View source for Linguistic areas of the Americas

The [[indigenous languages of the Americas]] form various [[linguistic area]]s or [[Sprachbund]]s that share various common (areal) traits. The following list of linguistic areas is primarily based on Campbell (1997, 2024).
[[File:America lang.png|thumb|A map classifying the languages by [[word order]]]]
==Overview==
The languages of the Americas often can be grouped together into ''linguistic areas'' or ''[[Sprachbund]]s'' (also known as ''convergence areas''). The linguistic areas identified so far deserve more research to determine their validity. Knowing about Sprachbunds helps historical linguists differentiate between shared areal traits and true genetic relationship. The pioneering work on American areal linguistics was a dissertation by [[Joel Sherzer]], which was published as Sherzer (1976).

[[Lyle Campbell]] (1997) lists over 20 linguistic areas,<ref>Campbell, Lyle (1997). ''American Indian languages: the historical linguistics of Native America''. Ch. 9 ''Linguistic Areas of the Americas'', pp. 330–352. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-509427-1}}.</ref> many of which are still hypothetical.

''Note'': Some linguistic areas may overlap with others.

{| class="wikitable"
!c=area| Linguistic Area ([[Sprachbund]])
!c=lang| Included families, branches, and languages
|-
!c=area| [[:Category:Northern Northwest Coast Sprachbund (North America)|Northern Northwest Coast]]<ref>May be a subarea of the Northern Northwest Coast Linguistic Area. This sprachbund contains languages that have strict head-final syntax.</ref>
|c=lang| [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo-Aleut]], [[Haida language|Haida]], [[Eyak language|Eyak]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]]
|-
!c=area| [[:Category:Northwest Coast Sprachbund (North America)|Northwest Coast]]<ref>Characterized by elaborate consonant systems</ref>
|c=lang| [[Eyak language|Eyak]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]], [[Tsimshian language|Tsimshian]], [[Wakashan languages|Wakashan]], [[Chimakuan languages|Chimakuan]], [[Salishan languages|Salishan]], [[Alsea language|Alsea]], [[Coosan languages|Coosan]], [[Kalapuyan languages|Kalapuyan]], <br>[[Takelma language|Takelma]], [[Lower Chinook language|Lower Chinook]]
|-
!c=area| Plateau<ref>Characterized by [[glottal stop]]s</ref>
|c=lang| [[Sahaptian languages|Sahaptian]], [[Upper Chinook language|Upper Chinook]], [[Nicola language|Nicola]], [[Cayuse language|Cayuse]], [[Molala language]], [[Klamath language|Klamath]], [[Kutenai language|Kutenai]], [[Salishan languages|Interior Salishan]]
|-
!c=area| Northern California
|c=lang| [[Algic languages|Algic]], [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]], [[Yukian languages|Yukian]], [[Miwokan languages|Miwokan]], [[Wintuan languages|Wintuan]], [[Maiduan languages|Maiduan]], [[Klamath-Modoc language|Klamath-Modoc]], [[Pomoan languages|Pomo]], [[Chimariko language|Chimariko]], [[Achomawi language|Achomawi]], <br>[[Atsugewi language|Atsugewi]], [[Karuk language|Karuk]], [[Shasta language|Shasta]], [[Yana language|Yana]], ([[Washo language|Washo]])
|-
!c=area| Clear Lake
|c=lang| [[Lake Miwok language|Lake Miwok]], [[Patwin language|Patwin]], East and Southeastern [[Pomoan languages|Pomo]], [[Wappo language|Wappo]]
|-
!c=area| South Coast Range
|c=lang| [[Chumashan languages|Chumash]], [[Esselen language|Esselen]], [[Salinan language|Salinan]]
|-
!c=area| Southern California–Western Arizona
|c=lang| [[Yuman languages|Yuman]], [[Cupan languages|Cupan]] (Uto-Aztecan), less extensively [[Takic languages|Takic]] (Uto-Aztecan)
|-
!c=area| Great Basin<ref>May be a subarea of the Northern California Linguistic Area.</ref>
|c=lang| [[Numic languages|Numic]] (Uto-Aztecan), [[Washo language|Washo]]
|-
!c=area| [[Pueblo linguistic area|Pueblo]]
|c=lang| [[Keresan languages|Keresan]], [[Tanoan languages|Tanoan]], [[Zuni language|Zuni]], [[Hopi language|Hopi]], some [[Apachean languages|Apachean]] branches
|-
!c=area| Plains
|c=lang| [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]], [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]], [[Siouan languages|Siouan]], [[Tanoan languages|Tanoan]], [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]], [[Tonkawa language|Tonkawa]]
|-
!c=area| Northeast
|c=lang| [[Winnebago language|Winnebago]] (Siouan), [[Northern Iroquoian languages|Northern Iroquoian]], [[Eastern Algonquian languages|Eastern Algonquian]]
|-
!c=area| Southeast ("[[Gulf languages|Gulf]]")
|c=lang| [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]], [[Chitimacha language|Chitimacha]], [[Atakapa language|Atakapa]], [[Tunica language]], [[Natchez language|Natchez]], [[Yuchi language|Yuchi]], [[Ofo language|Ofo]] (Siouan), [[Biloxi language|Biloxi]] (Siouan) – <br> sometimes also [[Tutelo language|Tutelo]], [[Catawba language|Catawban]], [[Quapaw language|Quapaw]], [[Dhegiha language|Dhegiha]] (all Siouan); [[Tuscarora language|Tuscarora]], [[Cherokee language|Cherokee]], [[Shawnee language|Shawnee]]
|-
!c=area| [[Mesoamerican Linguistic Area|Mesoamerican]]
|c=lang| [[Aztecan languages|Aztecan]] (Nahua branch of Uto-Aztecan), [[Mixe–Zoquean languages|Mixe–Zoquean]], [[Mayan languages|Mayan]], [[Xincan languages|Xincan]], [[Otomanguean languages|Otomanguean]] <br>(except [[Chichimeca Jonaz language|Chichimeco–Jonaz]] and some [[Oto-Pamean languages|Pame]] varieties, [[Totonacan languages|Totonacan]]), [[Purépecha language|Purépecha]], [[Cuitlatec language|Cuitlatec]], [[Tequistlatecan languages|Tequistlatecan]], [[Huave language|Huave]]
|-
!c=area| Mayan<ref>Often included in the Mesoamerican sprachbund</ref>
|c=lang| [[Mayan languages|Mayan]], [[Xincan languages|Xincan]], [[Lencan languages|Lencan]], [[Jicaquean language|Jicaquean]]
|-
!c=area| Colombian–Central American<ref>Characterized by [[Subject–object–verb|SOV]] word order and [[postposition]]s</ref>
|c=lang| [[Chibchan languages|Chibchan]], [[Misumalpan languages|Misumalpan]], [[Manguean languages|Mangue]], [[Subtiaba language|Subtiaba]]; sometimes [[Lencan languages|Lencan]], [[Jicaquean languages|Jicaquean]], [[Chocho language|Chochoan]], [[Betoi language|Betoi]]
|-
!c=area| Venezuelan–Antillean<ref>Characterized by [[Verb–object word order|VO]] word order (instead of SOV)</ref>
|c=lang| [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan]], [[Cariban languages|Cariban]], [[Guamo language|Guamo]], [[Otomacoan languages|Otomaco]], [[Yaruro language|Yaruro]], [[Warao language|Warao]]
|-
!c=area| Andean<ref>Characterized by SOV word order and elaborate suffixing</ref>
|c=lang| [[Quechuan languages|Quechuan]], [[Aymaran languages|Aymaran]], [[Callahuaya language|Callahuaya]], [[Uru-Chipaya languages|Chipaya]]
|-
!c=area| Ecuadorian–Colombian <br>(subarea of Andean)
|c=lang| [[Páez language|Páez]], [[Guambiano language|Guambiano]] (Paezan), [[Cuaiquer language|Cuaiquer]], [[Cayapa language|Cayapa]], [[Colorado language|Colorado]] (Barbacoan), [[Camsá language|Camsá]], [[Cofán language|Cofán]], [[Esmeralda language|Esmeralda]], [[Quichua language|Ecuadorian Quechua]]
|-
!c=area| Orinoco–Amazon
|c=lang| [[Yanomaman languages|Yanomaman]], [[Piaroa language|Piaroa]] (Sálivan), [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan/Maipurean]], [[Cariban languages|Cariban]], [[Jotí language|Jotí]], [[Uruak language|Uruak/Ahuaqué]], [[Sapé language|Sapé]] (Kaliana), [[Máku language|Máku]]
|-
!c=area| [[Amazonian languages|Amazon]]
|c=lang| [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan/Maipurean]], [[Arawan languages|Arauan/Arawan]], [[Cariban languages|Cariban]], [[Chapacuran languages|Chapacuran]], [[Jê languages|Ge/Je]], [[Panoan languages|Panoan]], [[Puinave language|Puinavean]], [[Tacanan languages|Tacanan]], [[Tucanoan languages|Tucanoan]], [[Tupian languages|Tupian]]
|-
!c=area| [[Southern Cone#Language|Southern Cone]]
|c=lang| [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] (Araucanian), [[Guaycuruan languages|Guaycuruan]], [[Chon languages|Chon]]
|}

