Kregel, 1991, pp. 1, 99, 121, 171; [[Tom Wright (theologian)|N. T. Wright]], ''The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions'', HarperCollins, 1998, pp. 32, 83, 100–102, 222; Ben Witherington III, pp. 12–20.</ref><ref> Though many historians may have certain reservations about the use of the Gospels for writing history, "even the most hesitant, however, will concede that we are probably on safe historical footing" concerning certain basic facts about the life of Jesus; Jo Ann H. Moran Cruz and Richard Gerberding, ''Medieval Worlds: An Introduction to European History'' Houghton Mifflin Company 2004, pp. 44–45.</ref> Aside from these few conclusions, academic studies remain inconclusive about the chronology, the central message of Jesus' preaching, his social class, cultural environment, and religious orientation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C&pg=PA352&lpg=PA352&dq=%22Visions+of+Kingdoms%22++%22to+the+First+Jewish+Revolt%22&source=web&ots=-shOTzBx4w&sig=DAJ3jCyO9VyFKmHa-kMX-R8fhFA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA370,M1 |authorlink=Amy-Jill Levine |first=Amy-Jill |last=Irving |title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |pages=p 370, Chapter 10: Visions of Kingdoms: From Pompey to the First Jewish Revolt (63 BCE-70 CE) |editor=M. Coogan et al.}}</ref> |
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[[Christian views of Jesus]] (see also [[Christology]]) center on the belief that Jesus is [[Christology|divine]], is the [[Christ|Messiah]] whose coming was [[Claimed Messianic prophecies of Jesus|prophesied in the Old Testament]], and that he was [[Death and resurrection of Jesus|resurrected]] after his crucifixion. Christians predominantly believe that Jesus is the "[[Son of God]]" (generally meaning that he is [[God the Son]], the second person in the [[Trinity]]), who came to provide [[Salvation#Christianity|salvation]] and [[Confession|reconciliation]] with [[God]] by his death for their [[Sin#Christian views of sin|sin]]s. Other Christian beliefs include Jesus' [[Virgin birth of Jesus|virgin birth]], performance of [[Miracles attributed to Jesus|miracles]], [[Ascension of Jesus|ascension]] into [[Heaven]], and future [[Second Coming]]. While the doctrine of the Trinity is widely accepted by Christians, a small minority instead hold various [[Nontrinitarianism|nontrinitarian]] beliefs concerning the divinity of Jesus.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Antitrinitarianism|url=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A597.html|last=Friedmann|first=Robert|year=1953|encyclopedia=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online|publisher=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online|accessdate=2008-06-08}}</ref> |
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In Islam, Jesus ({{lang-ar|عيسى}}, commonly transliterated as [[Jesus in Islam|Isa]]) is considered one of [[God in Islam|God]]'s important [[Prophets in Islam|prophets]],<ref>James Leslie Houlden, "Jesus: The Complete Guide," Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005, ISBN 082648011X</ref><ref>Prof. Dr. Şaban Ali Düzgün, "[http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/English/web_kitap.asp?yid=30 Uncovering Islam: Questions and Answers about Islamic Beliefs and Teachings]," Ankara: The Presidency of Religious Affairs Publishing, 2004</ref> a bringer of [[Injil|scripture]], and a worker of miracles. Jesus is also called "Messiah," but Islam does not teach that he was divine. Islam denies the [[death and resurrection of Jesus]], believing instead that [[Islamic view of Jesus' death|he ascended bodily to heaven]].<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/004.qmt.html#004.157 Compendium of Muslim Texts<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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==Etymology== |
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The name “Jesus” is an [[Anglicisation]] of the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Polytonic|Ἰησοῦς}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|Iēsoûs}}''), itself a [[Hellenisation]] of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{lang|he|יהושע}} (''Yehoshua'') or Hebrew-[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] {{lang|he|ישוע}} (''[[Yeshua (name)|Yeshua]]''), meaning “[[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]] rescues”. “[[Christ]]” is a title derived from the Greek {{Polytonic|Χριστός}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|Christós}}''), meaning the “Anointed One”, which corresponds to the Hebrew-derived “[[Messiah]]”.<ref>per ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374x.htm]</ref> Another common name for Jesus, '''Emmanuel''' or '''Immanuel''' is derived from the Aramaic "Imman-el", which translates as "God with us". |
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== Chronology == |
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{{main|Chronology of Jesus}} |
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Scholars do not know the exact year or date of Jesus' birth or death. The [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Gospel of Luke]] place Jesus' birth under the reign of [[Herod the Great]], who died in 4 BC/BCE,<ref>Edwin D. Freed, ''Stories of Jesus' Birth'', (Continuum International, 2004), page 119.</ref> although the Gospel of Luke also describes the birth as taking place during the [[Census of Quirinius|first census]] of the Roman provinces of [[History of Syria#Syria in antiquity|Syria]] and [[Iudaea Province|Iudaea]] in 6 AD/CE.<ref>Geza Vermes, ''The Nativity: History and Legend'', London, Penguin, 2006, page 22.</ref> Scholars generally assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC/BCE.<ref>James D. G. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, Eerdmans Publishing (2003), page 324.</ref> Due to a fourth century arrangement to offset the pagan Roman [[Saturnalia]] festival, the birth of Jesus is celebrated on [[December 25]]. Since the thirteenth century, celebration of the [[Christmas]] ("Christ's Mass") has become an important Christian tradition.<ref name="HC13">Howard Clarke, The Gospel of Matthew and its readers, Indiana University Press, p.13</ref> The common Western standard for numbering years, in which the current year is {{CURRENTYEAR}}, is based on an early medieval attempt to count the years from Jesus' birth. |
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Jesus' ministry followed that of [[John the Baptist]].<ref>Luke states that John's ministry began in the fifteenth year of the reign of [[Tiberius Caesar]], when [[Pontius Pilate]] was governor of [[Judea]], and [[Herod]] was [[tetrarch]] of [[Galilee]], and his brother Philip was tetrarch of the region of [[Iturea]] and [[Trachonitis]], and [[Lysanias]] was tetrarch of [[Abilene]], during the [[high priesthood]] of [[Annas]] and [[Caiaphas]].</ref> The Gospels, [[Josephus]], and [[Tacitus]] name Pontius Pilate as the Roman prefect who had Jesus crucified, and Pilate was prefect of Judea between 26 and 36 AD/CE.<ref>Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke, (Eerdmans, 1997), page 168.</ref> According to Matthew, Mark and Luke, Jesus was executed after [[Passover]] (a Jewish holiday occurring in northern spring) but according to John he was executed earlier in the day of preparation for the passover.<ref> Amy-Jill Levine, The Oxford Dictionary of the Biblical World, Oxford University Press, p.373</ref> Most Christians commemorate Jesus' crucifixion on [[Good Friday]] and celebrate his resurrection on [[Easter]] Sunday. |
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== Life and teachings, as told in the Gospels == |
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{{main|New Testament view on Jesus' life}} |
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The [[Bible]]'s four [[biblical canon|canonical]] [[gospel]]s, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are the principal sources for the [[Christian]] biography of Jesus' life as the miraculous Son of God. Critical scholars find valuable historical information about Jesus' life and ministry in the Gospels but more or less discount much of the miraculous and theological content. |
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The Gospels (especially Matthew) present Jesus' birth, life, death, and resurrection as fulfillments of [[Messianic prophecy in Christianity|prophecies found in the Hebrew Bible]]. See, for example, the [[virgin birth]], the [[flight into Egypt]], Immanuel ([[Isaiah 7:14]]), and the [[suffering servant]].<ref name="Christianity.com">{{cite web|url=http://Christianity.com/Christian%20Foundations/Jesus/11541169/|title="What the Old Testament Prophesied About the Messiah"|accessdate=2007-10-11}}</ref> |
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=== Character of Jesus === |
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Each gospel portrays Jesus' life and its meaning differently.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref><ref name="MisJ">[[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart D.]]. [[Misquoting Jesus]]: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4</ref> The gospel of John is not a biography of Jesus but a theological presentation of him as the divine Logos.<ref name="CC">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972</ref> To combine these four stories into one story is tantamount to creating a fifth story, one different from each original.<ref name="MisJ" /> |
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Mark presents Jesus a heroic, charismatic man of action and mighty deeds.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> Matthew portrays him especially as the fulfillment of Hebrew prophecy and as a greater Moses.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> Luke emphasizes Jesus' miraculous powers and his support for the poor and for women.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> John views Jesus' earthly life as a manifestation of the eternal Word.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> |
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{{Gospel Jesus}} |
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===Logos=== |
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The Gospel of John opens with a hymn identifying Jesus as the divine Logos, or Word, that formed the universe (John 1:1-5;9-14).<ref name ="Harris John">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "John" p. 302-310</ref> Jesus' earthly life was the Logos incarnate (John 1:14).<ref name = "Harris John"/> |
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=== Genealogy and family === |
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{{main|Genealogy of Jesus|Desposyni|Jesus bloodline}} |
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[[Image:Czestochowska.jpg|thumb|left|125px|Jesus and Mary: [[Black Madonna of Częstochowa]]]] |
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Of the four gospels, only Matthew<ref>{{niv|Matthew|1:1-17|Matthew 1:1-17}}</ref> and Luke<ref>{{niv|Luke|3:23-38|Luke 3:23-38}}</ref> give accounts of Jesus' genealogy. The accounts in the two gospels are substantially different.<ref>Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I-IX. Anchor Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 1981, pp. 499–500; I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke (The New International Greek Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978, p. 158;</ref> The genealogies cannot be harmonized and contemporary scholars generally view the genealogies as theological constructs. More specifically, some have suggested that Matthew wants to underscore birth of a messianic child of royal lineage (mentioning Solomon) whereas Luke's genealogy is priestly (mentioning Levi).<ref>[[Howard W. Clarke]], The Gospel of Matthew and Its Readers, [[Indiana University Press]], 2003, p.1</ref> Both accounts trace his line back to [[David|King David]] and from there to [[Abraham]]. These lists are identical between Abraham and David, but they differ between David and Joseph. Matthew starts with [[Solomon]] and proceeds through the kings of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] to the last king, [[Jeconiah]]. After Jeconiah, the line of kings terminated when [[Babylonian captivity|Babylon conquered Judah]]. Thus, Matthew shows Jesus as a descendant of the kings of [[Land of Israel|Israel]]. Luke's genealogy is longer than Matthew's; it goes back to [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] and provides more names between David and Jesus. |
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<!-- The way Joseph's fatherhood is not expressed or expressed is the result of a long discussion attain consensus. Please do not change without reading and discussion. --> |
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[[Saint Joseph|Joseph]], husband of [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]], appears in descriptions of Jesus' childhood. No mention, however, is made of Joseph during the ministry of Jesus. |
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The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and [[Galatians]] tell of Jesus' relatives, including what may have been brothers and sisters.<ref>{{niv|Matthew|13:55–56|Matthew 13:55–56}}, {{niv|Mark|6:3|Mark 6:3}}, and {{niv|Galatians|1:19|Galatians 1:19}}</ref> The Greek word ''adelphos'' in these verses, often translated as ''brother'', can refer to any familial relation, and most Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians translate the word as ''kinsman'' or ''cousin'' in this context (see [[Perpetual virginity of Mary]]). Luke also mentions that [[Elizabeth (Biblical person)|Elizabeth]], mother of John the Baptist, was a "cousin" or "relative" of Mary ({{niv|Luke|1:36|Luke 1:36}}), which would make John a distant cousin of Jesus. |
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=== Nativity and early life === |
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{{main|Annunciation|Nativity of Jesus|Child Jesus}} |
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[[Image:Gerard van Honthorst 002.jpg|thumb|left|165px|''Adoration of the Shepherds'', [[Gerard van Honthorst]], 17th century]] |
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According to Matthew and Luke, Jesus was born in [[Bethlehem]] of [[Judea]] to Mary, a virgin, by a miracle of the [[Holy Spirit]]. The Gospel of Luke gives an account of the [[angel]] [[Gabriel]] visiting Mary to tell her that she was chosen to bear the [[Son of God]] ({{niv|Luke|1:26–38|Luke 1:26–38}}). According to Luke, an order of [[Augustus|Caesar Augustus]] had forced Mary and Joseph to leave their homes in [[Nazareth]] and come to the home of Joseph's ancestors, the house of [[David]], for the [[Census of Quirinius]]. |
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After Jesus' birth, the couple was forced to use a [[manger]] in place of a crib because of a shortage of accommodation ({{niv|Luke|2:1–7|Luke 2:1–7}}). According to Luke, an angel announced Jesus' birth to shepherds who left their flocks to see the newborn child and who subsequently publicized what they had witnessed throughout the area (see [[The First Noël]]). Matthew tells of the "[[Biblical Magi|Wise Men]]" or "[[Magi]]" who brought gifts to the infant Jesus after following a star which they believed was a sign that the [[King of the Jews]] had been born ({{niv|Matthew|2:1–12|Matthew 2:1–12}}). King Herod hears of Jesus' birth from the Wise Men and tries to kill him by massacring all the male children in Bethlehem under the age of two (the "[[massacre of the innocents]]").<ref name ="Harris Matthew">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Matthew" p. 272-285</ref> The family flees to Egypt and remains there until Herod's death, whereupon they settle in Nazareth to avoid living under the authority of Herod's son and successor [[Herod Archelaus|Archelaus]] ({{niv|Matthew|2:19–23|Matthew 2:19–23}}). |
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Jesus' childhood home is identified as the town of Nazareth in [[Galilee]]. Except for Matthew's "flight into Egypt," and a short trip to [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and [[Sidon]] (in what is now Lebanon), the Gospels place all other events in Jesus' life in [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Israel]].<ref>''For Egypt'': {{niv|Matthew|2:13–23|Matthew 2:13–23}}; ''For Tyre and sometimes Sidon'':{{niv|Matthew|15:21–28|Matthew 15:21–28}} and {{niv|Mark|7:24–30|Mark 7:24–3}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Bogojavlenie.jpg|thumb|175px|right|[[Baptism of Jesus|Baptism of Christ]] (ortodox icon)]] |
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Only Luke tells that Jesus was found teaching in the temple by his parents after being lost. The [[Finding in the Temple]] ({{niv|Luke|2:41–52|Luke 2:41–52}}) is the only event between Jesus' infancy and baptism mentioned in any of the canonical Gospels, however [[List of gospels#infancy gospels|infancy gospels]] were popular in antiquity. According to Luke, Jesus was "about thirty years of age" when he was baptized ({{niv|Luke|3:23|Luke 3:23}}). In Mark, Jesus is called a [[carpenter]]. Matthew says he was a carpenter's son, however, the Greek word used in the Gospel is "tekton" meaning "builder," which suggests he could have been an artisan of some type as well.({{niv|Mark|6:3|Mark 6:3}}, {{niv|Matthew|13:55|Matthew 13:55}}). |
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=== Baptism and Temptation === |
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{{main|Baptism of Jesus|Temptation of Jesus|John the Baptist}} |
