View source for Jin Chinese

{{Short description|Branch of Chinese spoken in northern China}}{{Redirects here|cjy|the train station in Baoji, Shaanxi, China|Caijiapo railway station}}{{Infobox language
|name=Jin 
|imagecaption= ''Jinyu'' written in [[Chinese character]]s (vertically, traditional Chinese on the left, simplified Chinese on the right)
|image=Jinyu.svg
|imagescale=0.7
|nativename= {{nobold|{{lang|zh-Hans|晋语}} / {{lang|zh-Hant|晉語}}}} <br /> {{nobold|{{lang|zh-Hans|晋方言}} / {{lang|zh-Hant|晉方言}}}}
|states=[[China]]
|region=most of [[Shanxi]] province; central [[Inner Mongolia]]; parts of [[Hebei]], [[Henan]], [[Shaanxi]]
|speakers = {{sigfig|48.000000|2}} million
|date     = 2021
|ref      = e26
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|fam2=[[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
|fam3=[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
|map=Idioma jin.png
|mapcaption={{imagefact|date=July 2024}}
|iso3=cjy
|glotto=jiny1235
|glottorefname=Jinyu Chinese
|glottofoot=no
|lingua=79-AAA-c
|notice=IPA
|module={{Infobox Chinese|child=yes|headercolor={{Infobox language/family-color|Sino-Tibetan}}
|title = Jin Chinese
|s     = 晋语
|t     = 晉語
|p     = Jìnyǔ
|w     = {{tone superscript|Chin4-yü3}}
|mi     = {{IPAc-cmn|j|in|4|.|yu|3}}
|bpmf    = ㄐㄧㄣˋ ㄩˇ
|j     = Zeon3 jyu5
|y     = Jeun yúh
|ci      = {{IPAc-yue|z|eon|3|-|j|yu|5}}
|l2       = Shanxi speech
|t2      = 山西話
|s2     = 山西话
|p2      = Shānxīhuà
|w2      = {{tone superscript|Shan1-hsi1-hua4}}
|mi2       = {{IPAc-cmn|sh|an|1|.|x|i|1|.|h|ua|4}}
|bpmf2      = ㄕㄢ ㄒㄧ ㄏㄨㄚˋ
|j2       = Saan1 sai1 waa2
|y2      = Sāan sāi wá
|ci2       = {{IPAc-yue|s|aan|1|.|s|ai|1|.|w|aa|2}}
}}
}}

'''Jin''' ({{zh|s=晋语|t=晉語|p=Jìnyǔ}}) is a group of [[varieties of Chinese|Chinese linguistic varieties]] spoken by roughly 48 million people in northern [[China]],<ref name=e26/> including most of [[Shanxi]] province, much of central [[Inner Mongolia]], and adjoining areas in [[Hebei]], [[Henan]], and [[Shaanxi]] provinces. The status of Jin is disputed among linguists; some prefer to include it within [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], but others set it apart as a closely related but separate sister group.

==Classification==
After the concept of [[Mandarin Chinese]] was proposed, the Jin dialects were universally included within it, mainly because Chinese linguists paid little attention to these dialects at the time. In order to promote Standard Mandarin in the early days of [[People's Republic of China]], linguists started to research various dialects in Shanxi, comparing these dialects with Standard Mandarin for helping the locals to learn it more quickly. During this period, a few linguists discovered some unique features of Jin Chinese that do not exist in other northern Mandarin dialects, planting the seeds for the future independence of Jin Chinese. Finally, in 1985, [[Li Rong (linguist)|Li Rong]] proposed that Jin should be considered a separate top-level dialect group, similar to [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] or [[Wu Chinese|Wu]]. His main criterion was that Jin dialects had preserved the [[entering tone]] as a separate category, still marked with a glottal stop as in the Wu dialects, but distinct in this respect from most other Mandarin dialects. Some linguists have adopted this classification. However, others disagree that Jin should be considered a separate dialect group for these reasons:{{sfn|Yan|2006|pp=60–61, 67–69}}{{sfn|Kurpaska|2010|pp=74–75}}
#Use of the entering tone as a diagnostic feature is inconsistent with the way that all other Chinese dialect groups have been delineated based on the reflexes of the [[Middle Chinese]] voiced initials.
#Certain other Mandarin dialects also preserve the glottal stop, especially the [[Lower Yangtze Mandarin|Jianghuai]] dialects, and so far, no linguist has claimed that these dialects should also be split from Mandarin.