==Lexical diffusion==
Pache, et al. (2016)<ref name="Pache2016">Pache, Matthias, Søren Wichmann, and Mikhail Zhivlov. 2016. [https://www.academia.edu/19795964/Words_for_dog_as_a_diagnostic_of_language_contact_in_the_Americas._In_Berez-Kroeker_Andrea_L._Diane_M._Hintz_and_Carmen_Jany_eds._Language_Contact_and_Change_in_the_Americas._Studies_in_honor_of_Marianne_Mithun._Amsterdam_Philadelphia_John_Benjamins._In_press_2016_ Words for ‘dog’ as a diagnostic of language contact in the Americas]. In: Berez-Kroeker, Andrea L., Diane M. Hintz and Carmen Jany (eds.), Language Contact and Change in the Americas: Studies in Honor of Marianne Mithun, 385-409. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.</ref> note that the word ‘[[origin of the domestic dog|dog]]’<ref>Key, Mary Ritchie & Comrie, Bernard (eds.) 2015.
The Intercontinental Dictionary Series. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Entry: [http://ids.clld.org/parameters/3-610 dog].</ref> is shared across various unrelated language families of the Americas, and use this word as a case study of [[lexical diffusion]] due to trade and contact.

In [[California]], identical roots for ‘dog’ are found in:<ref name="Pache2016"/><ref>Note: Forms marked preceded by asterisks are [[proto-language]] reconstructions.</ref>
*[[Yurok language|Yurok]] ''cʼišah'', [[Karok language|Karuk]] ''čišiːh'', [[Takelma language|Takelma]] ''cʼíxi'', [[Yokuts language|Yokuts]] *''cʼɨːsas''
*[[Chimariko language|Chimariko]] ''šičela'', [[Wintu language|Wintu]] ''se-cilaː'' ‘to tear apart’
*[[Wintun languages|Wintun]] *''suku'', [[Maiduan languages|Maiduan]] *''sɨː'', [[Washo language|Washo]] ''súkuʔ'', [[Miwok language|Miwok]] *''hayu'', [[Costanoan languages|Costanoan]] ([[Awaswas language|Awaswas]] and [[Chochenyo language|Chocheño]]; Chocheño has the form ''čukuti''). Pache, et al. (2016) posit a Wintun origin for this root.
* *''hayu'' root in [[Miwok language|Miwok]], [[Pomoan languages|Pomoan]], [[Wappo language|Wappo]], and [[Patwin language|Hill Patwin]]
*[[Ramaytush language|Ramaytush]] ''puku'', [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] *''punku''
*[[Costanoan languages|Costanoan]] (Mutsun ''xučekniṣ'', Chalon ''xučekniṣ'', and Rumsen ''xučːiys''), [[Esselen language|Esselen]] ''hučumas'' (term borrowed from Costanoan; native terms are ''šošo'' and ''šanašo''), [[Salinan language|Salinan]] (Antoniaño Salinan ''xuč'' (pl. ''xostén'') and Migueleño Salinan ''xučaːi''), [[Chumash language|Chumash]] (Ineseño Chumash ''huču'', likely borrowed from Salinan)