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All three [[synoptic Gospels]] describe the [[Baptism of Jesus]] by [[John the Baptist]], an event which Biblical scholars describe as the beginning of Jesus' public ministry. According to these accounts, Jesus came to the [[Jordan River]] where John the Baptist had been preaching and baptizing people in the crowd. After Jesus was baptized and rose from the water, Mark states Jesus "saw the heavens parting and the Spirit descending upon Him like a dove. Then a voice came from heaven saying: 'You are My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased'" ({{nkjv|Mark|1:10–11|Mark 1:10–11}}). |
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[[Image:Ary Scheffer - The Temptation of Christ (1854).jpg|thumb|right|175px|''Temptation of Christ'', [[Ary Scheffer]], 19th c.]] |
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Mark starts his narration with Jesus' baptism, specifying that it is a token of repentance and for forgiveness of sins.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> Why Jesus would need forgiveness of sins has long been a puzzle to the Church, and Matthew omits this reference, emphasizing Jesus' superiority to John.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref><ref>Early Christian accounts reflect some perplexity at Jesus being baptized, especially by a subordinate figure. See "Baptism of Christ." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Matthew describes John as initially hesitant to comply with Jesus' request for John to baptize him, stating that it was Jesus who should baptize him. Jesus persisted, "It is proper for us to do this to fulfill all righteousness" ({{niv|Matthew|3:15|Matthew 3:15}}). In Matthew, God's public dedication informs the reader that Jesus has become God's anointed ("Christ").<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> |
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Following his baptism, Jesus was led into the desert by God where he [[fasting|fasted]] for forty days and forty nights ({{niv|Matthew|4:1–2|Matthew 4:1–2}}). During this time, the [[Devil in Christianity|devil]] appeared to him and tempted Jesus three times. Each time, Jesus refused temptation with a quotation of [[scripture]] from the [[Book of Deuteronomy]]. The devil departed and angels came and brought nourishment to Jesus ({{niv|Matthew|4:1–11|Matthew 4:1–11}}, {{niv|Mark|1:12–13|Mark 1:12–13}}, {{niv|Luke|4:1–13|Luke 4:1–13}}). |
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The Gospel of John does not describe Jesus' baptism, but it does attest that Jesus is the very one about whom John had been preaching — the Son of God. The Baptist twice declares Jesus to be the Lamb of God, a term found nowhere else in the Gospels. John also emphasizes Jesus' superiority over John.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> John doesn't record Jesus' temptation in the wilderness. In John, Jesus leads a program of baptism in Judea, and his disciples baptize more people than John ({{niv|John|3:22-23|John 3:22-23}}, {{niv|John|4:1-3|John 4:1-3}}). |
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=== Ministry === |
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{{main|Ministry of Jesus|Sermon on the Mount|Sermon on the Plain|Twelve Apostles|Transfiguration of Jesus}} |
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Mark says that Jesus came to "give his life as a ransom for many," <ref>{{niv|Mark|10:45|Mark 10:45}}</ref> Luke that he was sent to "preach the good news of the [[Kingdom of God]],"<ref>{{niv|Luke|4:43|Luke 4:43}}</ref>, and John that he came so that those who believed in him would have eternal life.<ref>{{niv|John|20:31|John 20:31}}.</ref> Over the course of his ministry, Jesus is said to have [[Miracles of Jesus|performed various miracles]], including healings, [[exorcism]]s, [[walking on water]], [[turning water into wine]], and raising several people, such as [[Lazarus]], from the dead ({{niv|John|11:1–44|John 11:1–44}}, {{niv|Matthew|9:25|Matthew 9:25}}, and {{niv|Luke|7:15|Luke 7:15}}). |
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====Duration and location==== |
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John describes three different [[passover]] feasts over the course of Jesus' ministry, implying that Jesus preached for at least "two years plus a month or two."<ref>Meier 1991 vol. 1:405</ref> The [[Synoptic Gospels]] suggest a span of only one year.<ref>Introduction. [[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.</ref><ref>"The Thompson Chain-Reference Study Bible NIV," published December 1999, B.B. Kirkbride Bible Co., Inc.; William Adler & Paul Tuffin, "The Chronography of George Synkellos: A Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation," Oxford University Press (2002), p. 466</ref> In the synoptics, Jesus' ministry takes place mainly in Galilee, until he travels to Jerusalem, where he cleanses the Temple and is executed.<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref> In John, Jesus spends most of his ministry in and around Jerusalem, cleansing the temple at his ministry's beginning.<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref> |
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====Disciples==== |
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{{main|Twelve Apostles}} |
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In all four Gospels, Jesus calls Jewish peasants to be his [[Twelve Apostles]]. Three apostles, Peter, James, and John, are accorded a special status. Jesus speaks of the demands of discipleship, telling a rich man to sell his possessions and give the money to the poor. He states that his message divides family members against each other.<ref>Luke 14:26, Matthew 10:37. Luke contains a harsher version than the saying in Matthew, as does Thomas. [[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. p. 353</ref> |
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In Mark, the disciples are strangely obtuse, failing to understand Jesus' deeds and parables.<ref name ="Harris Mark">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Mark" p. 285-296</ref> In Matthew, Jesus directs the apostles' mission only to those of the house of Israel ({{niv|Matthew|15:24|Matthew 15:24}}, {{niv|Matthew|10:1-6|Matthew 10:1-6}}). Also in Matthew, Jesus confers authority on Peter in particular and on the apostles in general, founding the Christian church. Luke places a special emphasis on the women who followed Jesus, such as Mary Magdalene.<ref name ="Harris Luke">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Luke" p. 297-301</ref> |
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====Teachings and Preachings==== |
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{{main|Sermon on the Mount|Sermon on the Plain}} |
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[[Image:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|left|thumb|250px|''Sermon on the Mount'', [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]], 19th c.]] |
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In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus speaks primarily about the Kingdom of God (or Heaven).<ref>Introduction. [[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.</ref> In Matthew and Luke, he speaks further about morality and prayer. In John, he speaks at length about himself and his divine role.<ref>Introduction. [[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.</ref> |
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At the height of his ministry, Jesus is said to have attracted huge crowds numbering in the thousands, primarily in the areas of [[Galilee]] and Perea (in modern-day [[Israel]] and [[Jordan]] respectively).<ref>In ''John'', Jesus' ministry takes place in and around Jerusalem.</ref> |
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Some of Jesus' most famous teachings come from the [[Sermon on the Mount]], which contains the [[Beatitudes]] and the [[Lord's Prayer]]. It is one of five collections of teachings in Matthew.<ref name ="Harris Matthew">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Matthew" p. 272-285</ref> |
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In the Synoptics, Jesus often employs [[Parables of Jesus|parables]], such as the [[Parable of the Prodigal Son]] (Luke) and the [[Parable of the Sower]] (all Synoptics). |
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His moral teachings in Matthew and Luke encourage unconditional self-sacrificing [[agape|God-like love]] for God and for all people.{{fact}} During his sermons, he preached about service and humility, the forgiveness of sin, faith, [[Turn the other cheek|turning the other cheek]], [[Expounding of the Law#Love|love for one's enemies]] as well as friends, and the need to follow the spirit of [[Torah|the law]] in addition to the letter.<ref>''Sermon on the Mount'': {{niv|Matthew|5–7|Matthew 5–7}}; ''Prodigal Son'': {{niv|Luke|15:11–32|Luke 15:11–32}}; ''Parable of the Sower'': {{niv|Matthew|13:1–9|Matthew 13:1–9}}; ''Agape'': {{niv|Matthew|22:34–40|Matthew 22:34–40}}.</ref> |
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In the Synoptics, Jesus leads an [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] movement. He preaches that the [[End times|end of the current world]] will come unexpectedly, and that he will return to judge the world, especially according to [[The Sheep and the Goats|how they treated the vulnerable]]. He calls on his followers to be ever alert and faithful. In Mark, the Kingdom of God is a divine government that will forcibly appear within the lifetimes of his original followers.<ref name ="Harris Mark">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Mark" p. 285-296</ref> Matthew describes false Messiahs, disasters, tribulations, and signs in the heavens that will portend Jesus' return, which is also described as unexpected.<ref name ="Harris Matthew">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Matthew" p. 272-285</ref> Jesus also taught that repentance was necessary to escape [[hell]].{{fact}} |
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====Outreach to outsiders==== |
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Table fellowship is central to Jesus' ministry in the Gospels.<ref name="EJ">Crossan, John Dominic. The essential Jesus. Edison: Castle Books. 1998.</ref> He and his disciples eat with sinners (who neglect purity rules)<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref> and tax collectors (imperial [[publicani]], despised as extortionists). The apostle [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]] is a tax collector. When the [[Pharisees]] object to Jesus eating with sinners and tax collectors, Jesus replies that it is the sick who need a physician, not the healthy.<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref><ref>{{niv|Matthew|9:9–13|Matthew 9:9–13}})</ref> Jesus also defends his disciples against charges that they do not follow purity laws when eating. Jesus himself is also accused of being a drunk and a glutton.<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref> Jesus' miracles and teachings often involve food and feasting.<ref name="EJ"/> He instructs his missionaries to eat with the people that they preach to and heal.<ref name="EJ"/> In the synoptics, Jesus institutes a new covenant with a ritual meal before he is crucified. |
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Jesus' outreach to outsiders includes the [[Samaritans]], who followed [[Samaritanism|a different form]] of the Israelite religion, as reflected in his preaching to the Samaritans of [[Sychar]] ({{niv|John|4:1–42|John 4:1–42}}) and in the Good Samaritan. |
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At various times, Jesus makes a point of welcoming sinners, children, women, the poor, Samaritans, foreigners, and possibly eunuchs. |
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====Transfiguration and Jesus' Divine Role==== |
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{{main|Transfiguration of Jesus}} |
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According to the synoptic gospels, Jesus led three of [[Twelve Apostles|his apostles]] — [[Simon Peter|Peter]], [[John the Apostle|John]], and [[James the Great|James]] — to the top of a mountain to pray. While there, he was [[Transfiguration of Jesus|transfigured]] before them, his face shining like the sun and his clothes brilliant white; [[Elijah]] and [[Moses]] appeared adjacent to him. A bright cloud overshadowed them, and a voice from the sky said, "This is my beloved son, with whom I am well pleased."<ref>{{niv|Matthew|17:1–6|Matthew 17:1–6}}, {{niv|Mark|9:1–8|Mark 9:1–8}}, {{niv|Luke|9:28–36|Luke 9:28–36}}</ref> The gospels also state that toward the end of his ministry, Jesus began to warn his disciples of his future death and resurrection ({{niv|Matthew|16:21–28|Matthew 16:21–28}}). |
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In Mark, Jesus' identity as the Messiah is obscured (see [[Messianic secret]]).<ref>"Messianic Secret." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Mark states that "this generation" will be given no sign, while Matthew and Luke say they will be given no sign but the sign of Jonah.<ref>[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. pages 72-73.</ref> In John, and not in the synoptics, Jesus is outspoken about his divine identity and mission.<ref>"John, Gospel of St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Here he punctuates his ministry with several miraculous signs of his authority. |
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In John, Jesus declares that belief in the Son brings eternal life, that the Father has committed powers of judgment and forgiveness to the Son, and that He is the bread of life, the light of the world, the door of the sheep, the good shepherd, the resurrection and the life, the way, the truth, and the life, and the real vine.<ref name ="Harris John">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "John" p. 302-310</ref> Here Jesus uses the phrase "I am" in talking of himself{{niv|John|8:58|John 8:58}} in ways which designates God in the Hebrew Bible {{niv|Exodus|3:14|Exodus 3:14}}, a statement taken by some writers as claiming identity with God.<ref>"Jesus was claiming for himself the title "I AM" by which God designates himself... he was claiming to be God." - Wayne Grudem, ''Systematic Theology'', page 546, Zondervan.</ref> |
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=== Arrest, trial, and death === |
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{{main|Jesus and the Money Changers|Last Supper|Arrest of Jesus|Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus|Crucifixion of Jesus}} |
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[[Image:Eccehomo2.jpg|thumb|right|175px|''[[Ecce Homo]] (Behold the Man!)'', [[Antonio Ciseri]], 19th c.: Pontius Pilate presents a [[scourge]]d Jesus of Nazareth to onlookers: a very popular motif in Christian art.]] |
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In the account given by the synoptic gospels, Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival where a large crowd came to meet him, shouting, "[[Hosanna]]! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord! Blessed is the King of Israel!"<ref>The crowd was quoting {{niv|Psalms|118:26|Psalms 118:26}}; found in {{niv|John|12:13–16|John 12:13–16}}.</ref> Following his [[triumphal entry]],<ref>John puts the cleansing of the temple at the start of Jesus' ministry.</ref> Jesus created a disturbance at [[Herod's Temple]] by [[Jesus and the Money Changers|overturning the tables of the moneychangers]] who set up shop there, and claiming that they had made the Temple a "den of robbers." ({{niv|Mark|11:17|Mark 11:17}}). Later that week, Jesus celebrated the [[Passover|Passover meal]] with his disciples — an event subsequently known as the [[Last Supper]] — in which he prophesied that he would be betrayed by one of his disciples, and would then be executed. In this ritual he took bread and wine in hand, saying: "this is my body which is given for you" and "this cup which is poured out for you is the New Covenant in my blood," and instructed them to "do this in [[Eucharist|remembrance]] of me" ({{niv|Luke|22:7–20|Luke 22:7–20}}). Following the supper, Jesus and his disciples went to pray in the [[Garden of Gethsemane]]. |
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While in the Garden, Jesus was [[Arrest of Jesus|arrested]] by temple guards on the orders of the [[Sanhedrin]] and the high priest, [[Caiaphas]] ({{niv|Luke|22:47–52|Luke 22:47–52}}, {{niv|Matthew|26:47–56|Matthew 26:47–56}}). The arrest took place clandestinely at night to avoid a riot, as Jesus was popular with the people at large ({{niv|Mark|14:2|Mark 14:2}}). [[Judas Iscariot]], one of his apostles, betrayed Jesus by identifying him to the guards with [[The Kiss of Judas|a kiss]]. Simon Peter, another one of Jesus' apostles, used a sword to attack one of Jesus' captors, cutting off his ear, which, according to Luke, Jesus immediately healed miraculously.<ref>The apostle is identified as [[Saint Peter|Simon Peter]] in {{niv|john|18:10|John 18:10}}; the healing of the ear is found in {{niv|luke|22:51|Luke 22:51}}.</ref> Jesus rebuked the apostle, stating "all they that take the sword shall perish by the sword" ({{niv|Matthew|26:52|Matthew 26:52}}). After his arrest, Jesus' apostles went into hiding. |
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[[Image:Cristo crucificado.jpg|thumb|left|175px|''[[Crucifixion]]'', [[Diego Velázquez]], 17th c.]] |