==Dialects==
The ''[[Language Atlas of China]]'' divides Jin into the following eight groups:{{sfn|Kurpaska|2010|p=68}}
[[File:Jinyufen qu.png|thumb|upright=1.5|The main dialect areas of Jin in China.]]
:* {{Interlanguage link|Bingzhou dialect|lt=Bingzhou group|zh|并州片}} ({{Lang-zh|c=并州片}}), spoken in central [[Shanxi]] (the ancient [[Bingzhou|Bing Province]]), including [[Taiyuan]]. Most dialects under this group can distinguish the light entering tone from the dark one, with only 1 level tone. In many dialects, especially those to the south of Taiyuan, the voiced obstruents from Middle Chinese become tenuis in all 4 tones, namely [b] → [p], [d] → [t] and [g] → [k].
:* {{Interlanguage link|Lüliang dialect|lt=Lüliang group|zh|吕梁片}} ({{Lang-zh|c=呂梁片}}), spoken in western Shanxi (including [[Lüliang]]) and northern [[Shaanxi]]. Dialects under this group can differentiate light entering tone from dark entering tone. In most dialects, the voiced obstruents from Middle Chinese become aspirated in both level and entering tones, namely [b] → [pʰ], [d] → [tʰ] and [g] → [kʰ].
:* {{Interlanguage link|Shangdang dialect|lt=Shangdang group|zh|上党片}} ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=上党片|t=上黨片}}), spoken in the area of [[Changzhi]] (ancient [[Shangdang]]) in southeastern Shanxi. Dialects under this group can differentiate light entering tone from dark entering tone. The palatalization of velar consonants does not occur in some dialects.
:* {{Interlanguage link|Wutai dialect|lt=Wutai group|zh|五台片}} ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=五台片|t=五臺片}}), spoken in parts of northern Shanxi (including [[Wutai County]]) and central [[Inner Mongolia]]. A few Dialects under this group can differentiate light entering tone from dark entering tone, while the others cannot. The fusion of the level tone and the rising one occurred in some dialects, though some linguists claim every dialect under this group has this feature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fan |first=Huiqin 范慧琴 |title=Jìn yǔ wǔ tái piàn yīn píng hé shàng shēng de fèn hé jí qí yǎn biàn |journal=语文研究 |date=2015 |issue=3 |script-title=zh:晋语五台片阴平和上声的分合及其演变 |trans-title=The separation and combination of level and rising tones in Wutai dialects of Jin Chinese and their evolution |url=https://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/detail.aspx?DBCode=CJFQ&FileName=YWYJ201503004&DBName=CJFDLAST2015&v=MDAwNDFyQ1VSN2llWnVSc0ZpN25VTHZLUERyU1pMRzRIOVRNckk5RllJUUlCWDFOeWhCbTZrNElUQW1YcmhjeUY= |pages=28–32 |quote={{lang|zh-Hans|文章认为晋语五台片阴平和上声的分合有忻州型和宁武型两个类型，不同类型以及不同方言点的共时差异反映出两个声调的历时演变过程是渐进式的，合流是声调晚期演变的结果，调值相近是合流的直接动因。。}}}}</ref>
:* {{Interlanguage link|Da-Bao dialect|lt=Da-Bao group|zh|大包片}} ({{Lang-zh|c=大包片}}), spoken in parts of northern Shanxi and central Inner Mongolia, including [[Baotou]].
:* [[Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect|Zhangjiakou–Hohhot group]] ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=张呼片|t=張呼片}}), spoken in [[Zhangjiakou]] in northwestern [[Hebei]] and parts of central Inner Mongolia, including [[Hohhot]].
:* {{Interlanguage link|Han-Xin dialect|lt=Han-Xin group|zh|邯新片}} ({{Lang-zh|c=邯新片}}), spoken in southeastern Shanxi, southern Hebei (including [[Handan]]) and northern [[Henan]] (including [[Xinxiang]]).
:* [[Zhi-Yan dialect|Zhi-Yan group]] ({{Lang-zh|c=志延片}}), spoken in [[Zhidan County]] and [[Yanchuan County]] in northern Shaanxi.