In [[Languages of South America|South America]], a root for ‘dog’ is shared by [[Uru–Chipaya languages|Uru-Chipayan]] (''paku'' or ''paqu'') and several unrelated neighboring languages of lowland Bolivia ([[Movima language|Movima]] ''pako'', [[Itonama language|Itonama]] ''u-paʔu'', and [[Trinitario language|Trinitario]] ''paku''), as well as [[Guaicuruan languages|Guaicuruan]] ([[Mocoví language|Mocoví]], [[Toba Qom language|Toba]], and [[Pilagá language|Pilagá]] ''pioq''). An identical root for ‘dog’ is also shared by [[Huastec language|Huastec]] (*''sul'') and [[Atakapa language|Atakapa]] (''šul''), which are very geographically distant from each other although both are located along the [[Gulf of Mexico]] coast.<ref name="Pache2016"/> Areal words for ‘dog’ are also shared across the U.S. Southeast ([[Karankawa language|Karankawa]] ''keš'' ~ ''kes'', [[Chitimacha language|Chitimacha]] ''kiš'', [[Cotoname language|Cotoname]] ''kissa'' ‘fox’, [[Huave language|Huavean]] *''kisɨ''), as well as across [[Mesoamerica]]. Mesoamerican areal words for ‘dog’ diffused unidirectionally from certain language families to others, and are listed below:<ref name="Pache2016"/>
*Proto-[[Mixe-Zoquean]] *''ʔuku'' > Proto-[[Zapotecan languages|Zapotec]] *''kweʔkkoʔ'' ([[Ixtlán Zapotec]] ''beʔkoʔ'') > [[Huastec language|Huastec]] ''pik’oʔ'', [[Yucatec language|Yucatec]] ''pè:k’''
*[[Purepecha language|P’urhépecha]] ''wiču'' > [[Chontal of Oaxaca|Chontal]] ''wičuʔ''
*[[Totonacan languages|Totonacan]] ''čiči(ʔ)'' > [[Classical Nahuatl]] ''čiči''
==North America==
===Northern Northwest Coast===
{{see also|Category:Northern Northwest Coast Sprachbund (North America)}}
This linguistic area was proposed by Jeff Leer (1991), and may be a subarea of the Northwest Coast Linguistic Area. This sprachbund contains languages that have strict head-final (XSOV) syntax. Languages are [[Aleut languages|Aleut]], [[Haida language|Haida]], [[Eyak language|Eyak]], and [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]].

Leer (1991) considers the strong areal traits to be:
*lack of labial obstruents
*promiscuous number marking
*periphrastic possessive construction

===Northwest Coast===
{{see also|Category:Northwest Coast Sprachbund (North America)}}
This linguistic area is characterized by elaborate consonant systems. Languages are [[Eyak language|Eyak]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]], [[Tsimshian language|Tsimshian]], [[Wakashan languages|Wakashan]], [[Chimakuan languages|Chimakuan]], [[Salishan languages|Salishan]], [[Alsea language|Alsea]], [[Coosan languages|Coosan]], [[Kalapuyan languages|Kalapuyan]], [[Takelma language|Takelma]], and [[Lower Chinook language|Lower Chinook]]. Phonological areal traits include:

*Series of glottalized stops and affricates
*Labiovelars
*Multiple laterals
*s/š opposition
*c/č opposition
*[[voiceless uvular stop]] ''q''
*one fricative series, which is voiceless
*velar fricatives
*highly limited inventory of [[labial consonant]]s
*large inventory of [[uvular consonant]]s
*limited vowel systems

Typical shared morphological traits include:
*reduplication processes: including iterative, continuative, progressive, plural, collective
*numeral classifiers
*alienable/inalienable oppositions in nouns
*pronominal plural
*nominal plural
*verbal reduplication signifying distribution, repetition, etc.
*suffixation of tense-aspect markers in verbs
*verbal evidential markers
*locative-directional markers in the verb
*visibility/invisibility opposition in demonstratives
*nominal and verbal reduplication signaling the diminutive
*passive-like constructions (except for Tlingit)
*negative appearing as the first element in a clause regardless of the usual word order
*lexically paired singular and plural verb stems

===Plateau===
{{see also|Plateau Penutian languages}}
The Plateau linguistic area includes [[Sahaptian languages|Sahaptian]], [[Upper Chinook language|Upper Chinook]], [[Nicola language|Nicola]], [[Cayuse language|Cayuse]], [[Molala language]], [[Klamath language|Klamath]], [[Kutenai language|Kutenai]], and [[Salishan languages|Interior Salishan]]. Primary shared phonological features of this linguistic area include:
*glottalized stops
*velar/uvular contrasting series
*multiple laterals

Other less salient shared traits are:
*labiovelars
*one fricative series
*velar (and uvular) fricatives
*series of glottalized resonants (sonorants) contrasting with plain resonants (except in Sahaptin, Cayuse, Molala, and Kiksht)
*word-medial and word-final consonant clusters of four or more consonants (except in Kiksht, and uncertain in Cayuse and Molala)
*vowel systems of only 3 or 4 vowel positions (except Nez Perce, which has 5)
*vowel-length contrast
*size-shape-affective sound symbolism involving consonantal interchanges
*pronominal plural
*nominal plural
*prefixation of subject person markers of verbs
*suffixation of tense-aspect markers in verbs
*several kinds of reduplication (except in Nicola)
*numeral classifiers (shared by Salishan and Sahaptian languages)
*locative-directional markers in verbs
*different roots of the singular and the plural for various actions, such as 'sit', 'stand', 'take' (except in Kutenai and Lillooet, uncertain in Cayuse and Molala)
*quinary-decimal numerical system (Haruo Aoki 1975)

===Northern California===
The Northern California linguistic area consists of many [[Hokan languages]]. Languages include [[Algic languages|Algic]], [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]], [[Yukian languages|Yukian]], [[Miwokan languages|Miwokan]], [[Wintuan languages|Wintuan]], [[Maiduan languages|Maiduan]], [[Klamath-Modoc language|Klamath-Modoc]], [[Pomoan languages|Pomo]], [[Chimariko language|Chimariko]], [[Achomawi language|Achomawi]], [[Atsugewi language|Atsugewi]], [[Karuk language|Karuk]], [[Shasta language|Shasta]], [[Yana language|Yana]], ([[Washo language|Washo]]).

Features of this linguistic area have been described by [[Mary Haas]]. They include:
*rarity of uvular consonants: they occur in Klamath, Wintu, Chimariko, and Pomoan
*retroflexed stops
*rarity of a distinct series of voiced stops except in the east–west strip of languages including Kashaya Pomo, Wintu-Patwin, and Maidu (this series contains implosion in Maidu)
*consonant sound symbolism: in Yurok, Wiyot, Hupa, Tolowa, Karuk, and Yana

Washo, spoken in the Great Basin area, shares some traits common to the Northern California linguistic area.
*pronominal dual
*quinary/decimal numeral system
*absence of vowel-initial syllables
*free stress

====Northwest California====
Northwest California is a subarea of the Northern California linguistic area. It includes [[Wiyot language|Wiyot]] (Algic), [[Yurok language|Yurok]] (Algic), [[Hupa language|Hupa]] (Athabaskan), and [[Karuk language|Karuk]] (language isolate).<ref name="Campbell2024"/>

===Central California===
Golla (2011: 247–248) notes that [[Esselen language|Esselen]] shares typological features with [[Utian languages|Utian]], [[Miwok languages|Miwok]], [[Costanoan languages|Costanoan]], such as "the absence of a glottalized series, and ... a relatively analytic morphosyntax", which are also similar to typological features found in Northern [[Uto-Aztecan languages]]. He suggests that there was a linguistic area that stretched from the Sierra Nevada through Sacramento, and from the [[San Joaquin Delta]] to the San Francisco Bay.<ref>Golla, Victor. 2011. ''California Indian Languages''. Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref>