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During the [[Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus]], the high priests and elders asked Jesus, "Are you the [[Son of God]]?" When he replied, "You are right in saying I am," they condemned Jesus for [[blasphemy]] ({{niv|luke|22:70–71|Luke 22:70–71}}). The high priests then turned him over to the Roman [[List of Kings of Judea#Roman Procurators|procurator]] [[Pontius Pilate]], based on an accusation of [[sedition]] for forbidding the payment of taxes [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2023:1-2;&version=8; Luke 23:1-2] and claiming to be King of the Jews.<ref>{{niv|Matthew|27:11|Matthew 27:11}}; {{niv|Mark|15:2|Mark 15:12}}.</ref> When Jesus came before Pilate, Pilate asked him, "Are you the king of the Jews?" to which he replied, "It is as you say." According to the Gospels, Pilate personally felt that Jesus was not guilty of any crime against the Romans, and since there was a custom at Passover for the Roman governor to free a prisoner (a custom not recorded outside the Gospels), Pilate offered the crowd a choice between Jesus of Nazareth and an insurrectionist named [[Barabbas]]. The crowd chose to have Barabbas freed and Jesus crucified. Pilate washed his hands to indicate that he was innocent of the injustice of the decision ({{niv|Matthew|27:11–26|Matthew 27:11–26}}). |
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According to all four Gospels, Jesus died before late afternoon at [[Calvary]], which was also called [[Golgotha]]. The wealthy Judean [[Joseph of Arimathea]], a member of the [[Sanhedrin]] according to Mark and Luke, received Pilate's permission to take possession of Jesus' body, placing it in a tomb.<ref>{{niv|Mark|15:42–46|Mark 15:42–46}}; {{niv|Luke|23:50–56|Luke 23:50–56}}.</ref> According to John, Joseph was aided by [[Nicodemus]], who joined him to help bury Jesus, and who appears in other parts of John's gospel ({{niv|John|19:38–42|John 19:38–42}}). The three Synoptic Gospels tell of the [[crucifixion eclipse|darkening of the sky]] from twelve until three that afternoon; Matthew also mentions an [[earthquake]] ({{niv|Matthew|27:51|Matthew 27:51}}, the earth breaking open and a number of righteous dead people rising out of the grave and going into Jerusalem. |
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=== Resurrection and Ascension === |
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{{main|Resurrection of Jesus|Harrowing of Hell|Resurrection appearances of Jesus|Great Commission|Ascension of Jesus Christ|Second Coming}} |
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[[Image:Grunewald - christ.jpg|thumb|right|175px|''Christ en majesté'', [[Matthias Grünewald]], 16th c.: [[Resurrection of Jesus]]]] |
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The Gospels state that Jesus [[resurrection of Jesus|rose from the dead]] on the third day after his [[crucifixion]].<ref name="Resurrection">{{sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=Matthew |chapter=28|verse=5|range=-10}}; {{niv|mark|16:9|Mark 16:9}}; {{niv|luke|24:12–16|Luke 24:12–16}}; {{niv|John|20:10–17|John 20:10–17}}; {{niv|Acts|2:24|Acts 2:24}}; {{niv|1Cor|6:14|1Cor 6:14}}</ref> In the Gospel of Matthew, an angel appeared near the tomb of Jesus and announced his resurrection to [[Mary Magdelene]] and "another Mary" who had arrived to [[anoint]] the body ({{niv|Matthew|28:1–10|Matthew 28:1–10}}). According to Luke there were two angels ({{niv|Luke|24:4|Luke 24:4}}), and according to Mark there was a youth dressed in white ({{niv|Mark|16:5|Mark 16:5}}). The "[[Mark 16|longer ending]]" to Mark states that on the morning of his resurrection, Jesus first appeared to Mary Magdalene ({{niv|Mark|16:9|Mark 16:9}}). John states that when Mary looked into the tomb, two angels asked her why she was crying; and as she turned round she initially failed to recognize Jesus until he spoke her name ({{niv|john|20:11–18|John 20:11–18}}). |
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The Gospels all recount appearances by Jesus to his disciples. In Matthew, Jesus proclaims the great commission to baptize the nations. In John, Jesus commissions Peter as the shepherd of the new community.<ref>[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. p. 491</ref> Also in John, Jesus demonstrates his physical presence to "[[doubting Thomas]]."<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> |
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The [[Acts of the Apostles]] state that Jesus appeared to various people in various places over the next forty days. Hours after his resurrection, he appeared to two travelers on the road to [[Emmaus]] ({{niv|Luke|24:13–35|Luke 24:13–35}}). To his assembled disciples he showed himself on the evening after his resurrection ({{niv|John|20:19|John 20:19}}). Although his own ministry had been specifically to Jews, Jesus is said to have sent his apostles to the Gentiles with the [[Great Commission]] and [[Ascension of Jesus Christ|ascended]] to heaven while a cloud concealed him from their sight. According to Acts, [[Paul of Tarsus]] had a vision of Jesus during his [[Road to Damascus]] experience. Jesus promised to [[Second Coming|come again]] to fulfill the remainder of [[Messianic prophecy]].<ref>''Ministering to Israel'': {{niv|Matthew|15:24|Matthew 15:24}}; ''ascension'': {{niv|Mark|16:19|Mark 16:19}}; {{niv|Luke|24:51|Luke 24:51}}{{niv|Acts|1:6–11|Acts 1:6–11.}}; ''Paul's conversion on the road to Damascus'': {{niv|Acts|9:1–19|Acts 9:1–19.}}, {{bibleverse-nb || Acts|22:1–22|31}}; {{bibleverse-nb || Acts|26:9–24|31}}; ''Second coming'': {{niv|Matthew|24:36–44|Matthew 24:36–44}}</ref> |
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== Historical views == |
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{{main|Historical Jesus|Quest for the historical Jesus}} |
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Scholars have used the [[historical method]] to develop probable reconstructions of Jesus' life. Over the past two hundred years, the image of Jesus among historical scholars has come to be very different from the common image of Jesus that was based on the gospels.<ref>[[Marcus Borg|Borg, Marcus J.]] in Borg, Marcus J. and N. T. Wright. The Meaning of Jesus: Two visions. New York: HarperCollins. 2007.</ref> Some scholars draw a distinction between Jesus as reconstructed through historical methods and Jesus as understood through a theological point of view, while other scholars hold that a [[Religious perspectives on Jesus|theological Jesus]] represents a historical figure.<ref>See, for an example of the latter, Pope [[Benedict XVI]], ''Jesus of Nazareth''. Doubleday, 2007. ISBN 978-0-385-52341-7</ref> The principal sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the gospels, especially the synoptic gospels: [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]. Including the Gospels, there are no surviving historical accounts of Jesus written during his life or within three decades of his crucifixion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rationalchristianity.net/jesus_extrabib.html |title=Extrabiblical references to Jesus |accessdate=4 December 2008 |work=Extra-biblical references to Jesus and Christianity |publisher=Rational Christianity |date= 17 Jan 2006}}</ref> Biblical scholars and historians accept the historical existence of Jesus.<ref>"The nonhistoricity thesis has always been controversial, and it has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines and religious creeds. ... Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted." - [[Robert E. Van Voorst|Van Voorst, Robert E.]] ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'' (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000), p. 16.</ref><ref>"The denial of Jesus' historicity has never convinced any large number of people, in or our of technical circless, nor did it in the first part of the century." Walter P. Weaver, ''The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century, 1900-1950'', (Continuum International, 1999), page 71.</ref><ref>"about once every generation someone reruns the thesis that Jesus never existed and that the Jesus tradition is a wholesale invention," J. G. Dunn, ''Jesus Remembered'', (Eerdmans, 2003), page 142.</ref><ref>"There is almost universal agreement that Jesus lived." Bernard L. Ramm, ''An Evangelical Christology: Ecumenic and Historic'', (Regent College Publishing, 1993), page 19.</ref><ref>"some judgements are so probable as to be certain; for example, Jesus really existed," Marcus Borg, 'A Vision of the Christian Life', in Marcus J. Borg and N T Wright, ''The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions'', (HarperCollins, 1999), page 236.</ref> |
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The English title of Albert Schweitzer's 1906 book, ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus,'' is a label for the post-Enlightenment effort to describe Jesus using critical historical methods.<ref name="Oxford:Historical">Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 - article "Historical Jesus, Quest of the"</ref> Since the end of the 18th century, scholars have examined the gospels and tried to formulate historical biographies of Jesus. Contemporary efforts benefit from a better understanding of 1st-century Judaism, renewed Roman Catholic biblical scholarship, broad acceptance of critical historical methods, sociological insights, and literary analysis of Jesus' sayings.<ref name="Oxford:Historical" /> |
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=== Constructing a historical view === |
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{{main|Historical Jesus|Cultural and historical background of Jesus}} |
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Historians analyze the gospels to try to discern the historical man on whom these stories are based. They compare what the gospels say to historical events relevant to the times and places where the gospels were written. They try to answer historical questions about Jesus, such as why he was crucified. |
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Most scholars agree the Gospel of Mark was written about the time of the destruction of [[Herod's Temple|the Jewish Temple]] by the Romans under [[Titus]] in the year 70, and that the other gospels were written between 70–100.<ref>Meier (1991), pp.43–4</ref> The historical outlook on Jesus relies on [[Biblical criticism|critical analysis of the Bible]], especially the gospels. Many scholars have sought to reconstruct Jesus' life in terms of contemporaneous political, cultural, and religious currents in Israel, including differences between Galilee and Judea, and between different sects such as the [[Pharisees]], [[Sadducees]], [[Essenes]] and [[Zealots]],<ref>For a comparison of the Jesus movement to the Zealots, see [[S. G. F. Brandon]], ''Jesus and the Zealots: a study of the political factor in primitive Christianity,'' Manchester University Press (1967) ISBN 0–684–31010–4</ref><ref name="comparison">For a general comparison of Jesus' teachings to other schools of first century Judaism, see [[John P. Meier]], ''Companions and Competitors (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Volume 3)'' Anchor Bible, 2001. ISBN 0–385–46993–4.</ref> and in terms of conflicts among Jews in the context of Roman occupation. |
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=== Descriptions === |
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Historians generally describe Jesus as a healer who preached the restoration of God's kingdom.<ref>[[Shaye J.D. Cohen]], ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah'', Westminster Press, 1987, p. 78, 93, 105, 108; [[John Dominic Crossan]], ''The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant'', HarperCollins, 1991, p. xi – xiii; Michael Grant, p. 34–35, 78, 166, 200; [[Paula Fredriksen]], ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews'', Alfred B. Knopf, 1999, p. 6–7, 105–110, 232–234, 266; John P. Meier, vol. 1:68, 146, 199, 278, 386, 2:726; E.P. Sanders, pp. 12–13; [[Geza Vermes]], Jesus the Jew (Philadelphia: Fortress Press 1973), p. 37.;</ref> Most historians agree he was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified by the Romans. |
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John the Baptist led a large apocalyptic movement. He demanded repentance and baptism. Jesus was baptized and later began his ministry. After John was executed, some of his followers apparently took Jesus as their new leader.<ref name=autogenerated1>Sanders, E.P. ''Jesus and Judaism.'' Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1987; [[Geza Vermes|Vermes, Geza]]. ''Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1981; [[Paula Fredriksen|Fredriksen, Paula]]. ''From Jesus to Christ.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000.</ref> Historians are nearly unanimous in accepting Jesus' baptism as a historical event.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> |
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According to Robert Funk, Jesus taught in pithy parables and with striking images.<ref name = "5G">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.</ref> He likened the Kingdom of Heaven to small and lowly things, such as yeast or a mustard seed,<ref name = "5G">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. page 21.</ref> that have great effects. |
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Jesus placed a special emphasis on God as one's heavenly father.<ref name = "5G">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. page 21.</ref> |
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=== Names and titles === |
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{{Jesus}} |
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{{main|Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament}} |
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Jesus probably lived in [[Galilee]] for most of his life and he probably spoke [[Aramaic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.godward.org/Hebrew%20Roots/did%20jesus%20speak%20hebrew.htm|title=Brian Knowles: Which Language Did Jesus Speak – Aramaic or Hebrew?}}</ref> The name "Jesus" comes from an alternate spelling of the [[Latin language|Latin]] (''Iēsus'') which in turn comes from the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] name Iesous (''{{Polytonic|Ιησους}}''). The name has also been translated into English as "[[Joshua]]."<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374x.htm "Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ"]. ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. Retrieved April 14, 2007.''</ref> Further examination of the [[Septuagint]] finds that the Greek, in turn, is a transliteration of the Hebrew/[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] [[Yeshua (name)|Yeshua]] ({{lang|he|ישוע}}) (''Yeshua'' — he will save) a contraction of Hebrew name ''Yehoshua'' ({{lang|he|יהושוע}} ''Yeho'' — [[Yahweh]] [is] ''shua`'' — deliverance/rescue, usually Romanized as ''Joshua''). Scholars believe that one of these was likely the name that Jesus was known by during his lifetime by his peers.<ref>Durant, Will. ''Caesar and Christ''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. p. 558; John P. Meier, ''A Marginal Jew''. New York: Doubleday, 1991 vol. 1:205–7;</ref> |
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''[[Christ]]'' (which is a title and not a part of his name) is an Anglicization of the Greek term for ''[[Messiah]]'' (''χριστός'', from the verb ''χρίω'' "to anoint"), and literally means "anointed one." Historians have debated what this title might have meant at the time Jesus lived; some historians have suggested that other titles applied to Jesus in the New Testament had meanings in the first century quite different from those meanings ascribed today.<ref>Vermes, "Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels"</ref> |
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The titles "Divine," "[[Son of God]]," "God," "God from God," "Lord," "Redeemer," "Liberator,", "The Prince of Peace", "The Wonder Counsellor" and "Saviour of the World" were each applied to the Roman emperors. [[John Dominic Crossan]] considers that the application of them to Jesus by the early Christians would have been regarded as denying them to the emperor(s). "They were taking the identity of the Roman emperor and giving it to a Jewish peasant. Either that was a peculiar joke and a very low lampoon, or it was what the Romans called ''majestas'' and we call high treason."<ref> Crossan, John Dominic, God and Empire, 2007, p. 28</ref> |
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Many New Testament scholars argue that Jesus himself made no claims to being God.<ref>"A further point of broad agreement among New Testament scholars is ... that the historical Jesus did not make the claim to deity that later Christian thought was to make for him: he did not understand himself to be God, or God the Son, incarnate. " - [[John Hick]], ''The Metaphor of God Incarnate: Christology in a Pluralistic Age'', Westminster John Knox Press, page 27.</ref><ref>[[Michael Ramsey]], ''Jesus and the Living Past'' (Oxford University Press, 1980), page 39: 'Jesus did not claim deity for himself'</ref><ref>[[C. F. D. Moule]], ''The Origin of Christology'' : 'Any case for a "high" Christology that depended on the authenticity of the alleged claims of Jesus about himself, especially in the Fourth Gospel, would indeed be precarious'</ref><ref>[[James Dunn|James Dunn (theologian)]], ''Christology in the Making'', (SCM Press 1980), page 254: 'We cannot claim that Jesus believed himself to be the incarnate Son of God' and 'There is no question in my mind that the doctrine of incarnation comes to clear expression within the NT…John 1.14 ranks as a classic formulation of the Christian belief in Jesus as incarnate God.' Page xiii. .</ref><ref>Brian Hebblethwaite, ''The Incarnation'' (Cambridge University Press, 1987), page 74: 'it is no longer possible to defend the divinity of Jesus by reference to the claims of Jesus' .</ref><ref>John A. T. Robinson, ''Honest to God'', Westminster Press (1963), Page 47: 'It is, indeed, an open question whether Jesus ever claimed to be the Son of God, let alone God.'</ref><ref>Larry Hurtado, ''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'', page 5, describes the view that Jesus made 'both his messiahship and his divinity clear to his disciples during his ministry' as 'naive and ahistorical'.</ref> Most Christians identified Jesus as divine from a very early period, although holding a variety of views as to what exactly this implied.<ref>Larry Hurtado, ''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'', (Eerdmans, 2005), page 650.</ref> |