The [[Taiyuan dialect]] from the Bingzhou group is sometimes taken as a convenient representative of Jin because many studies of this dialect are available, but most linguists agree that the Taiyuan vocabulary is heavily influenced by Mandarin, making it unrepresentative of Jin.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Qiao |first=Quansheng 乔全生 |title=Jìn fāngyán yánjiū de lìshǐ, xiànzhuàng yǔ wèilái |script-title=zh:晋方言研究的历史、现状与未来 |trans-title=The History, Current State and Future of the Research on Jin Chinese |url=https://www1.doshisha.ac.jp/~cjtl210/data1/34_qiaoquansheng.pdf |pages=10 |quote={{lang|zh-Hans|太原方言的词汇与其他方言比较，结果认为晋方言的词汇与官话方言非常接近。}}}}</ref> The Lüliang group is usually regarded as the "core" of the Jin language group as it preserves most archaic features of Jin. However, there is no consensus as to which dialect among the Lüliang group is the representative dialect.

==Phonology==
Unlike most varieties of [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], Jin has preserved a final [[glottal stop]], which is the remnant of a final [[stop consonant]] ({{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} or {{IPA|/k/}}). This is in common with the [[Early Mandarin]] of the [[Yuan dynasty]] (c. 14th century AD) and with a number of modern southern varieties of Chinese. In Middle Chinese, syllables closed with a stop consonant had no tone. However, Chinese linguists prefer to categorize such syllables as belonging to a separate tone class, traditionally called the "[[entering tone]]". Syllables closed with a [[glottal stop]] in Jin are still toneless, or alternatively, Jin can be said to still maintain the entering tone. In standard Mandarin Chinese, syllables formerly ending with a glottal stop have been reassigned to one of the other tone classes in a [[Checked tone#Mandarin|seemingly random fashion]].

=== Initials ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Consonants of the Taiyuan dialect<ref name="Wen and Sheng 1999">{{Cite book |last1=Wen |first1=Duanzheng 溫端政 |title=Tàiyuánhuà yīndàng |trans-title=The Sound System of the Taiyuan Dialect |last2=Shen |first2=Ming 沈明 |date=1999 |publisher=Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe |editor-last=Hou |editor-first=Jingyi 侯精一 |location=Shanghai |pages=4–12 |language=zh |script-title=zh:太原话音档}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-<br>palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Stop consonant|Stop]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA|p}}
|{{IPA|t}}
|
|{{IPA|k}}
|-
!<small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPA|pʰ}}
|{{IPA|tʰ}}
|
|{{IPA|kʰ}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|
|{{IPA|ts}}
|{{IPA|tɕ}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
|
|{{IPA|tsʰ}}
|{{IPA|tɕʰ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA|f}}
|{{IPA|s}}
|{{IPA|ɕ}}
|{{IPA|x}}
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA|v}}
|{{IPA|z}}
|
|{{IPA|ɣ}}
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA|m}}
|{{IPA|n}}
|
|{{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
|{{IPA|l}}
|
|
|}

* {{IPA|[ŋ]}} is mainly used in finals.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Consonants of the Fenyang dialect<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=[汾阳方言语音教程] 第五课 - 汾阳话拼音方案 ([Fenyang Dialect Phonetics Course] Lesson 5 - Fenyang Dialect Pinyin Scheme) |url=https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?__biz=MzI4OTQ3MjY0MA==&mid=2247483976&idx=1&sn=dc098cafda048973863c2df2fa6193ba&chksm=ec2feba7db5862b1fbf0bd2876c38f9a2fc4a569fe68f82ddc376d31abc8f0127653a8ae905f#rd |access-date=2022-04-11}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-<br>palatal]]
![[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Stop consonant|Stop]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA|p}}
|{{IPA|t}}
|
|
|{{IPA|k}}
|-
!<small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPA|pʰ}}
|{{IPA|tʰ}}
|
|
|{{IPA|kʰ}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|
|{{IPA|ts}}
|{{IPA|tɕ}}
|{{IPA|tʂ}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
|
|{{IPA|tsʰ}}
|{{IPA|tɕʰ}}
|{{IPA|tʂʰ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA|f}}
|{{IPA|s}}
|{{IPA|ɕ}}
|{{IPA|ʂ}}
|{{IPA|x}}
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA|v}}
|{{IPA|z}}
|
|{{IPA|ʐ}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Prenasalized consonant|prenasal]]</small>
|
|{{IPA|nᵈz}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA|m}}
|{{IPA|n}}
|{{IPA|ɲ}}
|{{IPA|ɳ}}
|{{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
|{{IPA|l}}
|
|
|
|}

* The nasal consonant sounds may vary between nasal sounds {{IPA|[m, n, ɲ, ɳ, ŋ]}} or prenasalised stop sounds {{IPA|[ᵐb, ⁿd, ᶯɖʐ, ᶮdʲ, ᵑɡ]}}.
* A prenasalised affricated fricative sound {{IPA|/nᵈz/}}, is also present.