Shaul (2014: 203–207) also proposes typological connections between [[Esselen language|Esselen]], [[Salinan language|Salinan]], [[Chumashan languages|Chumashan]], some [[Utian languages]], and [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]].<ref>Shaul, David L. 2014. ''A Prehistory of Western North America: The Impact of Uto-Aztecan Languages''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.</ref> Similarities between [[Utian languages|Utian]] and various neighboring language families have also been noted by Callaghan (2014).<ref>Callaghan, Catherine A. 2014. ''Proto Utian Grammar and Dictionary, with Notes on Yokuts.'' Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.</ref><ref name="Campbell2024"/>

===Clear Lake===
Clear Lake is clearly a linguistic area, and is centered around [[Clear Lake, California]]. Languages are [[Lake Miwok language|Lake Miwok]], [[Patwin language|Patwin]], East and Southeastern [[Pomoan languages|Pomo]], and [[Wappo language|Wappo]]. Shared features include:

*retroflexed dentals
*voiceless l (ɬ)
*glottalized glides
*3 series of stops

===South Coast Range===
Languages in Sherzer's (1976) "Yokuts-Salinan-Chumash" area (also known as the "South Coast Range" linguistic area<ref name="Campbell2024"/>), which includes [[Chumashan languages|Chumash]], [[Esselen language|Esselen]], and [[Salinan language|Salinan]], share the following traits.

*3 series of stops - also in the Clear Lake area
*retroflexed sounds - also in the Clear Lake area
*glottalized resonants (sonorants)
*prefixation of verbal subject markers)
*presence of /h, ɨ, c, ŋ/ in the Greater South Coast Range area
*t/ṭ (retroflex/non-retroflex) contrast in the Greater South Coast Range area, as well as other parts of California

In an expanded version, the Greater South Coast Range linguistic area also includes [[Yokutsan languages|Yokutsan]] and several Northern [[Uto-Aztecan languages]].<ref name="Campbell2024"/>

===Great Basin===
This linguistic area is defined by Sherzer (1973, 1976) and Jacobsen (1980). Languages are [[Numic languages|Numic]] (Uto-Aztecan) and [[Washo language|Washo]]. Shared traits include:
*k/kʷ contrast
*bilabial fricatives /ɸ, β/
*presence of /xʷ, ŋ, ɨ/
*overtly marked nominal system
*inclusive/exclusive pronominal distinction

However, the validity of this linguistic area is doubtful, as pointed out by Jacobsen (1986), since many traits of the Great Basin area are also common to California languages. It may be an extension of the Northern California linguistic area.

===Southern California–Western Arizona===
This linguistic area has been demonstrated in Hinton (1991). Languages are [[Yuman languages|Yuman]], [[Cupan languages|Cupan]] (Uto-Aztecan), less extensively [[Takic languages|Takic]] and (Uto-Aztecan). Shared traits include:

*k/q distinction
*presence of /kʷ, tʃ, x/

The Yuman and Cupan languages share the most areal features, such as:
*kʷ/qʷ contrast
*s/ʂ contrast
*r/l contrast
*presence of /xʷ, ɲ, lʲ/
*small vowel inventory
*sound symbolism

The influence is strongly unidirectional from Yuman to Cupan, since the features considered divergent within the Takic subgroup. According to Sherzer (1976), many of these traits are also common to Southern California languages.

Shaul and Andresen (1989) have proposed a Southwestern Arizona ("Hohokam") linguistic area as well, where speakers of Piman languages are hypothesized to have interacted with speakers of Yuman languages as part of the Hohokam archaeological culture. The single trait defining this area is the presence of retroflex stops (/ʈ/ in Yuman, /ɖ/ in Piman).

===Pueblo===
{{main|Pueblo linguistic area}}
The [[Pueblo linguistic area]] consists of [[Keresan languages|Keresan]], [[Tanoan languages|Tanoan]], [[Zuni language|Zuni]], [[Hopi language|Hopi]], and some [[Apachean languages|Apachean]] branches.

===Plains===
The Plains Linguistic Area, according to Sherzer (1973:773), is the "most recently constituted of the culture areas of North America (late eighteenth and nineteenth century)." Languages are [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]], [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]], [[Siouan languages|Siouan]], [[Tanoan languages|Tanoan]], [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]], and [[Tonkawa language|Tonkawa]]. The following areal traits are characteristic of this linguistic area, though they are also common in other parts of North America.

*prefixation of subject person markers in verbs
*pronominal plurals

Frequent traits, which are not shared by all languages, include:
*one stop series
*the [[voiceless velar fricative]] /x/
*alienable/inalienable opposition in nouns
*nominal plural suffix
*inclusive/exclusive opposition (in first person plural pronouns)
*nominal diminutive suffix
*animate/inanimate gender
*evidential markers in verbs
*lack of labiovelars (other than Comanche and the languages of the Southern Plains subregion)
*presence of /ð/ (eastern Plains subregion only)

Southern Plains areal traits include:
*phonemic pitch
*presence of /kʷ, r/
*voiced/voiceless fricatives

===Northeast===
The Northeast linguistic area consists of [[Winnebago language|Winnebago]] (Siouan), [[Northern Iroquoian languages|Northern Iroquoian]], and [[Eastern Algonquian languages|Eastern Algonquian]]. Central areal traits of the Northeast Linguistic Area include the following (Sherzer 1976).

*a single series of stops (especially characteristic of the Northeast)
*a single series of fricatives
*presence of /h/
*nominal plural
*noun incorporation

In New England, areal traits include:
*vowel system with /i, e, o, a/
*nasalized vowels
*pronominal dual

New England Eastern [[Algonquian languages]] and [[Iroquoian languages]] share the following traits.

*nasalized vowels (best-known feature); for instance, Proto-Eastern Algonquian <nowiki>*</nowiki>a- is nasalized due to influence from Iroquioan languages, which have two nasalized vowels in its proto-language, <nowiki>*</nowiki>ɛ̃ and <nowiki>*</nowiki>õ.
*pronominal dual

The boundary between the Northeast and Southeast linguistic areas is not clearly determined, since features often extend over to territories belonging to both linguistic areas.

===Southeast===
{{main|Gulf languages}}
[[Gulf languages]] include [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]], [[Chitimacha language|Chitimacha]], [[Atakapa language|Atakapa]], [[Tunica language]], [[Natchez language|Natchez]], [[Yuchi language|Yuchi]], [[Ofo language|Ofo]] (Siouan), [[Biloxi language|Biloxi]] (Siouan) – <br> sometimes also [[Tutelo language|Tutelo]], [[Catawba language|Catawban]], [[Quapaw language|Quapaw]], [[Dhegiha language|Dhegiha]] (all Siouan); [[Tuscarora language|Tuscarora]], [[Cherokee language|Cherokee]], and [[Shawnee language|Shawnee]].