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=== Religious groups === |
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Scholars refer to the religious background of the early 1st century to better reconstruct Jesus' life. Some scholars identify him with one or another group. |
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====Pharisees==== |
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[[Pharisees]] were a powerful force in 1st-century Judea. Early Christians shared several beliefs of the Pharisees, such as resurrection, retribution in the next world, angels, human freedom, and Divine Providence.<ref>"Pharisees." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> After the fall of the Temple, the Pharisee outlook was established in Rabbinic Judaism. Some scholars speculate that Jesus was himself a [[Pharisee]].<ref>Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the [[Talmud]] and other Jewish literature.<!-- Sanders is disputed, see talk[[E. P. Sanders|Sanders, E. P.]] ''Jesus and Judaism,'' Fortress Press, 1987. ISBN 0–8006–2061–5; --> [[Hyam Maccoby|Maccoby, Hyam]] ''Jesus the Pharisee,'' Scm Press, 2003. ISBN 0–334–02914–7; [[Harvey Falk|Falk, Harvey]] ''Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus,'' Wipf & Stock Publishers (2003). ISBN 1–59244–313–3.</ref> In Jesus' day, the two main schools of thought among the Pharisees were the [[House of Hillel]], which had been founded by the eminent [[Tannaim|Tanna]], [[Hillel the Elder]], and the [[House of Shammai]]. Jesus' assertion of hypocrisy may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he also agreed with their teachings on divorce ({{niv|Mark|10:1–12|Mark 10:1–12}}).<ref>[[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]] ''A Rabbi Talks With Jesus,'' McGill-Queen's University Press, 2000. ISBN 0–7735–2046–5. Rabbi Neusner contends that Jesus' teachings were closer to the House of Shammai than the House of Hillel.</ref> Jesus also commented on the House of Hillel's teachings ([[Babylonian Talmud]], [[Shabbat]] 31a) concerning the [[Shema Yisrael|greatest commandment]] ({{niv|Mark|12:28–34|Mark 12:28–34}}) and the [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden Rule]] ({{niv|Matthew|7:12|Matthew 7:12}}). |
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Historians do not know whether there were Pharisees in Galilee during Jesus' life, or what they would be like if there were.<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref> |
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====Sadducees==== |
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The [[Sadducee]] sect was particularly powerful in Jerusalem. They accepted the written Law only, rejecting the traditional interpretations accepted by the Pharisees, such as belief in retribution in an afterlife, resurrection of the body, angels, and spirits. After Jesus caused a disturbance at the Temple, it seems{{weasel-inline|Date=November 2008}} to have been the Sadducees who had him arrested and turned over to the Romans for execution. After the fall of Jerusalem, they disappeared from history.<ref>"Sadducees." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> |
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====Essenes==== |
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[[Essenes]] were apocalyptic ascetics, one of the three (or four) major Jewish schools of the time, though they were not mentioned in the [[New Testament]].<ref>Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], especially the [[Teacher of Righteousness]] and Pierced Messiah. [[Robert Eisenman|Eisenman, Robert]] ''James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls,'' Penguin (Non-Classics), 1998. ISBN 0–14–025773-X; [[Hartmut Stegemann|Stegemann, Hartmut]] ''The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus.'' Grand Rapids MI, 1998. See also Broshi, Magen, "What Jesus Learned from the Essenes," ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]],'' 30:1, pg. 32–37, 64. Magen notes similarities between Jesus' teachings on the virtue of poverty and divorce, and Essene teachings as related in Josephus' ''[[The Jewish Wars]]'' and in the [[Damascus Document]] of the Dead Sea Scrolls, respectively. See also [[Keith Akers| Akers, Keith]] ''The Lost Religion of Jesus.'' Lantern, 2000. ISBN 1-930051-26-3.</ref> Some scholars theorize that Jesus was an [[Essene]], or close to them. Among these scholars is [[Pope Benedict XVI]], who supposes in his book on Jesus that "it appears that not only John the Baptist, but possibly Jesus and his family as well, were close to the Qumran community."<ref> Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth, p. 14</ref> |
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====Apocalyptic sect==== |
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Most scholars hold that the movement Jesus led was apocalyptic, expecting God to intervene imminently to restore Israel. John the Baptist's movement was apocalyptic, and Jesus began his public career as one of his followers.<ref>Crossan, John Dominic. The essential Jesus. Edison: Castle Books. 1998. p. 146</ref> Scholars commonly surmise that Jesus' eschatology was apocalyptic, like John's.<ref>See [[Albert Schweitzer|Schwietzer, Albert]] ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede,'' pp. 370–371, 402. Scribner (1968), ISBN 0–02–089240–3; [[Bart Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart]] ''Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium,'' Oxford University Press USA, 1999. ISBN 0–19–512474-X. Crossan, however, makes a distinction between John's apocalyptic ministry and Jesus' ethical ministry. See [[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]], ''The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus,'' pp. 305–344. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0–06–061659–8.</ref><!--(this material is off-topic in the historical jesus section) who became [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] after the [[Great Commission]] spread his teachings to the [[Gentiles]].<ref>This includes the belief that Jesus was the Messiah. [[Michael L. Brown|Brown, Michael L.]] ''Answering Jewish Objections to Jesus: Messianic Prophecy Objections'' Baker Books, 2003. ISBN 0–8010–6423–6. Brown shows how the Christian concept of Messiah relates to ideas current in late Second Temple period Judaism. See also [[Joseph Klausner|Klausner, Joseph]], ''The Messianic Idea in Israel: From its Beginning to the Completion of the Mishnah,'' Macmillan 1955; [[Raphael Patai|Patai, Raphael]], ''Messiah Texts,'' Wayne State University Press, 1989. ISBN 0–8143–1850–9; [[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]], ''The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus,'' pg. 461. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0–06–061659–8. Patai and Klausner state that one interpretation of the prophecies reveal either two Messiahs, Messiah ben Yosef (the dying Messiah) and Messiah ben David (the Davidic King), or one Messiah who comes twice. Crossan cites the Essene teachings about the twin Messiahs. Compare to the Christian doctrine of the [[Second Coming]].</ref> This is distinct from an earlier commission Jesus gave to the [[twelve Apostles]], limited to "the lost sheep of the house of Israel" and specifically excluding the Gentiles or [[Samaritans]] ({{niv|Matthew|10|Matthew 10}}).--> |
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===="Nazarene"==== |
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The Gospels record that Jesus was a [[Nazarene]], a term commonly taken to refer to his place of birth, but sometimes as a religious affiliation.<ref name="comparison">.</ref> |
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====Zealots==== |
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The [[Zealots]] were a revolutionary party opposed to Roman rule, one of those parties that, according to [[Josephus]] inspired the fanatical stand in Jerusalem that led to its destruction in the year 70.<ref name = "Cross-2005-Zealots">"Zealots." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Luke identifies Simon, a disciple, as a "zealot," which might mean a member of the [[Zealot]] party (which would therefore have been already in existence in the lifetime of Jesus) or a zealous person.<ref name = "Cross-2005-Zealots"/> The notion that Jesus himself was a Zealot does not do justice to the earliest Synoptic material describing him.<ref>"Jesus Christ." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> |
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=== Christian scripture as historical texts === |
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{{main|Higher criticism}} |
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Historians examine Christian scripture for important clues about the historical Jesus. They sort out sayings and events that are more likely to be genuine and use those to construct their portraits of Jesus. The Gospel tradition has certainly preserved several authentic fragments of Jesus' teaching. |
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The New Testament was at least substantially complete by AD 100, making its books, especially the synoptic gospels, historically relevant.<ref>"The New Testament was complete, or substantially complete, about AD 100, the majority of the writings being in existence twenty to forty years before this ...the situation is encouraging from the historian's point of view, for the first three Gospels were written at a time when many were alive who could remember the things that Jesus said and did... At any rate, the time elapsing between the evangelic events and the writing of most of the New Testament books was, from the standpoint of historical research, satisfactorily short." Bruce, F. F.: ''The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?'', pp. 12-14, InterVarsity Press, USA, 1997.</ref> The Gospel tradition certainly preserves several fragments of Jesus' teaching.<ref>"There is no reason to doubt that we have in the Gospel tradition several authentic fragments of His [Jesus Christ's] teaching (albeit in Greek translation)." "Jesus Christ." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> The [[Gospel of Mark]] is believed to have been written c. 70 AD/CE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/mark.html |title=Early Christian Writings: Gospel of Mark |accessdate=2008-01-15 |last=Peter |first=Kirby |date=2001-2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Achtemeier |first=Paul J. |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |encyclopedia=The Anchor Bible Dictonary |title=The Gospel of Mark |url= |accessdate=2008-01-16 |edition= |date= |year=1991- |publisher=Doubleday |volume=4 |location=New York, New York |isbn=0385193629 |doi= |pages=545 |quote= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Meier | first = John P. | authorlink = John P. Meier | coauthors = | title = A Marginal Jew | publisher = Doubleday | year = 1991 | location = New York, New York | pages = v.2 955-6 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0385469934 }}</ref> [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] is placed at being sometime after this date and Luke is thought by some scholars to have been written as early as 60 AD/CE, although others argue for a later date ranging from 70 to 100 AD/CE.<ref>A. Harnack, ''The Date of Acts and the Synoptic Gospels'' (1911), p. 90; J. A. T. Robinson, ''Redating the New Testament'', pp. 86-92; I. H. Marshall, ''Luke'', p. 35; A. J. Mattill Jr., ‘The Date and Purpose of Luke-Acts: Rackham reconsidered, in ''Catholic Biblical Quarterly'' 40 (1978), pp. 335-350.</ref><ref name="ODCC self">"Matthew, Gospel acc. to St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: [[Oxford University Press]]. 2005</ref> |
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Biblical scholars hold that the works describing Jesus were initially communicated by [[oral history|oral tradition]], and were not committed to writing until several decades after Jesus' crucifixion. After the original oral stories were written down in Greek, they were transcribed, and later translated into other languages. <!--(Find a more noteworthy scholar than Sir Frederic) Having been written, the New Testament sources encountered insignificant changes, according to scholars such as the late [[Frederic Kenyon|Sir Frederic Kenyon]] (1863 - 1952).<ref>"The interval then between the dates of the original composition and the earliest extant evidence becomes so small as to be in fact negligible, and the last foundation for any doubt that the Sciptures have come down to us substantially as they were written has now been removed. Both the ''authenticity'' and the ''general integrity'' of the books of the New Testament may be regarded as finally established." As quoted in Bruce, F. F.: ''The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?'', p. 20, InterVarsity Press, USA, 1997.</ref>-->Contemporary textual critic [[Bart D. Ehrman]] cites numerous places where the gospels, and other New Testament books, were apparently altered by Christian scribes.<ref name="MisJ">[[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart D.]]. [[Misquoting Jesus]]: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4</ref> |
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Critical scholars consider scriptural accounts more likely when they are attested in multiple texts, plausible in Jesus' historical environment, and potentially embarrassing to the author's Christian community. The "[[criterion of embarrassment]]" holds that stories about events with aspects embarassing to Christians (such as the denial of Jesus by [[Saint Peter|Peter]], or the fleeing of Jesus' followers after his arrest) would likely not have been included if those accounts were fictional.<ref name="A Marginal Jew"> Meier, John P., [[John P. Meier#A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'']], Doubleday: 1991. vol 1: p. 168–171.</ref> Sayings attributed to Jesus are deemed more likely to reflect his character when they are distinctive, vivid, paradoxical, surprising, and contrary to social and religious expectations, such as "Blessed are the poor."<ref name = "5G intro">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. Introduction, p. 1-38</ref> Short, memorable parables and aphorisms capable of being transmitted orally are also thought more likely to be authentic.<ref name = "5G intro">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. Introduction, p. 1-38</ref> |
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The earliest [[extant text]]s which refer to Jesus are [[Paul the Apostle|Paul's]] letters (mid-1st century), which affirm Jesus' crucifixion. Some scholars hold that the Gospel of Thomas, a collection of 114 sayings of Jesus, predates the four orthodox gospels, and was composed around mid-first century.<ref>Kenneth Keulman, Critical Moments in Religious History, Mercer University Press, p.56</ref><ref>Andrew F. Gregory, Christopher Mark Tuckett, The Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers, Oxford University Press, p.178</ref> |
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=== Mythical view === |
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{{Main|Jesus myth hypothesis}} |
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{{see|Jesus Christ and comparative mythology}} |
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A few scholars have questioned the existence of Jesus as an actual historical figure. Among the proponents of non-historicity was [[Bruno Bauer]] in the 19th century. Non-historicity was somewhat influential in biblical studies during the early 20th century. |
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(The views of scholars who entirely rejected Jesus' historicity then were summarized in the chapter on Jesus in [[Will Durant]]'s ''Caesar and Christ'' (in 1944); they were based on a suggested lack of eyewitness, a lack of direct archaeological evidence, the failure of certain ancient works to mention Jesus, and similarities early Christianity shares with then-contemporary religion and mythology.<ref>Durant 1944:553-7</ref>) |
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More recently, arguments for non-historicity have been discussed by authors such as [[George Albert Wells]] and [[Robert M. Price]]. Additionally, [[The Jesus Puzzle]] and [[The Jesus Mysteries]] are examples of popular works promoting the non-historical hypothesis. |
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Nevertheless, non-historicity has been rejected by almost all Biblical scholars and historians.<ref>Bruce, FF (1982). ''New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?'' InterVarsity Press, ISBN 087784691X</ref><ref>Herzog II, WR (2005). ''Prophet and Teacher''. WJK, ISBN 0664225284</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Komoszewski|first=JE|coauthors=Sawyer, MJ & Wallace, DB|year=2006|title=Reinventing Jesus|publisher=Kregel Publications|pages=195f|isbn=978-0825429828}}</ref><!--"refute" is a strong word - suggesting strong evidence has been presented against. In the history of this article I have seen only 1 quote by 1 author who makes this claim. Such a strong claim needs more than 1 quote. "Dead" and "refuted" are not the same. Projects become "dead" by being abandonded because they are no longer thought to be productive. "Refuted" means some VERY strong evidence against it has been found--> In ''Jesus Outside the New Testament'' (2000), [[Robert E. Van Voorst]] a Professor of New Testament Studies at [[Western Theological Seminary]] wrote, "The theory of Jesus' nonexistence is now effectively dead as a scholarly question....Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted."<ref>{{cite book |author=Robert E. Van Voorst |year=2000 |title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence |publisher=Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=0-8028-4368-9 |pages=quotation pp. 9-16}}</ref></blockquote> Author [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]] stated that standard historical criteria prevent one from rejecting Jesus' existence.<ref>"…if we apply to the New Testament, as we should, the same sort of criteria as we should apply to other ancient writings containing historical material, we can no more reject Jesus' existence than we can reject the existence of a mass of pagan personages whose reality as historical figures is never questioned. ... To sum up, modern critical methods fail to support the Christ myth theory. It has 'again and again been answered and annihilated by first rank scholars.' In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary." M. Grant, ''Jesus: An Historian's Review'', pp. 199-200. 1977</ref> |