=== Finals ===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Vowels of the Taiyuan dialect<ref name="Wen and Sheng 1999" /><ref>{{Cite conference |last1=Xia |first1=Liping |last2=Hu |first2=Fang |date=2016 |title=Vowels and Diphthongs in the Taiyuan Jin Chinese Dialect |url=https://www.isca-speech.org/archive/interspeech_2016/xia16b_interspeech.html |conference=Interspeech 2016 |pages=993–997 |doi=10.21437/Interspeech.2016-249 |doi-access=}}</ref>
!
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="5" |Oral
! colspan="4" |Nasal
! colspan="3" |Check
|-
! colspan="2" |Medial
!{{IPA|∅}}
!<small>coda</small>
!{{IPA|a}}
!{{IPA|e}}
!{{IPA|i}}
!{{IPA|u}}
!{{IPA|ŋ}}
!{{IPA|æ̃}}
!{{IPA|ɛ̃}}
!{{IPA|∅}}
!{{IPA|∅}}
!{{IPA|ə}}
!{{IPA|a}}
|-
! rowspan="8" |Nucleus
!{{IPA|∅}}
|
|
|
|
|{{IPA|ei}}
|
|{{IPA|ɒŋ}}
|{{IPA|æ̃}}
|
|{{IPA|ɒ̃}}
|{{IPA|ɐʔ}}
|{{IPA|əʔ}}
|{{IPA|aʔ}}
|-
! rowspan="7" |Vowel
|{{IPA|i}}
|
|{{IPA|ia}}
|{{IPA|ie}}
|
|
|{{IPA|iŋ}}
|
|{{IPA|iɛ̃}}
|{{IPA|iɒ̃}}
|
|{{IPA|iəʔ}}
|{{IPA|iaʔ}}
|-
|{{IPA|y}}
|
|
|{{IPA|ye}}
|
|
|{{IPA|yŋ}}
|
|{{IPA|yɛ̃}}
|
|
|{{IPA|yəʔ}}
|
|-
|{{IPA|a}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA|ai}}
|{{IPA|au}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|{{IPA|əu}}
|{{IPA|əŋ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{IPA|oŋ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|{{IPA|ɤ}}
|{{IPA|uɤ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|{{IPA|u}}
|
|{{IPA|ua}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA|uŋ}}
|{{IPA|uæ̃}}
|
|{{IPA|uɒ̃}}
|
|{{IPA|uəʔ}}
|{{IPA|uaʔ}}
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Triphthong
|
|{{IPA|iəu}}
|{{IPA|uai}}
|
|{{IPA|uei}}
|{{IPA|iau}}
|{{IPA|iəŋ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{IPA|yəŋ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{IPA|uəŋ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]]
|{{IPA|ɹ̩}}
|{{IPA|əɹ̩}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Vowels of the Fenyang dialect<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Juncheng |first=Zhao |title=汾阳话与普通话简编 [A Compendium of Fenyang and Mandarin] |publisher=山西省汾阳县志办公室 [Shanxi Province Fenyang County Office] |year=1989 |pages=1–3}}</ref>
!
! colspan="3" |
! colspan="4" |Oral
! colspan="3" |Nasal
! colspan="3" |Check
|-
! colspan="2" |Medial
!{{IPA|∅}}
!<small>lab.</small>
!<small>coda</small>
!{{IPA|a}}
!{{IPA|i}}
!{{IPA|u}}
!{{IPA|ŋ}}
!{{IPA|ã}}
!{{IPA|∅}}
!{{IPA|∅}}
!{{IPA|a}}
!{{IPA|ə}}
|-
! rowspan="11" |Nucleus
!{{IPA|∅}}
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|
|{{IPA|ɑu}}
|
|{{IPA|ã}}
|{{IPA|ə̃}}
|{{IPA|eʔ}}
|{{IPA|aʔ}}
|{{IPA|əʔ}}
|-
! rowspan="10" |Vowel
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|i}}
|{{IPA|iɔ}}
|{{IPA|ia}}
|
|{{IPA|iu}}
|
|{{IPA|iã}}
|{{IPA|ĩ}}
|{{IPA|ieʔ}}
|{{IPA|iaʔ}}
|
|-
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|y}}
|{{IPA|yɔ}}
|{{IPA|ya}}
|
|
|{{IPA|yŋ}}
|{{IPA|yã}}
|
|{{IPA|yeʔ}}
|{{IPA|yaʔ}}
|
|-
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|{{IPA|ei}}
|{{IPA|eu}}
|{{IPA|eŋ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|a}}
|
|
|{{IPA|ai}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{IPA|iə̃}}
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|ɔ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|o}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA|ou}}
|{{IPA|oŋ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|
|{{IPA|ɤu}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|ɯ}}
|{{IPA|iɯ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|u}}
|{{IPA|uɔ}}
|{{IPA|ua}}
|{{IPA|ui}}
|
|{{IPA|uŋ}}
|{{IPA|uã}}
|
|{{IPA|ueʔ}}
|{{IPA|uaʔ}}
|{{IPA|uəʔ}}
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Triphthong
| colspan="2" |
|{{IPA|iai}}
|{{IPA|uai}}
|{{IPA|uei}}
|{{IPA|iɑu}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|
|{{IPA|iou}}
|{{IPA|uoŋ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]]
|{{IPA|ɹ̩}}
|{{IPA|ɹ̩ʷ}}
|{{IPA|əɹ̩}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