Bilabial or labial fricatives (/ɸ/, sometimes /f/) are considered by Sherzer (1976) to be the most characteristic trait of the Southeast Linguistic Area. Various other shared traits have been found by Robert L. Rankin (1986, 1988) and T. Dale Nicklas (1994).

===Mesoamerican===
{{main|Mesoamerican language area}}

This linguistic area consists of the following language families and branches.

*[[Mayan languages|Mayan]]
*[[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] (except Chichimeco-Jonaz and some varieties of Pame north of the Mesoamerican boundary)
*[[Mixe–Zoquean languages|Mixe–Zoque]]
*[[Totonacan languages|Totonacan]]
*[[Aztecan languages|Aztecan]] (a Southern Uto-Aztecan branch)
*[[Purépecha language|Purépecha]]
*[[Huave language|Huave]]
*[[Tequistlatecan languages|Tequistlatec]]
*[[Cuitlatec language|Cuitlatec]]

Some languages formerly considered to be part of the Mesoamerican sprachbund, but are now considered to lack main diagnostic traits of Mesoamerican area languages, include Cora, Huichol, Lenca, Jicaquean, and Misumalpan.

===Mayan===
{{see also|Macro-Mayan languages}}
The Mayan Linguistic Area is considered by most scholars to be part of the Mesoamerican area. However, Holt & Bright (1976) distinguish it as a separate area, and include the [[Mayan languages|Mayan]], [[Xincan languages|Xincan]], [[Lencan languages|Lencan]], and [[Jicaquean language|Jicaquean]] families as part of the Mayan Linguistic Area. Shared traits include:

*presence of glottalized consonants and alveolar affricates
*absence of voiced obstruents and labiovelar stops

==South America==

===Colombian–Central American===
Colombian–Central American consists of [[Chibchan languages|Chibchan]], [[Misumalpan languages|Misumalpan]], [[Manguean languages|Mangue]], and [[Subtiaba language|Subtiaba]]; sometimes [[Lencan languages|Lencan]], [[Jicaquean languages|Jicaquean]], [[Choco languages|Chocoan]], and [[Betoi language|Betoi]] are also included.

This linguistic area is characterized by SOV word order and postpositions. This stands in contrast to the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area, where languages do not have SOV word order.

Holt & Bright (1976) define a Central American Linguistic Area as having the following areal traits. Note that these stand in direct opposition to the traits defined in their Mayan Linguistic Area.
*presence of voiced obstruents and labiovelar stops (absent in the Mayan area)
*absence of glottalized consonants and alveolar affricates (present in the Mayan area)

Constenla's (1991) Colombian–Central American area consists primarily of [[Chibchan languages]], but also include Lencan, Jicaquean, Misumalpan, Chocoan, and Betoi (Constenla 1992:103). This area consists of the following areal traits.
*voicing opposition in stops and fricatives
*exclusive SOV word order
*postpositions
*mostly Genitive-Noun order
*Noun-Adjective order
*Noun-Numeral order
*clause-initial question words
*suffixation or postposed particle for negatives (in most languages)
*absence of gender opposition in pronouns and inflection
*absence of possessed/nonpossessed and alienable/inalienable possession oppositions
*"morpholexical economy" - presence of lexical compounds rather than independent roots. This is similar to calques found in Mesoamerica, but with a more limited number of compounding elements. For instance, in Guatuso (as in Athabaskan languages), there is one compounding element of liquid substances, one compounding element for pointed extremities, one for flat surfaces, and so on.

===Venezuelan–Antillean===
[[File:SouthAmerican families 02.png|thumb|A linguistic map of South America]]
This linguistic area, consisting of [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan]], [[Cariban languages|Cariban]], [[Guamo language|Guamo]], [[Otomacoan languages|Otomaco]], [[Yaruro language|Yaruro]], and [[Warao language|Warao]], is characterized by VO word order (instead of SOV), and is described by Constenla (1991). Shared traits are:

*exclusive VO word order, and absence of SOV word order
*absence of voicing opposition in obstruents
*Numeral-Noun order
*Noun-Genitive order
*presence of prepositions

The Venezuelan–Antillean could also extend to the western part of the Amazon Culture Area (Amazonia), where there are many Arawakan languages with VO word order (Constenla 1991).

===Andean===
{{see also|Quechumaran languages}}
[[File:Andean Languages.png|thumb|A map of the Andean languages]]
This linguistic area, consisting of [[Quechuan languages|Quechuan]], [[Aymaran languages|Aymaran]], [[Callahuaya language|Callahuaya]], and [[Uru-Chipaya languages|Chipaya]], is characterized by SOV word order and elaborate suffixing.

Quechuan and Aymaran languages both have:
*SOV basic word order
*suffixing morphology; other similar morphological structures

Büttner's (1983:179) includes Quechuan, Aymaran, Callahuaya, and Chipaya. Puquina, an extinct but significant language in this area, appears to not share these phonological features. Shared phonological traits are:
*glottalized stops and affricates (not found in all varieties of Quechuan)
*aspirated stops and affricates (not found in Chipaya)
*uvular stops
*presence of /ɲ, lʲ/
*retroflexed affricates (retroflexed /ʃ/ and /t͡ʃ/) - more limited in distribution
*absence of glottal stop /ʔ/
*limited vowel systems with /i, a, u/ (not in Chipaya)

Constenla (1991) defines a broader Andean area including the languages of highland Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and possibly also some lowland languages east of that Andes that have features typical of the Andean area. This area has the following areal traits.

*absence of the high-mid opposition in back vowels
*absence of the opposition of voiced/voiceless affricates
*presence of the [[voiceless alveolar affricate]], [[voiceless prepalatal fricative]], [[palatal lateral]], [[palatal nasal]], retroflexed fricatives or affricates
*Adjective-Noun order
*clause-initial interrogative words
*accusative case
*genitive case
*passive construction

====Statistical studies====
Quantitative studies on the Andes and overlapping areas have found the following traits to be characteristic of these areas in a statistically significant way.