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== Religious perspectives == |
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{{Christianity}} |
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{{main|Religious perspectives on Jesus}} |
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=== Christian views === |
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{{main|Christian views of Jesus|Christology}} |
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Though [[Christianity|Christian]] views of Jesus vary, it is possible to describe a general majority Christian view by examining the similarities between specific Western Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and many Protestant doctrines found in their [[catechism|catechetical]] or [[Confessionalism (religion)|confessional]] texts.<ref>This section draws on a number of sources to determine the doctrines of these groups, especially the early Creeds, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, works contained in the Book of Concord, and others.</ref> This view, given below, does not encompass all groups which describe themselves as Christian, with alternative views immediately following. |
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==== Savior and Redeemer ==== |
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Christians profess that Jesus is the Messiah (Greek: ''Christos''; English: Christ) prophesied in the [[Old Testament]],<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §436–40; ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 2; Irenaeus ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Adversus Haereses]]'' in ''[[Patrologia Graeca]]'' ed. [[J. P. Migne]] (Paris, 1857–1866) 7/1, 93; {{niv|Luke|2:1|Luke 2:11}}; {{niv|Matthew|16:16|Matthew 16:16}}</ref> who, through his life, death, and resurrection, restored humanity's communion with God in the blood of the [[New Covenant (theology)|New Covenant]]. His death on a cross is understood as the redemptive sacrifice: the source of humanity's salvation and the atonement for [[sin]]<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §606–618; Council of Trent (1547) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, ''Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum'' (1965) §1529;{{niv|John|14:2–3|John 14:2–3}}</ref> which had [[The Fall of Man|entered human history]] through the [[Original sin|sin of Adam]].<ref>''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 9; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 2; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 8; {{niv|Romans|5:12–21|Rom 5:12–21}}; {{niv|1_Corthians|15:21–22|1 Cor 15:21–22}}.</ref> |
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The [[Atonement (satisfaction view)|satisfaction view]] of [[substitutionary atonement|atonement]] for sin, first articulated by [[Anselm of Canterbury]], is that humanity owes God a debt of honor. This debt creates essentially an imbalance in the moral universe; it could not be satisfied by God's simply ignoring it. In this view, the only possible way of repaying the debt was for a being of infinite greatness, acting as a man on behalf of men, to repay the debt of honor owed to God. Therefore, when Jesus died, he paid a debt to God, his father. [[Thomas Aquinas]] consider atonement and articulated that rather than seeing the debt as one of honor, he sees the debt as a moral injustice to be righted. Aquinas concludes that punishment is a morally good response to sin, "Christ bore a satisfactory punishment, not for His, but for our sins," and substitution for another's sin is entirely possible.<ref>[[Thomas Aquinas]], ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', First Part of the Second Part, Question 87, Article 7, Reply to Objection 3, available [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/2087.htm here]</ref> |
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Christians also profess that Jesus suffered death by [[crucifixion]],<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Nicene Creed]];[[Luther's Small Catechism]] commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 9</ref> and rose bodily from the dead in the definitive miracle that foreshadows the [[Resurrection of the dead|resurrection]] of humanity at the end of time,<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §638–655; Byzantine Liturgy, ''Troparion'' of Easter; ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 4 and 17; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 3; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 9.</ref> when Christ will come again to [[Last judgment|judge the living and the dead]],<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Nicene Creed]]; [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] §668–675, 678–679; [[Luther's Small Catechism]] commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]; {{niv|Matthew|25:32–46|Mt 25:32–46}}</ref> resulting in either entrance into heaven or damnation.<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2L.HTM Catechism of the Catholic Church §1021-1022]</ref> The [[Death and resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] is perhaps the most controversial aspect of the life of Jesus. Christianity hinges on this point of Christology, both as a response to a particular history and as a confessional response.<ref>[[Reginald H. Fuller#The Foundations of New Testament Christology (1965)|Fuller 1965, p. 15]]</ref> Christians believe that Jesus' resurrection brings reconciliation with God (II Corinthians 5:18), the destruction of death (I Corinthians 15:26), and [[Atonement|forgiveness of sins]] for followers of Jesus. |
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==== Fully man and fully God ==== |
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{{main|Trinity}} |
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Christians profess Jesus to be the only [[Son of God]], the Lord,<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Nicene Creed]]; [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] §441–451; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 3; [[Luther's Small Catechism]], commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]; {{niv|Matthew|16:16–17|Matthew 16:16–17}}; {{niv|1_Corinthians|2:8|1 Corinthians 2:8}}</ref> and the eternal [[Logos#Use in Christianity|Word]] (which is a translation of the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Logos''),<ref>''Augsburg Confession'', article 3; {{niv|John|1:1|John 1:1}}</ref> who became man in the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation]],<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Nicene Creed]]; [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] §461–463;''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 2; [[Luther's Small Catechism]] commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]; {{niv|John|1:14–16|John 1:14, 16}}; {{niv|Hebrews|10:5–7|Hebrews 10:5–7}}</ref> so that those who believe in him might have eternal life.<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §456–460; Gregory of Nyssa, Orat. catech. 15 in ''Patrologia Graeca'' ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1857–1866) 45, 48B; St. Irenaeus, ''Adversus Haereses'' 3.19.1 in ibid. 7/1, 939; St. Athanasius, ''De inc.'', 54.3 in ibid. 25, 192B. St. Thomas Aquinas, ''Opusc.'' in ibid. 57: 1–4; {{niv|Galatians|4:4–5|Galatians 4:4–5}}</ref> They further hold that he was born of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]] by the power of the Holy Spirit in an event described as the miraculous [[Virgin Birth|virgin birth]] or Incarnation.<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Nicene Creed]]; [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] §484–489, 494–507; [[Luther's Small Catechism]] commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]</ref> |
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The Gospels of Matthew and Luke suggest the [[Virgin Birth of Jesus|virgin birth]] of Jesus. Barth speaks of the virgin birth as the divine sign "which accompanies and indicates the mystery of the incarnation of the Son."<ref>Barth 1956, p. 207</ref> Donald MacLeod<ref>MacLeod 1998, p. 37-41</ref> gives several Christological implications of a virgin birth: it highlights salvation as a [[supernatural]] act of God rather than an act of human initiative, avoids [[adoptionism]] (which is virtually required if a normal birth), and reinforces the sinlessness of Christ, especially as it relates to Christ being outside the sin of Adam ([[original sin]]). |
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[[Image:Christology.gif|left|thumb|350px|Comparison of Christological positions]] |
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Between 325 and 681, Christians theologically articulated and refined their view of the nature of Jesus by a series of seven [[ecumenical council]]s (see [[Christology]]). These councils described Jesus as one of the three divine [[Hypostasis (religion)|hypostases]] or persons of the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]]: the Son is defined as constituting, together with God the Father and the Holy Spirit, the single [[Ousia|substance]] of the One God (see ''[[Communicatio idiomatum]]'').<ref>''Nicene Creed''; ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 1; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 1; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 3; Council of Nicaea I (325) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, ''{{lang|la|Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum}}'' (1965) §126; Council of Constantinople II (553) in ibid. §424 and 424; Council of Ephesus in ibid. §255; {{niv|John|1:1|John 1:1}}; {{niv|John|8:58|8:58}}; {{niv|John|10:30|10:30}}</ref> Furthermore, Jesus is defined to be one person with a fully human and a fully divine [[Physis|nature]], a doctrine known as the [[Hypostatic union]].<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §464–469; ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 2 and 3 ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 9; Council of Ephesus (431) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, ''{{lang|la|Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum}}'' (1965) §250; Council of Ephesus in ibid. §251; Council of Chalcedon (451) in ibid. §301 and 302; {{niv|Hebrews|4:15|Hebrews 4:15}}.</ref> |
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====Ministry==== |
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In his life Jesus proclaimed the "good news" (Middle English: [[gospel]]; Greek: ''euangelion'') that the coming [[Kingdom of God|Kingdom of Heaven]] was at hand,<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §541–546</ref> and established the [[Christian Church]], which is the seed of the kingdom, into which Jesus calls the poor in spirit.<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] §551–553; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 8; [[Luther's Small Catechism]] commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 9; Leo the Great, ''Sermo'' 4.3 in ''Patrologia Latina'' ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1841–1855); {{niv|Matthew|16:18|Matthew 16:18}}</ref> Jesus' actions at the [[Last Supper]], where he instituted the [[Eucharist]], are understood as central to communion with God and remembrance of Jesus' sacrifice.<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church"§1322–1419; [[Martin Luther]], ''Augsburg Confession'', article 10; [[Luther's Small Catechism]]: ''the Sacrament of the Altar''</ref> |
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==== Prophet, priest, and king==== |
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Jesus Christ, the Mediator of humankind, fulfills the [[Threefold Office|three offices of Prophet, Priest, and King]]. [[Eusebius]] of the early church worked out this threefold classification, which [[John Calvin]] developed<ref>John Calvin, Calvins Calvinism BOOK II Chapter 15 Centers for Reformed Theology and Apologetics [resource online] (1996-2002, accessed June 03, 2006); available [http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book2/bk2ch15.html#one.htm here]</ref> and [[John Wesley]] discussed.<ref>H. Orton Wiley, Christian Theology Chapter 22 [resource online] (Nampa, Idah: 1993-2005, accessed June 03, 2006); available [http://wesley.nnu.edu/holiness_tradition/wiley/wiley-2-22.htm here]</ref> |
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==== Nontrinitarian views ==== |
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{{seealso|Nontrinitarianism}} |
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Current religious groups that do not accept the doctrine of the Trinity include the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and the [[Christadelphians]]. |
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[[Image:Oakland Temple statue of Jesus in the visitors center.jpg|thumb|left|175px|A statue of Jesus at a Latter-day Saint [[Temple (Latter Day Saints)|temple]] visitor center]] |
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[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Latter-day Saints]] theology maintains that ''Heavenly Father'', ''Jesus Christ'', and the ''Holy Ghost'' are three separate and distinct beings, though all eternal and equally divine, who together constitute the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]]. Though described as "one God"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/20/28#28|title=Doctrine and Covenants 20<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref> and "one in purpose,"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?hideNav=1&locale=0&sourceId=88eea41f6cc20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&vgnextoid=ba805f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD|title=Aaronic Priesthood Manual: The Godhead}}</ref> each plays a distinct role: the Holy Ghost is a spirit without a physical body, the Father and Son possess distinct and perfected bodies of flesh and bone<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/130/22#22|title=Doctrine and Covenants 130}}</ref>. The [[Book of Mormon]] records that the resurrected Jesus visited and taught some of the inhabitants of the early Americas after he had appeared to his apostles in Jerusalem.<ref>{{sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=3 Nephi|chapter=11|verse=8}}</ref> Mormons also believe that an [[Great Apostasy#The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|apostasy]] occurred after the deaths of Christ's apostles. They believe that Christ and Heavenly Father appeared to [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] in 1820 as part of a series of heavenly visits to restore the fullness of the gospel of Jesus Christ. They believe Jesus (not the Father) is the same as [[Jehovah]] or [[Yahweh]] of the [[Old Testament]], acting under the direction of the Father. ''See [[Religious perspectives on Jesus#Jesus in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Jesus in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].'' Based on a claimed divine revelation of Smith, they state that Jesus was born on April 06.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/20|title=Doctrine and Covenants 20<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref> |