* The diphthong {{IPA|/ɤu/}} may also be realized as a monophthong close central vowel {{IPA|[ʉ]}}.
* Sounds ending in the sequence {{IPA|/-aʔ/}} may also be heard as {{IPA|[-ɛʔ]}}, then realized as {{IPA|[ɛʔ, iɛʔ, yɛʔ, uɛʔ]}}.
* {{IPA|/y/}} can also be heard as a labio-palatal approximant {{IPA|[ɥ]}} when preceding initial consonants.
* {{IPA|/i/}} when occurring after alveolar sounds {{IPA|/ts, tsʰ, s/}} can be heard as an alveolar syllabic {{IPA|[ɹ̩]}}, and is heard as a retroflex syllabic {{IPA|[ɻ̩]}} when occurring after retroflex consonants {{IPA|/tʂ, tʂʰ, ʂ, ʐ/}}.

=== Tones ===

Jin employs extremely complex [[tone sandhi]], or tone changes that occur when words are put together into phrases. The tone sandhi of Jin is notable in two ways among Chinese varieties:

* Tone sandhi rules depend on the grammatical structure of the words being put together. Hence, an adjective–noun compound may go through different sets of changes compared to a verb–object compound.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chen |first1=Matthew |title=Tone Sandhi: Patterns across Chinese Dialects |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0521033403 |pages=93}}</ref>
* There are Jin varieties in which the "dark level" tone category (''yīnpíng'' 阴平) and "light level" (''yángpíng'' 阳平) tone have merged in isolation but can still be distinguished in tone sandhi contexts. That is, while e.g. Standard Mandarin has a tonal distinction between Tone 1 and Tone 2, corresponding words in Jin Chinese may have the same tone when pronounced separately. However, these words can still be distinguished in connected speech. For example, in Pingyao Jin, dark level ''tou'' 偷 'secretly' and ''ting'' 听 'to listen' on the one hand, and light level ''tao'' 桃 'peach' and ''hong'' 红 'red' on the other hand, all have the same rising tone [˩˧] when pronounced in isolation. Yet, when these words are combined into ''touting'' 偷听 'eavesdropping' and ''taohong'' 桃红 'peach red', the tonal distinction emerges. In ''touting'', ''tou'' has a falling tone [˧˩] and ''ting'' has a high-rising tone [˧˥], whereas both syllables in ''taohong'' still have the same low-rising tone [˩˧] as in isolation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chen |first1=Matthew |title=Tone Sandhi: Patterns across Chinese Dialects |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0521033403 |pages=51}}</ref>
* According to Guo (1989)<ref>Guo, Jianrong 郭建荣 (1989). Xiaoyi fangyan zhi 孝义方言志. Beijing: Yuwen.</ref> and also noted by Sagart (1999), the departing (''qusheng'' 去声) tone category in the Jin dialect of [[Xiaoyi]] is characterized by -ʰ and a high falling tone [˥˧]. Xiaoyi also lacks a voicing split in the level tone.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sagart |first=Laurent |title=The origin of Chinese tones |journal=Proceedings of the Symposium/Cross-Linguistic Studies of Tonal Phenomena/Tonogenesis, Typology and Related Topics |publisher=Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies |date=1999 |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00096904 |access-date=2024-06-15}}</ref> The rising (''shangsheng'' 上声) tone in Xiaoyi is also "characterized by a glottal break in the middle of the syllable [˧˩ʔ˩˨]".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sagart |first=Laurent |date=2022-11-15 |title=Audio files of some shangsheng 上声 words in Xiaoyi 孝义 dialect (Shanxi), in the pronunciation of Prof. Guo Jianrong 郭建荣, Oct. 1985 |journal=Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian |publisher=Hypotheses |doi=10.58079/UKDO |url=https://stan.hypotheses.org/2032 |access-date=2024-06-15}}</ref>