=====Morphosyntactic features=====
A statistical study of argument marking features in languages of South America found that both the Andes and Western South America constitute linguistic areas, with some traits showing a statistically significant relationship to both areas. The unique and shared traits of the two areas are shown in the following table.<ref>Birchall (2014:215–16)</ref> (The wordings of the traits are directly from the source.)
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Andes only !! Both Andes and Western South America !! Western South America only
|-
| Subject-object-verb constituent order || Use of both case and indexation as argument marking strategies || Marked neutral case marking patterns in ditransitive constructions
|-
| || Suffixes as verbal person markers || Verbally marked applicative constructions
|-
| || The R argument role can be indexed in ditransitive constructions ||
|-
| || Accusative case alignment for NP arguments ||
|-
|}

=====Phonological features=====
Phonologically, the following [[Segment (linguistics)|segments]] and segmental [[Distinctive feature|features]] are areal for the Andes:<ref>Michael et al. (2012:14-15)</ref>

======Consonants======
*A contrast between [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] and [[Ejective consonant|ejective]] in the [[Stop consonant|stops]] and the postalveolar affricate
*A "comparatively large number of affricates, fricatives, and liquids"
*The palatal place of articulation (in nasals and liquids)
*The uvular place of articulation (in stops and fricatives)
*The absence of the following types of consonants:
**[[Voiced alveolar stop]] and [[Voiced alveolar affricate|affricate]]
**[[Labialized velar consonant|Labialized velar]] voiceless stop and nasal
**[[Voiced bilabial fricative|Voiced bilabial]] and [[voiceless labiodental fricative]]s
**[[Glottal stop]] and [[Voiceless glottal fricative|fricative]]

======Vowels======
*The presence of short /u/ and [[Vowel length|long]] /iː, uː, aː/
*The absence of mid and non-low central vowels and nasal vowels, and "long versions of many of these vowels."

===Amazon===
{{main|Amazonian languages}}
{{See also|Indigenous languages of South America#Linguistic areas}}
The Amazon linguistic area includes the [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan/Maipurean]], [[Arawan languages|Arauan/Arawan]], [[Cariban languages|Cariban]], [[Chapacuran languages|Chapacuran]], [[Jê languages|Ge/Je]], [[Panoan languages|Panoan]], [[Puinave language|Puinavean]], [[Tacanan languages|Tacanan]], [[Tucanoan languages|Tucanoan]], and [[Tupian languages|Tupian]] families.

Derbyshire & Pullum (1986) and Derbyshire (1987) describe the characteristics of this linguistic area in detail. Traits include:

*objects preceding subjects, such as [[Verb–object–subject word order|VOS]], OVS, and [[Object–subject–verb word order|OSV]]; word order in OVS and OSV languages tends to be highly flexible
*verb agreement with both subject and object (additionally, null realization of subject and object nominals or free pronouns, which means that sentences frequently lack full noun-phrase subjects or objects)
*predictability of when subjects and objects will be full noun phrases or when they will be signalled by verbal affixes (depending on whether they represent "new" or "given" information)
*use of nominalizations for relative clauses and other subordinate clauses (in many cases, there are no true subordinate clauses at all)
*nominal modifiers following their head nouns
*no agentive passive constructions (except [[Palikur language|Palikur]])
*indirect-speech forms are nonexistent in most languages and rare in the languages that do have them; thus, they rely on direct speech constructions
*absence of coordinating conjunctions (juxtaposition is used to express coordination instead)
*extensive use of right-dislocated paratactic constructions (sequences of noun phrases, adverbials, or postpositional phrases, in which the whole sequence has only one grammatical relation in the sentence)
*extensive use of particles that are phrasal subconstituents syntactically and phonologically, but are sentence operators or modifiers semantically
*tendency toward ergative subject marking
*highly complex morphology

[[Classifier (linguistics)|Noun-classifier]] systems are also common across Amazonian languages. Derbyshire & Payne (1990) list three basic types of classifier systems.

*'''Numeral''': lexico-syntactic forms, which are often obligatory in expressions of quantity and normally are separate words.
*'''Concordial''': a closed grammatical system, consisting of morphological affixes or clitics and expressing class agreement with some head noun. However, they may also occur on nouns or verbs.
*'''Verb incorporation''': lexical items are incorporated into the verb stem, signalling some classifying entity of the associated noun phrase.

Derbyshire (1987) also notes that Amazonian languages tend to have:

*ergatively organized systems (in whole or in part)
*evidence of historical drift from ergative to accusative marking
*certain types of split systems

Mason (1950) has found that in many languages of central and eastern Brazil, words end in vowels, and stress is ultimate (i.e., falls on the final syllable).

Lucy Seki (1999) has also proposed an Upper Xingu Linguistic Area in northern Brazil.

====Validity====
The validity of Amazonia as a linguistic area has been called into question by recent research, including quantitative studies. A study of argument marking parameters in 74 South American languages by Joshua Birchall found that “not a single feature showed an areal distribution for Amazonia as a macroregion. This suggests that Amazonia is not a good candidate for a linguistic area based on the features examined in this study.” Instead, Birchall finds evidence for three “macroregions” in South America: the Andes, Western South America, and Eastern South America, with some overlap in features between the Andes and Western South America.<ref>Birchall (2014:225)</ref>

Based on that study and similar findings, [[Patience Epps]] and Lev Michael claim that “an emerging consensus points to Amazonia not forming a linguistic area ''sensu strictu''{{sic|?}}.”<ref>Epps and Michael (to appear, 18-19)</ref>

Epps (2015)<ref>Epps, Patience. 2015. [https://www.eva.mpg.de/fileadmin/content_files/linguistics/conferences/2015-diversity-linguistics/Epps_slides.pdf The dynamics of linguistic diversity: Language contact and language maintenance in Amazonia]. Presented at Diversity Linguistics: Retrospect and Prospect, 1–3 May 2015 (Leipzig, Germany), Closing conference of the Department of Linguistics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.</ref> shows that [[Wanderwort|Wanderwörter]] are spread across the languages of Amazonia. [[Morphosyntax]] is also heavily borrowed across neighboring unrelated Amazonian languages.

===Ecuadorian–Colombian===
This is a subarea of the Andean Linguistic Area, as defined by Constenla (1991). Languages include [[Páez language|Páez]], [[Guambiano language|Guambiano]] (Paezan), [[Cuaiquer language|Cuaiquer]], [[Cayapa language|Cayapa]], [[Colorado language|Colorado]] (Barbacoan), [[Camsá language|Camsá]], [[Cofán language|Cofán]], [[Esmeralda language|Esmeralda]], and [[Quichua language|Ecuadorian Quechua]]. Shared traits are:

*high-mid opposition in front vowels
*absence of glottalized consonants
*presence of the glottal stop /ʔ/ and voiceless bilabial fricative /ɸ/
*absence of uvular stops /q, ɢ/
*rounding opposition in non-front vowels
*lack of person inflection in nouns
*prefixes expressing tense or aspect distinctions

===Vaupés (Vaupés–Içana)===
The Vaupés (Vaupés–Içana) linguistic area includes Eastern [[Tucanoan languages|Tukanoan]], [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan]], [[Nadahup languages|Nadahup]], and [[Kakwa language|Kakua]]–[[Nukak language|Nukak]] language families, along with the local [[lingua franca]] [[Nheengatú]]. The linguistic area has been well studied by various linguists.<ref name="Campbell2024"/>

Shared areal traits include:<ref name="Campbell2024"/>
*nominal classification systems
*[[evidentiality]]
*[[serial verb construction]]s
*shared [[tense-aspect-mood]] values
*lexical [[calque|calquing]]