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[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] believe Jesus to be God's (or Jehovah's) son, rather than being God himself. Jehovah's Witnesses believe he was the same divine created being as [[Archangel Michael|Michael the Archangel]],<ref> "Revelation—Its Grand Climax at Hand!" –1988 | chap. 27 pp. 180-181 par. 15 "God's Kingdom Is Born!" | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | "But who is Michael? The name "Michael" means "Who Is Like God?" So Michael must be interested in vindicating Jehovah's sovereignty by proving that no one is to be compared to Him. In Jude verse 9, he is called "Michael the archangel." Interestingly, the title "archangel" is used elsewhere in the Bible with reference to only one person: Jesus Christ. Paul says of him: "The Lord himself will descend from heaven with a commanding call, with an archangel's voice"</ref><ref> "Insight On The Scriptures 2" –1988 | p. 393 "Michael" | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | "Scriptural evidence indicates that the name Michael applied to God's Son before he left heaven to become Jesus Christ and also after his return. Michael is the only one said to be "the archangel," meaning "chief angel," or "principal angel." The term occurs in the Bible only in the singular. This seems to imply that there is but one whom God has designated chief, or head, of the angelic host. At 1 Thessalonians 4:16 the voice of the resurrected Lord Jesus Christ is described as being that of an archangel, suggesting that he is, in fact, himself the archangel"</ref> and that God made him a perfect human by transferring his life to the womb of Mary.<ref>"Jesus The Ruler Whose Origin Is From Early Times," ''The Watchtower'' (June 15, 1998) p. 22. | "Some centuries later came Jesus' greatest assignment up to that time. Jehovah transferred the life force of his beloved Son from heaven into the womb of Mary. Nine months later she gave birth to a baby boy, Jesus. (Luke 2:1-7, 21)"</ref> During the time Jesus was on earth he was simply a man, not a god-man.<ref> "Reasoning From The Scriptures" –1985 © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | p. 257 par. 1 Mary (Jesus' Mother) "Heb. 2:14, 17, JB: "Since all the children share the same blood and flesh, he [[Jesus]] too shared equally in it . . . It was essential that he should in this way become completely like his brothers." (But would he have been "completely like his brothers" if he had been a God-man?)"</ref> They also believe that he is "the word" of John 1:1. This is understood to mean that he is God's spokesman, likely the one speaking in God's name to Adam, and to the Israelites in the wilderness.<ref> "Insight On The Scriptures" –1988 | p. 53 "Jesus Christ" | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | "Doubtless on many occasions during his prehuman existence as the Word, Jesus acted as Jehovah's Spokesman to persons on earth. While certain texts refer to Jehovah as though directly speaking to humans, other texts make clear that he did so through an angelic representative. (Compare Ex 3:2-4 with Ac 7:30, 35; also Ge 16:7-11, 13; 22:1, 11, 12, 15-18.) Reasonably, in the majority of such cases God spoke through the Word. He likely did so in Eden, for on two of the three occasions where mention is made of God's speaking there, the record specifically shows someone was with Him, undoubtedly his Son. (Ge 1:26-30; 2:16, 17; 3:8-19, 22) The angel who guided Israel through the wilderness and whose voice the Israelites were strictly to obey because 'Jehovah's name was within him,' may therefore have been God's Son, the Word.—Ex 23:20-23; compare Jos 5:13-15."</ref> In line with this, they point out that the Bible presents him as the only way humans can approach God. They include words like "in Jesus' name" in every prayer.<ref> Watchtower 9/1/06 1 p. 28 par. 5 "Let Your Petitions Be Made Known to God" © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | "5 Jehovah does not lay down a lot of rigid rules on how to pray. Nevertheless, we need to learn the proper approach to God, which is explained in the Bible. For instance, Jesus taught his followers: "If you ask the Father for anything he will give it to you in my name." (John 16:23) Hence, we are required to pray in Jesus' name, recognizing Jesus as the sole channel through which God's blessings are extended to all mankind."</ref> They view the term "Son of God" as an indication of Jesus' importance to the creator and his status as God's "only-begotten (unique) Son,"<ref>{{niv|John|3:16|John 3:16}}</ref> the "firstborn of all creation,"<ref>{{niv|Colossians|1:15|Col 1:15}}</ref> the one "of whom, and through whom, and to whom, are all things."<ref>{{niv|romans|11:36|Rom 11:36}}</ref> They believe that Jesus died on a single-piece torture stake, not a cross.<ref>[http://www.watchtower.org/library/jt/article_03.htm "What Do They Believe?"], Watchtower Bible and Tract Society c.f., Retrieved April 14, 2007</ref> They believe that he is currently ruling in heaven as king of God's heavenly Kingdom, and will soon extend his rule to earth for a reign of peace.<ref>"[http://www.watchtower.org/e/20050915/article_02.htm Who is Jesus Christ?]," ''The Watchtower'', September 15, 2005, Retrieved December 3, 2007.</ref> They also believe he is now immortal<ref> "Insight On The Scriptures" –1988 © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | it-1 p. 1197 Incorruption "Raised to Immortality and Incorruption. Christ Jesus entered into immortality upon his resurrection from the dead, thereafter possessing "an indestructible life." (1Ti 6:15, 16; Heb 7:15-17)"</ref> and can never die again.<ref> The Watchtower © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | 10/1/06 p. 5 You Can Live Forever |"the apostle Paul explains: "Christ, now that he has been raised up from the dead, dies no more; death is master over him no more." (Romans 6:9)" |</ref> |
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The [[Unity Church]] considers Jesus the master teacher and "way show-er," citing Jesus' frequent calls to emulate him rather than worship him, and the ability of others to be like him, such as in John 10:34 and John 14:12. Jesus is not worshiped as God, but regarded as someone who had achieved a complete connection with God the Father. |
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[[Christadelphians]] believe that Jesus is literally God's son, hence the Biblical title ''son of God'',<ref>{{cite book | last = Flint | first = James | authorlink = | coauthors = Deb Flint | title = One God or a Trinity? | publisher = Printland Publishers | date = | location = Hyderabad | pages = p. 3 | url = http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/p_onegod.htm#3 | doi = | id = | isbn = 81-87409-61-4 }}</ref> not ''God the Son''. They believe that Jesus was in God's plan right from the beginning of creation,<ref>{{cite book | last = Flint | first = James | authorlink = | coauthors = Deb Flint | title = One God or a Trinity? | publisher = Printland Publishers | date = | location = Hyderabad | pages = p. 10 | url = http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/p_onegod.htm#10 | doi = | id = | isbn = 81-87409-61-4 }}</ref> but that he came into existence at his birth.<ref>{{cite book | last = Pearce | first = Fred | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Jesus: God the Son or Son of God? Does the Bible Teach the Trinity? | publisher = The Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association Ltd (UK) | date = | location = Birmingham, UK | pages = p. 7 | url = http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/jesus.htm#7 | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> Quoting Biblical passages such as {{niv|Hebrews|2:10-14,17-18|Hebrews 2:10-14 and 17-18}}, they maintain that Jesus was fully human, and that Jesus' total humanity was vital in saving people from their sins. This, Christadelphians believe, would not have been possible had Jesus actually been God.<ref>{{cite book | last = Pearce | first = Fred | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Jesus: God the Son or Son of God? Does the Bible Teach the Trinity? | publisher = The Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association Ltd (UK) | date = | location = Birmingham, UK | pages = p. 8 | url = http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/jesus.htm#8 | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> They believe that Jesus is now in heaven, at God's right hand, waiting to return to the Earth to establish God's kingdom here forever.<ref>{{cite book | last = Morgan | first = Tecwyn | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Christ is Coming! Bible Teaching About His Return | publisher = The Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association Ltd (UK) | date = | location = Birmingham, UK | pages = p. 1 | url = http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/coming.htm#1 | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> |
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Others believe that the one God, who revealed himself in the Old Testament as Jehovah, came to earth, taking on the human form of Jesus Christ. They believe Jesus is Jehovah, is the Holy Spirit, and is the one Person who is God. Examples of such churches today are [[Oneness Pentecostals]] and the [[New Church]]. |
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==== Other early views ==== |
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[[Image:Christ Carrying the Cross 1580.jpg|thumb|right|''Jesus Carrying the Cross'', [[El Greco]], 1580]] |
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Various [[early Christian]] groups and theologians held differing views of Jesus. |
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The [[Ebionites]], an early [[Jewish Christian]] community, believed that Jesus was the last of the [[Prophet#Prophets in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible)|prophets]] and the [[Messiah]]. They believed that Jesus was the natural-born son of Mary and Joseph, and thus they rejected the Virgin Birth. The Ebionites were [[Adoptionism|adoptionists]], believing that Jesus was not divine, but became the [[son of God]] at his baptism. They rejected the [[Epistles of Paul]], believing that Jesus kept the [[Mosaic Law]] perfectly and wanted his followers to do the same. However, they felt that Jesus' crucifixion was the ultimate sacrifice, and thus [[animal sacrifice]]s were no longer necessary. Therefore, some Ebionites were [[vegetarian]] and considered both Jesus and [[John the Baptist]] to have been vegetarians.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 102.</ref> |
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The Apologists of the 2nd century, such as [[Justin Martyr]], saw Jesus as the Logos or Word of God united with a human being. They viewed the Logos, in line with Middle Platonism, as the source of order and rationality, but distinct from God.<ref>"Christology." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> |
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In [[Gnosticism]], Jesus is said to have brought the secret knowledge ([[gnosis]]) of the spiritual world necessary for salvation.<ref>McManners, John, ed., ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity,'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 26–31.</ref> Their secret teachings were paths to gnosis, and not gnosis itself.<!-- The previous sentence is necessary to clarify that gnosis is a different concept than the teachings of Scientology. --> While some Gnostics were [[docetism|docetics]], other Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of Christ during his baptism.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 124–125.</ref> Many Gnostics believed that Christ was an [[Aeons#In Gnosticism|Aeon]] sent by [[Monad (Gnosticism)|a higher deity]] than the evil [[Demiurge#Gnosticism|demiurge]] who created the material world. Some Gnostics believed that Christ had a [[Syzygy#Gnosticism|syzygy]] named [[Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia]]. The Gnostics tended to [[Gnosticism and the New Testament|interpret the books that were included in the New Testament]] as [[allegory]], and some Gnostics interpreted Jesus himself as an allegory. The Gnostics also used a number of [[Gnostic texts|other texts]] that did not become part of the New Testament canon. |
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[[Marcionites]] were 2nd century [[Gentile]] followers of the Christian theologian [[Marcion of Sinope]]. They believed that Jesus rejected the [[Tanakh|Jewish Scriptures]], or at least the parts that were incompatible with his teachings.<ref>[[Henry Wace|Wace, Henry]], [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/info/marcion-wace.html "Commentary on Marcion"], Retrieved April 16, 2007.</ref> Seeing a stark contrast between the vengeful God of the [[Old Testament]] and the loving God of Jesus, Marcionites, like some Gnostics, came to the conclusion that the Jewish God was the evil creator of the world and Jesus was the savior from the material world. They also believed Jesus was not human, but instead a completely divine spiritual being whose material body, and thus his crucifixion and death, were [[docetism|divine illusions]].<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 103, p. 104–105, p.108</ref> Marcionism was declared a [[Heresy#Christianity|heresy]] by proto-orthodox Christianity. |
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[[Sabellius]] in the 3rd century taught that the Trinity represented not three persons but a single person in three "modes." Jerome reported that the [[Montanists]] of his day shared this view. |
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=== Islamic views === |
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==== Majority view ==== |
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{{main|Jesus in Islam}} |
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[[Image:Jesus-masih-islam.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sermon on the Mount]] in Islamic art]] |
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[[Islam]] holds Jesus ({{lang-ar|عيسى}} '''''`Īsā''''') to have been a messenger of God and the messiah who had been sent to guide the [[Children of Israel]] (''banī isrā'īl'') with a new scripture, the ''[[Injil|Injīl]]'' (gospel).<ref> [[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]], p.158</ref> According to the [[Qur'an]], believed by Muslims to be God's final revelation, Jesus was born to Mary (Arabic: Maryam) as the result of [[Virgin birth of Jesus|virginal conception]], a miraculous event which occurred by the decree of [[God]] (Arabic: [[Allah]]). To aid him in his quest, Jesus was given the ability to perform [[miracle]]s. These included speaking from the cradle, curing the blind and the [[leper]]s, as well as raising the dead; all by the permission of God. Furthermore, Jesus was helped by a band of disciples (the ''ḥawāriyūn''). Islam states that Jesus was not killed nor [[Crucifixion|crucified]], but that he had been raised alive up to [[jannah|heaven]]. Islamic traditions narrate that he will return to earth near the [[day of judgement]] to restore justice and defeat ''[[Dajjal|al-Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl]]'' (''lit''. "the false messiah," also known as the [[Antichrist]]) and the enemies of Islam. As a just ruler, Jesus will then die.<ref name="EoI-Isa">"Isa," Encyclopedia of Islam</ref> |
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Like all [[prophets in Islam]], Jesus is considered to have been a [[Muslim]], as he preached for people to adopt the straight path in submission to God's will. Islam denies that Jesus was God or the [[son of God]], stating that he was an ordinary man who, like other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message. Islamic texts forbid the association of partners with God (''[[shirk]]''), emphasizing the notion of God's [[tawhid|divine oneness]] (''tawhīd''). As such, Jesus is referred to in the Qur'an frequently as the "son of Mary" ("''Ibn Maryam''").<ref name="EoI-Isa"/><ref>Fasching, deChant (2001) p. 241</ref> Numerous titles are given to Jesus in the Qur'an, such as ''mubārak'' (blessed) and ''`abd-Allāh'' (servant of God). Another title is ''al-Masīḥ'' ("the [[messiah]]; the anointed one" i.e. by means of blessings), although it does not correspond with the meaning accrued in Christian belief. Jesus is seen in Islam as a precursor to [[Muhammad]], and is believed by Muslims to have foretold the latter's coming.<ref name="EoI-Isa"/> |
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==== Ahmadiyya views ==== |
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{{main|Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam}} |
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According to the early 20th century teachings of the [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadi Muslims]] of Northern India, Jesus did not die on the cross, but after his apparent death and resurrection (or resuscitation from his tomb) he journeyed east to [[Jammu and Kashmir|Kashmir]] to further teach the gospel until his natural death<ref>{{citation|last=Rice|first=Edward|title=Eastern Definitions: A Short Encyclopedia of Religions of the Orient|year=1978|publisher=New York|isbn=0-385-08563-X|pages=7}}.</ref> (The general notion of Jesus in Kashmir is older than the Ahmadi tradition,<ref name="ShaeferCohen">{{citation|last=Schäfer|first=Peter|last2=Cohen|first2=Mark R.|title=Toward the Millennium: Messianic Expectations from the Bible to Waco|year=1998|location=Leiden/Princeton|publisher=Brill/Princeton UP|isbn=90-04-11037-2|pages=306}}.</ref> and is discussed at length by Grönbold<ref>Günter Grönbold, Jesus In Indien, München: Kösel 1985, ISBN 3466202701.</ref> and Klatt<ref>Norbert Klatt, ''Lebte Jesus in Indien?'', Göttingen: Wallstein 1988.</ref>). |
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Following Jesus' death of natural causes (so the Ahmadi tradition) "at a ripe old age of roughly 120 years,"<ref name="Faruqi_1983_98">{{citation|last=Faruqi|first=Nisar Ahmed|chapter=The Promised Messiah|title=Ahmadiyyat in the Service of Islam|year=1983|publisher=Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat|location=Lahore|isbn=0-913321-00-1|at=chap. 3|chapter-url=http://www.aaiil.org/text/books/others/naseerahmadfaruqui/ahmadiyyatserviceislam/promisedmessiah_pf.shtml|pages=98}}.</ref> [[Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam|Jesus according to Ahmadi doctrine]] was then laid to rest in [[Srinagar]], and that the tomb of a sage known locally as [[Roza Bal|Yuz Asaf]] (which in [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] means "Leader of the Healed"<ref>http://www.tjresearch.info/legends.htm</ref>) is really the tomb of Jesus of Nazareth.<ref>{{citation|last=Houtsma|first=M. Th.|chapter=Ahmedia|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|volume=1|editor-last=Houtsma|editor-first=M. Th.|editor2-last=Arnold|editor2-first=T. W.|editor3-last=Basset|editor3-first=R.|year=1913|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|pages=260}}.</ref> |
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Further, according to this movement, the second coming predicted in the Muslim tradition is not actually that of Jesus, but that of a person "similar to Jesus" (''mathīl-i ʿIsā''), i.e. [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad|the founder of the movement]] himself and his teachings were representative of Jesus.<ref name="ShaeferCohen" /> |