==Grammar==
Jin readily employs prefixes such as {{linktext|lang=zh|圪}} {{IPA|/kəʔ/}}, {{linktext|lang=zh|黑}} {{IPA|/xəʔ/}}, {{linktext|lang=zh|忽}} {{IPA|/xuəʔ/}}, and {{linktext|lang=zh|入}}(日) {{IPA|/ʐəʔ/}}, in a variety of [[derivation (linguistics)|derivational]] constructions. For example:<br />
{{linktext|lang=zh|入|鬼}} "fool around" < {{linktext|lang=zh|鬼}} "ghost, devil"

In addition, there are a number of words in Jin that evolved, evidently, by splitting a mono-syllabic word into two, adding an 'l' in between (cf. [[Ubbi Dubbi]], but with {{IPA|/l/}} instead of {{IPA|/b/}}). For example:

:{{IPA|/pəʔ ləŋ/}} < {{linktext|lang=zh|蹦}} {{IPA|/pəŋ/}} "hop"
:{{IPA|/tʰəʔ luɤ/}} < {{linktext|lang=zh|拖}} {{IPA|/tʰuɤ/}} "drag"
:{{IPA|/kuəʔ la/}} < {{linktext|lang=zh|刮}} {{IPA|/kua/}} "scrape"
:{{IPA|/xəʔ lɒ̃/}} < {{linktext|lang=zh|巷}} {{IPA|/xɒ̃/}} "street"

A similar process can in fact be found in most Mandarin dialects (e.g. {{linktext|lang=zh|窟窿}} kulong < {{linktext|lang=zh|孔}} kong), but it is especially common in Jin.

This may be a kind of reservation for double-initials in [[Old Chinese]], although this is still controversial. For example, the character {{lang|zh|孔}} (pronounced {{IPA|/kʰoːŋ/}} in Mandarin) which appears more often as {{lang|zh|窟窿}} {{IPA|/kʰuəʔ luŋ/}} in Jin, had the pronunciation like {{IPA|/kʰloːŋ/}} in [[Old Chinese]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}}

Some dialects of Jin make a three-way distinction in [[demonstrative]]s. (Modern English, for example, has only a two-way distinction between "this" and "that", with "yon" being archaic.){{Citation needed|date=September 2023}}

==Vocabulary==
Lexical diversity in Jin Chinese is obvious, with some words having a very distinct regionality. Usually, there are more unique words in the core dialects than in the non-core dialects and moreover, some cannot be represented in Chinese characters.

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation
  | author = Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) |author-link = Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
  | script-title = zh:中国语言地图集（第2版）：汉语方言卷
  | title = Zhōngguó Yǔyán Dìtújí (Dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn
  | trans-title = Language Atlas of China (2nd Edition): Chinese Dialect Volume
  | title-link = Language Atlas of China
  | publisher = [[The Commercial Press]] | location = Beijing | year = 2012
  | ref = {{sfnref|CASS|2012}}
  | postscript = .
  | language = zh-CN
  }}
* {{Citation | last1 = Hou 侯 | first1 = Jingyi 精一 | last2=Shen 沈 | first2 = Ming 明 | editor-last = Hou | editor-first = Jingyi |script-title=zh:现代汉语方言概论 |trans-title = Overview of Modern Chinese Dialects | publisher = Shanghai Education Publishing House | year=2002 | isbn=7-5320-8084-6 | language = zh-CN }}
* {{Citation |last=Kurpaska | first=Maria |title = Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of ''The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects'' |publisher = De Gruyter Mouton |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-11-021914-2 }}
* {{citation
  | surname = Yan
  | given = Margaret Mian 
  | title = Introduction to Chinese Dialectology
  | publisher = LINCOM Europa | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-3-89586-629-6
  | postscript = .
  }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{incubator|code=cjy}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081227193739/http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/classification/jin/index.php Classification of the Jin Dialects]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081227193739/http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/dialectdata/shanxi/pingyao.php Details of the Pingyao Dialect]

{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Languages of China}}
{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Jin Chinese| ]]
[[Category:Languages of China]]
[[Category:Varieties of Chinese]]