===Caquetá–Putumayo===
The Caquetá–Putumayo linguistic area includes:<ref>Wojtylak, Katarzyna Izabela (2017). ''A Witotoan Language of Northwest Amazonia''. PhD dissertation, James Cook University, Australia.</ref>

*[[Boran languages|Boran]] and [[Witotoan languages|Witotoan]] families
*[[Resígaro language|Resígaro]] (Arawakan)
*[[Andoque language|Andoke]] (language isolate)

Shared traits include:<ref name="Campbell2024"/>
*first-person plural inclusive/exclusive contrast
*second-position tense-aspect-mood clitics
*loss of object cross-referencing suffixes
*verbal morphology restructuring
*borrowing of classifiers
*inhibition against lexical borrowing
*classifier systems
*/ɨ/ (high central unrounded vowel)

===Orinoco–Amazon===
The Orinoco–Amazon Linguistic Area, or the Northern Amazon Culture Area, is identified by Migliazza (1985 [1982]). Languages include [[Yanomaman languages|Yanomaman]], [[Piaroa language|Piaroa]] (Sálivan), [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan/Maipurean]], [[Cariban languages|Cariban]], [[Jotí language|Jotí]], [[Uruak language|Uruak/Ahuaqué]], [[Sapé language|Sapé]] (Kaliana), and [[Máku language|Máku]]. Common areal traits are:

*a shared pattern of discourse redundancy (Derbyshire 1977)
*[[Ergative–absolutive_language|ergative alignment]] (except in a few Arawakan languages)
*objects preceding verbs, such as SOV and [[Object–verb–subject word order|OVS]] word order (except in a few Arawakan languages)
*lack of active-passive distinction
*relative clauses formed by apposition and nominalization

The following traits have diffused from west to east (Migliazza 1985 [1982]):
*nasalization
*aspiration
*glottalization

===Southern Guiana (Northeastern Amazonian)===
The Southern Guiana (Northeastern Amazonian) linguistic area includes mostly [[Cariban languages]], some [[Arawakan languages]], [[Sálivan languages]], [[Tupí-Guaranían languages]], and [[Taruma language|Taruma]]. [[Yanomaman languages|Yanomaman]], [[Warao language|Warao]], [[Arutani language|Arutani]], [[Sapé language|Sapé]], and [[Maku language of Auari|Maku]] (Mako) are sometimes also included.<ref name="Campbell2024"/>

According to Carlin (2007), the Arawakan language [[Mawayana language|Mawayana]] has borrowed many grammatical features from [[Cariban languages]], particularly [[Tiriyó language|Tiriyó]] [Trió] and [[Waiwai language|Waiwai]]. On the other hand, [[Wapishana language|Wapishana]], an Arawakan language that is closely related Mawayana, lacks these features.<ref>Carlin, Eithne. 2007. Feeling the need: The borrowing of Cariban functional categories into Mawayana (Arawak). ''Grammars in Contact: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective'', ed. by Alexandra Aikhenvald and Robert M. W. Dixon, 313–332. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>

Shared grammatical features (also noted by Epps (2020),<ref>Epps, Patience. 2020. Amazonian linguistic diversity and its sociocultural correlates. Language Dispersal, Diversification, and Contact: A Global Perspective, ed. by Mily Crevels and Pieter Muysken, 275–290. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> Epps and Michael (2017: 948–949),<ref name="EppsMichael2017">Epps, Patience and Lev Michael. 2017. The areal linguistics of Amazonia. The Cambridge Handbook of Areal Linguistics, ed. by Raymond Hickey, 934–963. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> and Lüpke et al. (2020: 19–21)<ref>Lüpke, Friederike, Kristine Stenzel, Flora Dias Cabalzar, Thiago Chacon, Aline da Cruz, Bruna Franchetto, Antonio Guerreiro, Sérgio Meira, Glauber Romling da Silva, Wilson Silva, and Luciana Storto. 2020. Comparing rural multilingualism in Lowland South America and Western Africa. ''Anthropological Linguistics'' 62.3–57.</ref>) include:

*first-person plural exclusive distinction (borrowing from [[Waiwai language|Waiwai]])
*nominal tense marking
*marking on nouns or verbs to express ‘pity’ or ‘recognition of unfortunate circumstance’
*frustrative marker on verbs
*‘similative’ marker on nominals

===Tocantins–Mearim Interfluvium===
The Tocantins–Mearim Interfluvium linguistic area includes several [[Tupi–Guarani languages|Tupí–Guaranían]] and [[Jê languages|Jêan]] languages.<ref name="Campbell2024"/>

*''[[Tenetehara languages|Teneteháran branch]]'': [[Guajajára language|Guajajára]], [[Tembé language|Tembé]], and [[Turiwára language|Turiwára]]
*''[[Northern Tupi–Guarani languages|Northern Tupí-Guaranían branch]]'': [[Guajá language|Guajá]] and [[Urubú-Ka'apór language|Urubú-Ka'apór]]
*''[[Xingu languages|Xingu branch]]'': [[Anambé language|Anambé]], [[Amanajé language|Amanajé]], and [[Ararandewára language|Ararandewára]]
*''[[Tupi languages|Tupí branch]]'': [[Tupinambá language|Tupinambá]] and [[Língua Geral Amazônica]]
*''[[Jê languages|Jêan]]'': [[Timbira language|Timbira]] (3 dialects; see Braga et al. 2011: 224<ref>Braga, Alzerinda, Ana Suelly Arruda Câmara Cabral, Aryon DallʼIgna Rodrigues, and Betty Mindlin. 2011. Línguas entrelaçadas: uma situação sui generis de línguas em contato [Intertwined languages: a sui generis situation of languages contact]. ''PAPIA-Revista Brasileira de Estudos do Contato Linguístico'' [PAPIA-Brazilian Journal of Language Contact Studies] 21.221–230.</ref>)

Shared grammatical traits include:<ref>Cabral, Ana Suelly Arruda Câmara, Ana B. Corrêa da Silva, Marina M. S. Magalhães, and Maria R. S. Julião. 2007. Linguistic diffusion in the Tocantins-Mearim area. ''Línguas e Culturas Tupí'' [Tupían Languages and Cultures] 1.357–374.</ref>
*change in a grammatical particle
*change in gerund
*loss of first-person plural inclusive-exclusive contrast
*argumentative case

===Upper Xingu===
The Upper Xingu linguistic area includes more than a dozen languages belonging to the Cariban, Arawakan, Jêan, and Tupían families, as well as the language isolate [[Trumai language|Trumai]].<ref name="Campbell2024"/>