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According to the [[Encyclopedia of Islam]], Ahmadi Christological beliefs are one of the three primary characteristics that distinguish Ahmadi teachings from general Islamic ones, and that it had provoked a ''[[fatwa]]'' against the founder of the sect, "purporting that this doctrine disagreed with the [[Koran]] and therefore had to be looked upon as a heresy."<ref name="EI">{{harvnb|Houtsma|1913|p=260}}.</ref> |
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=== Judaism's view === |
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{{main|Judaism's view of Jesus}} |
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[[Judaism]] holds the idea of Jesus being God, or part of a Trinity, or a mediator to God, to be heresy.<ref>''[[Emunoth ve-Deoth]]'', II:5</ref> Judaism also holds that Jesus is not the [[Jewish messianism|Messiah]], arguing that he had not fulfilled the [[Messianic prophecies]] in the [[Tanakh]] nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah. According to Jewish tradition, there were no more prophets after [[Malachi]], who lived centuries before Jesus and delivered his prophesies about 420 BC/BCE. Judaism states that Jesus did not fulfill the requirements set by the [[Torah]] to prove that he was a prophet. Even if Jesus had produced such a sign that Judaism recognized, Judaism states that no prophet or dreamer can contradict the laws already stated in the Torah, which Jesus did.<ref>[[Shraga Simmons|Simmons, Shraga]], [http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Why_Jews_Dont_Believe_In_Jesus.asp "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus"], Retrieved April 15, 2007; [http://ohr.edu/ask_db/ask_main.php/2637/Q1/ "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus"], [[Ohr Somayach, Jerusalem|Ohr Samayach]] — ''Ask the Rabbi'', Retrieved April 15, 2007; [http://www.askmoses.com/qa_detail.html?h=120&o=350 "Why do not Jews believe that Jesus was the messiah?"], [[AskMoses.com]], Retrieved April 15, 2007</ref> |
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The ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'' (an authoritative work of [[halakha|Jewish law]]) states in ''Hilkhot Melakhim'' 11:10–12 that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God."<ref>"Even Jesus the Nazarene who imagined that he would be [[Jewish Messiah|Messiah]] and was killed by the court, was already prophesied by [[Daniel]]. So that it was said, "And the members of the outlaws of your nation would be carried to make a (prophetic) vision stand. And they stumbled." (Daniel 11.14) Because, is there a greater stumbling-block than this one? So that all of the [[prophet]]s spoke that the Messiah redeems Israel, and saves them, and gathers their banished ones, and strengthens their commandments. And this one caused (nations) to destroy Israel by sword, and to scatter their remnant, and to humiliate them, and to exchange the Torah, and to make the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God. However, the thoughts of the Creator of the world — there is no force in a human to attain them because our ways are not God's ways, and our thoughts not God's thoughts. And all these things of Jesus the Nazarene, and of ([[Muhammad]]) the [[Ishmael]]ite who stood after him — there is no (purpose) but to straighten out the way for the King Messiah, and to restore all the world to serve God together. So that it is said, "Because then I will turn toward the nations (giving them) a clear lip, to call all of them in the name of God and to serve God (shoulder to shoulder as) one shoulder."(Zephaniah 3.9) Look how all the world already becomes full of the things of the Messiah, and the things of the [[Torah]], and the things of the commandments! And these things spread among the far islands and among the many nations uncircumcised of heart. [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/e511.htm "Hilchot Malachim (laws concerning kings) (Hebrew)"], [[Torah database#Mechon Mamre.28digital freeware.29|MechonMamre.org]], Retrieved April 15, 2007</ref> According to [[Conservative Judaism]], Jews who believe Jesus is the Messiah have "crossed the line out of the Jewish community."<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.uscj.org/Messianic_Jews_Not_J5480.html |
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| title = Messianic Jews Are Not Jews |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-15 |
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| last = Waxman |
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| first = Jonathan |
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| year = 2006 |
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| publisher = [[United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism]] |
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| quote=Judaism has held that the Mashiach will come and usher in a new era; not that he will proclaim his arrival, die and wait centuries to finish his task. To continue to assert that Jesus was the Mashiach goes against the belief that the Mashiach will transform the world when he does come, not merely hint at a future transformation at some undefined time to come... Judaism rejects the claim that a new covenant was created with Jesus and asserts instead that the chain of Tradition reaching back to Moshe continues to make valid claims on our lives, and serve as more than mere window dressing. |
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}}</ref> [[Reform Judaism]], the modern progressive movement, states "For us in the Jewish community anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is an [[apostate]]."<ref> Contemporary American Reform Responsa, #68, [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/10-Reform/section-15.html "Question 18.3.4: Reform's Position On...What is unacceptable practice?"], faqs.org. Retrieved April 15, 2007.</ref> |
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=== Bahá'í views === |
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The [[Bahá'í Faith]], founded in 19th-century Persia, considers Jesus, along with [[Muhammad]], the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Krishna]], and [[Zoroaster]], and other messengers of the great religions of the world to be [[Manifestation of God|Manifestations of God]] (or [[prophet]]s), with both human and divine stations.<ref name="stockman">{{cite journal | title = Jesus Christ in the Baha'i Writings | first = Robert | last = Stockman | journal = Bahá'í Studies Review | volume = | issue = 1 | year = 1992 | url = http://bahai-library.com/index.php5?file=stockman_jesus_bahai_writings}}</ref> |
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=== Hindu views === |
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The [[Hindu]] beliefs about Jesus vary. The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) considers Jesus to be the beloved son of Krishna who came down to Earth to preach God Consciousness. [[Contemporary Sant Mat movement]]s regard Jesus as a [[Satguru]]. [[Ramakrishna]] believed that Jesus was an [[Avatar|Incarnation]] of God.<ref name="Ramakrishna">[http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/gospel/introduction/Christianity.htm The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna], Introduction by [[Swami Nikhilananda]], p. 34.</ref> [[Swami Vivekananda]] has praised Jesus and cited him as a source of strength and the epitome of perfection.<ref name="vivekananda">{{cite web|url=http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/lectures_and_discourses/christ_the_messenger.htm|title=Christ the Messenger|accessmonthday=April 15|accessyear=2007}}</ref> [[Paramahansa Yogananda]] taught that Jesus was the reincarnation of [[Elisha]] and a student of [[John the Baptist]], the reincarnation of [[Elijah]].<ref>Paramahansa Yogananda, ''Autobiography of a Yogi,'' 2nd ed., Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2005. ISBN 1–56589–212–7.</ref> |
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=== Buddhist views === |
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{{see|Buddhism and Christianity}} |
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Buddhists' views of Jesus differ. Some [[Buddhists]], including [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama]]<ref>Beverley, James A., [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/june11/15.64.html Hollywood's Idol], Christianity Today, "Jesus Christ also lived previous lives," he said. "So, you see, he reached a high state, either as a Bodhisattva, or an enlightened person, through Buddhist practice or something like that," Retrieved April 20, 2007</ref> regard Jesus as a [[bodhisattva]] who dedicated his life to the welfare of human beings. The 14th century Zen master [[Gasan Jōseki]] indicated that the Gospels were written by an enlightened being.<ref>[[101 Zen Stories]]; #16</ref> |
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=== Other views === |
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[[Mandaeanism]], a very small Mideastern, Gnostic sect that reveres [[John the Baptist]] as God's greatest prophet, regards Jesus as a false prophet of the false Jewish god of the Old Testament, [[Names of God in Judaism|Adonai]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gnosis.org/library/haran.htm|title=Mandaean Scriptures and Fragments: ''The Haran Gawaitha''|accessmonthday=April 20|accessyear=2007}}</ref> and likewise rejects [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], and [[Muhammad]]. [[Manichaeism]] accepted Jesus as a prophet, along with [[Gautama Buddha]] and [[Zoroaster]].<ref>Bevan, A. A. (1930). "Manichaeism." ''[[Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics]], Volume VIII'' Ed. [[James Hastings]]. London</ref> |
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The [[New Age]] movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus. The creators of [[A Course In Miracles]] claim to trance-[[channeling (mediumistic)|channel]] his spirit. However, the New Age movement generally teaches that [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Christhood]] is something that all may attain. [[Theosophy|Theosophists]], from whom many New Age teachings originated (a Theosophist named [[Alice A. Bailey]] invented the term ''New Age''), refer to Jesus of Nazareth as the [[Master Jesus]] and believe he had previous [[reincarnation|incarnations]]. |
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Many writers emphasize Jesus' moral teachings. [[Garry Wills]] argues that Jesus' ethics are distinct from those usually taught by Christianity.<ref> Wills, Garry, ''What Jesus Meant'' (2006) ISBN 0–670–03496–7</ref> The [[Jesus Seminar]] portrays Jesus as an itinerant preacher who taught peace and love, rights for women and respect for children, and who spoke out against the hypocrisy of religious leaders and the rich.<ref>[[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]], ''The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant'', HarperSanFrancisco (1993), ISBN 0–06–061629–6; [[Robert Funk]], ''The Five Gospels: What Did Jesus Really Say? The Search for the AUTHENTIC Words of Jesus'', Harper San Francisco (1997), ISBN 0–06–063040-X; [[Robert Funk]], ''The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?'', The Jesus Seminar, Harper San Francisco (1998), ISBN 0–06–062978–9; The [[Jesus Seminar]], ''The Gospel of Jesus: According to the Jesus Seminar'', Robert Walter Funk (Editor), Polebridge Press (1999), ISBN 0–944344–74–7</ref> [[Thomas Jefferson]], one of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]] and a [[deism|deist]], created the [[Jefferson Bible]] entitled "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth" that included only Jesus' ethical teachings because he did not believe in Jesus' divinity or any of the other supernatural aspects of the [[Bible]]. |
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== Legacy == |
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{{Further|[[Images of Jesus]], [[Cultural depictions of Jesus]], and [[Anno Domini]]}} |
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[[Image:Michelangelo's Pieta 5450 cropncleaned.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]]'', [[Michelangelo]], 16th c.: Jesus' mother Mary holds the body of her dead son]] |
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According to most Christian interpretations of the [[Bible]], the theme of Jesus' teachings was that of [[repentance]], [[agape|unconditional love]],<ref>{{niv|John|13:34–35|John 13:34–35}}</ref> [[forgiveness]] of [[sin]], [[Divine grace|grace]], and the coming of the [[Kingdom of God]].<ref>Sniegocki, John. "[http://catholicbooksreview.org/2005/grassi.htm Review of Joseph GRASSI, ''Peace on Earth: Roots and Practices from Luke's Gospel'',]" Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 2004 (repentance, forgiveness); |
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Bock, Darrell L. [http://www.bible.org/page.php?page_id=2210 "Major Themes of Jesus' life,"] (coming of the Kingdom of God); |
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Brussat, Frederic and Mary Ann. "[http://www.spiritualityandpractice.com/books/books.php?id=9695 Review of ''If Grace Is So Amazing, Why Do not We Like It?,'']" (grace); |
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Hughes, F. A. [http://www.stempublishing.com/authors/hughes/GRACTRTH.html "Grace and Truth,"] STEM publishing 1972 (grace)</ref> Starting as a small Jewish sect,<ref name="isbn0-7591-0015-2">{{cite book |author=Duhaime, Jean; Blasi, Anthony J.; Turcotte, Paul-André |title=Handbook of early Christianity: social science approaches |publisher=AltaMira Press |location=Walnut Creek, Calif |year=2002 |pages=p.434 |isbn=0-7591-0015-2 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> it developed into a religion clearly distinct from [[Judaism]] several decades after Jesus death. Christianity spread throughout the [[Roman Empire]] under a version known as [[Nicene Christianity]] and became the [[state religion]] under [[Theodosius I]]. Over the centuries, it spread to most of [[Europe]], and around the world. |
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Jesus has been [[Images of Jesus|drawn, painted, sculpted]] and [[Dramatic portrayals of Jesus|portrayed on stage and in films]] in many different ways, both serious and [[Jesus in Pop culture|humorous]]. The figure of Jesus features prominently in art and literature. A number of popular novels, such as ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'', have also portrayed various ideas about Jesus, and a number of films, such as ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'', have portrayed his life, death, and resurrection. Many of the sayings attributed to Jesus have become part of the culture of [[Western world|Western civilization]]. There are many items purported to be [[relics of Jesus]], of which the most famous are the [[Shroud of Turin]] and the [[Sudarium of Oviedo]]. |
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Other legacies include a view of God as more lovingly parental, merciful, and more forgiving, and the growth of a belief in a blissful [[afterlife]] and in the [[resurrection of the dead]]. His teaching promoted the value of those who had commonly been regarded as inferior: women, the poor, ethnic outsiders, children, prostitutes, the sick, prisoners, etc. For over a thousand years, countless hospitals, orphanages, and schools have been founded explicitly in Jesus' name. Jesus and his message have been interpreted, explained and understood by many people. Jesus has been explained notably by [[Paul of Tarsus]], the [[Church Fathers]], including [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Martin Luther]], and more recently by [[C. S. Lewis]] and [[Pope John Paul II]]. [[Thomas Jefferson]] considered Jesus' teaching to be "the most sublime and benevolent code of morals which has ever been offered to man."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/co/JeffersonBible/jeffintr.html|title=The Jefferson Bible|accessmonthday=April 20|accessyear=2007}}</ref> |
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For some Jews, the legacy of Jesus has been a history of [[Christianity and antisemitism|Christian antisemitism]],<ref> "Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate" by William Nicholls, 1993. Published by Jason Aronson Inc., 1995; "Mature Christianity: The Recognition and Repudiation of the Anti-Jewish Polemic in the New Testament" Norman A. Beck, Susquehanna Univ. Press, 1985; "The Satanizing of the Jews: Origin and development of mystical anti-Semitism" Joel Carmichael, Fromm, 1993; "The Origins of Anti-Semitism: Attitudes Toward Judaism in Pagan and Christian Antiquity" [[John Gager|John G. Gager]], Oxford Univ. Press, 1983; "What Did They Think of the Jews?" Edited by Allan Gould, Jason Aronson Inc., 1991; "The New Testament's Anti-Jewish Slander and Conventions of Ancient Polemic," Luke Johnson, Journal of Biblical Literature, Volume 3, 1989; "Three Popes and the Jews" Pinchas E. Lapide, Hawthorne Books, 1967; "National Socialism and the Roman Catholic Church" Nathaniel Micklem, Oxford Univ. Press, 1939; Theological Anti-Semitism in the New Testament," Rosemary Radford Ruether, Christian Century, Feb. 1968, Vol. 85; "John Chrysostom and the Jews" Robert L. Wilken, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1983</ref> although in the wake of [[the Holocaust]] many Christian groups have gone to considerable lengths to reconcile with Jews and to promote interfaith dialog and mutual respect. For others, Christianity has often been linked to European [[colonialism]].<ref>''Of Revelation and Revolution, Volume 1: Christianity, Colonialism, and Consciousness in South Africa'' by Jean Comaroff, John L. Comaroff 1991 University of Chicago Press; ''A Violent Evangelism: The Political and Religious Conquest of the Americas'' by Luis Rivera Pagan 1992 Westminster Press; ''The Americas in the Spanish World Order: The Justification for Conquest in the 17th century'' by James Muldoon 1994 University of Pennsylvania Press; ''An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the Making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914 by J.P. Daughton 2006 Oxford University Press; ''Contracting Colonialism: Translations and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society Under Early Spanish Rule'' by Vicente L. Rafael 1988 Cornell University Press; ''Christians and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural Communication Since 1500; With Special Reference to Caste, Conversion, and Colonialism (Studies in the History of Christian Missions)'' edited by Robert Eric Frykenberg and Alaine Low 2003 Wm. B. Eerdmans</ref> Conversely, some have argued that through [[Bartolomé de las Casas]]' defense of the indigenous inhabitants of Spain's New World empire, one of the legacies of Jesus has been the notion of universal [[human rights]]. |
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== See also == |
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{{col-begin}} |
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{{col-2}} |
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* '''General topics''' |
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** The [[Bible]] |
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** [[INRI]] (stands for "Jesus the [[Nazarene]], the [[King of the Jews]]") |
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** [[Nazarene]] |
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** [[Prophets in Islam]] |
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** [[Qur'an]] |
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* '''Jesus and history''' |
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** [[Apostolic Succession|Apostolic Succession of Jesus]] |
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** [[Christian apologetics]] |
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** [[Genealogy of Jesus]] |
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** [[Gospel Harmony]] |
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** [[Historicity of Jesus]] |
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** [[Jesus and comparative mythology]] |
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** [[Name of Jesus in the Old Testament]] |
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** [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]] |
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{{col-2}} |
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* '''New Testament Jesus''' |
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** [[Biblical Jesus]] |
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** [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Death]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus]] |
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** [[Christian views about women|Jesus and women]] |
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** [[Miracles of Jesus]] |
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** [[Race of Jesus]] |
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** [[Sermon on the Mount]] |
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* '''Views on Jesus''' |
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** [[Apocrypha]] |
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** [[Pauline Christianity]] |
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** [[Religious perspectives on Jesus]] |
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* '''Related topics''' |
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** [[List of founders of major religions]] |
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** [[List of messiah claimants]] |
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** [[List of people who have been considered deities]] |
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** [[List of people who have claimed to be Jesus]] |
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** [[List of books about Jesus]] |
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** [[Life-death-rebirth deity|List of life death rebirth gods]] |
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{{col-end}} |
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== Notes == |
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== References == |
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* [[Dale Allison|Allison, Dale]]. ''Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1999. ISBN 0–8006–3144–7 |
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* [[Raymond E. Brown|Brown, Raymond E.]]. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' New York: Doubleday, 1997. ISBN 0–385–24767–2 |
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* Cohen, Shaye J.D. ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah.'' Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1988. ISBN 0–664–25017–3 |
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* Cohen, Shaye J.D. ''The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. ISBN 0–520–22693–3 |
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* [[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]]. |
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** ''The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant.'' New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993. ISBN 0–06–061629–6 |
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** ''Who Killed Jesus?," 1995. ISBN 0–06–061480–3 |
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* [[Guy Davenport]] and [[Benjamin Urrutia]]. ''The Logia of Yeshua; The Sayings of Jesus''. Washington, DC: 1996. ISBN 1–887178–70–8 |
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* De La Potterie, Ignace. "The Hour of Jesus." New York: Alba House, 1989. |
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* Durant, Will. ''Caesar and Christ.'' New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. ISBN 0–671–11500–6 |
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* [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart]]. ''The Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0–19–514183–0 |
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* [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart]]. ''The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0–19–515462–2 |
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* [[Paula Fredriksen|Fredriksen, Paula]]. ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity.'' New York: Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0–679–76746–0 |
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* [[Paula Fredriksen|Fredriksen, Paula]]. ''From Jesus to Christ.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. ISBN 0–300–04864–5 |
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* Finegan, Jack. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology'', revised ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. ISBN 1–56563–143–9. |
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* Fuller, Reginald H., [[Reginald H. Fuller#The Foundations of New Testament Christology (1965)|''The Foundations of New Testament Christology'']]. New York: Scribners, 1965. ISBN 022717075X |
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* Meier, John P., [[John P. Meier#A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'']], New York: [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Doubleday]], |
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: v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991. ISBN 0–385–26425–9 |
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: v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994. ISBN 0–385–46992–6 |
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: v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', 2001. ISBN 0–385–46993–4 |
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* O'Collins, Gerald. ''Interpreting Jesus.'' Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1983. |
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* [[Jaroslav Pelikan|Pelikan, Jaroslav]]. ''Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 0–300–07987–7 |
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* Robinson, John A. T. ''Redating the New Testament.'' Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2001 (original 1977). ISBN 1–57910–527–0. |
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* [[E.P. Sanders|Sanders, E.P.]] ''The Historical Figure of Jesus.'' New York: Penguin, 1996. ISBN 0–14–014499–4 |
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* Sanders, E.P. ''Jesus and Judaism.'' Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1987. ISBN 0–8006–2061–5 |
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* [[Geza Vermes|Vermes, Geza]]. ''Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1981. ISBN 0–8006–1443–7 |
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* [[Paula Fredriksen|Fredriksen, Paula]]. ''From Jesus to Christ.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. |
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* [[Geza Vermes|Vermes, Geza]]. ''The Religion of Jesus the Jew.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1993. ISBN 0–8006–2797–0 |
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* [[Geza Vermes|Vermes, Geza]]. ''Jesus in his Jewish Context.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0–8006–3623–6 |
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* [[A.N. Wilson|Wilson, A.N.]] ''Jesus.'' London: Pimlico, 2003. ISBN 0–7126–0697–1 |
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* [[Tom Wright (theologian)|Wright, N.T.]] ''Jesus and the Victory of God.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1997. ISBN 0–8006–2682–6 |
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* [[Tom Wright (theologian)|Wright, N.T.]] ''The Resurrection of the Son of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0–8006–2679–6 |
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== External links == |
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{{sisterlinks|Jesus}} |
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; Religious views |
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* [http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ] ''In Parallel Latin & English — The Complete Christ Sayings'' |
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; Historical and skeptical views |
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* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/ ''From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians''] — [[Frontline]] documentary about Jesus' life and the early Church. |
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* [http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/indexb.html The Jewish Roman World of Jesus] |
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* [http://www.jesuspuzzle.com/ The Jesus Puzzle] — [[Earl Doherty]]'s website. |
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{{Christianityfooter}} |
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{{New Testament people}} |
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{{Prophets in the Qur'an}} |
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{{Persondata |
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| NAME=Jesus |
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| ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Jesus Christ (honorific); Jesus of Nazareth (traditional); יֵשׁ֣וּעַ (Hebrew); Yeshua (transliteration); Isa (Islam) |
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| SHORT DESCRIPTION=Religious figure, founded Christianity |
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| DATE OF BIRTH=c. 4 BC/BCE |
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| PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Bethlehem]], [[Iudaea Province]] (traditionally) |
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| DATE OF DEATH=c. 30 |
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| PLACE OF DEATH=[[Jerusalem]], [[Iudaea Province]] |
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}} |
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{{lifetime|0s BC|1st century|Jesus}} |
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[[an:Chesús de Nazaret]] |
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[[gl:Xesús de Nazareth]] |
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[[ml:യേശു]] |
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[[mt:Ġesù Kristu]] |
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[[mi:Ihu Karaiti]] |
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[[ms:Yesus Kristus]] |
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[[cdo:Ià-sŭ]] |
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[[mn:Есүс Христ]] |
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[[nah:Yeshua Christós]] |
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[[na:Jesu Kristo]] |
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[[fj:Jisu Karisito]] |
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[[nl:Christus (Jezus)]] |
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[[nds-nl:Jezus Christus]] |
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[[ne:येशु क्राइस्ट]] |
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[[ja:イエス・キリスト]] |
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[[pih:Jesus]] |
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[[no:Jesus Kristus]] |
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[[nn:Jesus]] |
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[[nrm:Jésus-Chrît]] |
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[[oc:Jèsus]] |
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[[om:Yesus Kristos]] |
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[[ug:ئەيسا پەيغەمبەر]] |
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[[uz:Iso Masih]] |
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[[pa:ਈਸਾ ਮਸੀਹ]] |
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[[ps:عيسى عليه السلام]] |
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[[pms:Gesù ëd Nàsaret]] |
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[[nds:Jesus Christus]] |
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[[pl:Jezus Chrystus]] |
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[[pt:Jesus]] |
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[[ty:Iesu Mesia]] |
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[[ksh:Jesus Christus]] |
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[[ro:Iisus din Nazaret]] |
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[[rm:Gesu da Nazaret]] |
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[[qu:Jesus]] |
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[[ru:Иисус Христос]] |
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[[sm:Iesu Keriso]] |
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[[sg:Jésus Christ]] |
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[[sco:Jesus Christ]] |
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[[st:Jesu Kreste]] |
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[[sq:Jezusi]] |
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[[scn:Gesù Cristu]] |
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[[simple:Jesus]] |
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[[sk:Ježiš Kristus]] |
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[[sl:Jezus Kristus]] |
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[[szl:Jezus Chrystus]] |
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[[so:Ciise]] |
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[[sr:Исус Христос]] |
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[[sh:Isus]] |
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[[fi:Jeesus]] |
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[[sv:Jesus]] |
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[[tl:Hesus]] |
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[[ta:இயேசு கிறிஸ்து]] |
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[[kab:Ɛisa]] |
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[[tt:Ğaysa]] |
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[[te:యేసు]] |
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[[th:พระเยซู]] |
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[[vi:Giê-su]] |
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[[tg:Исо]] |
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[[tpi:Jisas]] |
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[[to:Sīsū Kalaisi]] |
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[[tr:İsa]] |
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[[tk:Isa Pygamber]] |
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[[tw:Yesu Kristo]] |
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[[uk:Ісус Христос]] |
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[[ur:عیسیٰ علیہ السلام]] |
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[[vec:Gesù]] |
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[[vls:Jezus van Nazareth]] |
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[[wo:Yéesu-kristaa]] |
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[[wuu:耶稣]] |
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[[yi:יוזל]] |
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[[yo:Jesu Kristi]] |
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[[zh-yue:耶穌]] |
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[[cbk-zam:Jesus]] |
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[[bat-smg:Jiezos Krėstos]] |
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[[zh:耶稣]] |
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Revision as of 04:29, 4 December 2008
fuck you stealth