[[Lucy Seki]] (1999, 2011) Xingu is an "incipient" linguistic area, since many of the languages had arrived in the Upper Xingu area after the arrival of the Portuguese.<ref>Seki, Lucy. 1999. The Upper Xingu as an incipient linguistic area. ''The Amazonian Languages'', ed. by Robert M. W. Dixon and Alexandra Aikhenvald, 417–430. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Seki, Lucy. 2011. Alto Xingu: Uma sociedade multilíngue? ''Alto Xingu: uma Sociedade Multilíngue'', ed. by Bruna Franchetto, 57– 86. Rio de Janeiro: Museu do Indio/Funai.</ref> Shared linguistic traits include:<ref name="Campbell2024"/>

*loss of a masculine-feminine gender distinction in the Arawakan languages of the region
*diffusion of /ɨ/ into Xingu Arawakan languages from their Cariban or Tupí-Guaranían neighbors (Chang and Michael 2014)<ref>Chang, Will and Lev Michael. 2014. A relaxed admixture model of language contact. ''Language Dynamics and Change'' 4.1–26.</ref>
*p > h shift in Cariban and Tupí-Guaranían
*change to CV syllable structure in Cariban
*diffusion of /ts/ into the Xingu Cariban languages from Arawakan
*diffusion of nasal vowels into the Xingu Arawakan and Cariban languages from neighboring Tupí-Guaranían languages

Influence is multidirectional, as noted by Epps and Michael (2017: 947).<ref name="EppsMichael2017"/>

===Mamoré–Guaporé===
{{Main|Mamoré–Guaporé linguistic area}}

Crevels and van der Voort (2008) propose a [[Mamoré River|Mamoré]]–[[Guaporé River|Guaporé]] linguistic area in eastern lowland Bolivia (in [[Beni Department]] and [[Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia)|Santa Cruz Department]]) and [[:pt:Línguas de Rondônia|Rondonia]], Brazil. In Bolivia, many of the languages were historically spoken at the [[Jesuit Missions of Moxos]] and also the [[Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos]].

According to Campbell (2024), the [[Mamoré–Guaporé linguistic area|Mamoré–Guaporé]] or Guaporé–Mamoré linguistic area includes over 50 languages from 17 different families (Arawakan, Chapacuran, Jabutían, Nambikwaran, Pano-Takanan, Tupían, 11 language isolates, 12 unclassified languages, and one pidgin).<ref name="Campbell2024"/> Language families and branches in the linguistic area include Arawakan, Chapacuran, Jabuti, Rikbaktsá, Nambikwaran, Pano-Tacanan, and Tupian (Guarayo, Kawahib, Arikem, Tupari, Monde, and Ramarama) languages. Language isolates in the linguistic area are [[Cayuvava language|Cayuvava]], [[Itonama language|Itonama]], [[Movima language|Movima]], [[Chimane language|Chimane]]/Mosetén, [[Canichana language|Canichana]], [[Yuracaré language|Yuracaré]], [[Leco language|Leco]], [[Mure language|Mure]], [[Aikanã language|Aikanã]], [[Kanoê language|Kanoê]], and [[Kwaza language|Kwazá]], [[Irantxe language|Irantxe]], and [[Chiquitano language|Chiquitano]]. Areal features include:<ref name="Crevels-Voort-2008">{{cite book|last1=Crevels|first1=Mily|last2=van der Voort|first2=Hein|title=From Linguistic Areas to Areal Linguistics|chapter=4. The Guaporé-Mamoré region as a linguistic area|series=Studies in Language Companion Series|volume=90|year=2008|pages=151–179|issn=0165-7763|doi=10.1075/slcs.90.04cre|isbn=978-90-272-3100-0}}</ref>

* a high incidence of prefixes
* evidentials
* directionals
* verbal number
* lack of nominal number
* lack of classifiers
* inclusive/exclusive distinction

Muysken et al. (2014) also performed a detailed statistical analysis of the Mamoré–Guaporé linguistic area.<ref>Muysken, Pieter; [[Harald Hammarström|Hammarström, Harald]]; Birchall, Joshua; Van Gijn, Rik; Krasnoukhova, Olga; Müller, Neele (2014). [https://cl.lingfil.uu.se/~harald/hhpub/muyskenetal_guapore-mamore2014_s.pdf Linguistic areas: bottom-up or top-down? The case of the Guaporé-Mamoré]. In: Comrie, Bernard; Golluscio, Lucia. ''Language Contact and Documentation / Contacto lingüístico y documentación''. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 205-238.</ref>

===Chaco===
{{Main|Chaco linguistic area}}
{{See also|Macro-Chaco languages}}
According to Campbell (2024), the Gran Chaco linguistic area includes [[Charrúan languages|Charrúan]], Enlhet-Enenlhet ([[Mascoyan languages|Mascoyan]]), [[Guaicurúan languages|Guaicurúan]], [[Guachí language|Guachí]], [[Lule-Vilelan languages|Lule-Vilelan]], [[Matacoan languages|Matacoan]], [[Payaguá language|Payaguá]], [[Zamucoan languages|Zamucoan]], and some [[Tupí-Guaranían languages]].<ref name="Campbell2024">{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=The Indigenous Languages of the Americas |publisher=Oxford University Press |publication-place=New York |date=2024 |isbn=978-0-19-767346-1}}</ref>

Campbell and Grondona (2012) consider the [[Mataco–Guaicuru languages|Mataco–Guaicuru]], [[Mascoyan languages|Mascoyan]], [[Lule-Vilelan languages|Lule-Vilelan]], [[Zamucoan languages|Zamucoan]], and some southern [[Tupi-Guarani languages|Tupi-Guarani]] languages to be part of a ''[[Gran Chaco|Chaco]]'' linguistic area. Common Chaco areal features include [[SVO word order]] and [[Active–stative alignment|active-stative]] [[morphosyntactic alignment|alignment]]. Other shared traits, some of which are also found outside the Gran Chaco area, include:<ref name="Campbell-Chaco">{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Lyle |author-link=Lyle Campbell |last2=Grondona |first2=Verónica |editor1-last=Grondona |editor1-first=Verónica |editor2-last=Campbell |editor2-first=Lyle |date=2012 |title=The Indigenous Languages of South America |chapter=Languages of the Chaco and Southern Cone |series=The World of Linguistics |volume=2 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=625–668 |isbn=9783110255133}}</ref>

*gender that is not overtly marked on nouns, but is present in demonstratives, depending on the gender of the nouns modified
*genitive classifiers for possessed domestic animals
*SVO word order
*active-stative verb alignment
*large set of directional verbal affixes
*demonstrative system with rich contrasts including visible vs. not visible
*some adjectives as polar negatives
*resistance to borrowing foreign words

===South Cone===
The languages of the South Cone area, including [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] (Araucanian), [[Guaycuruan languages|Guaycuruan]], and [[Chon languages|Chon]], share the following traits (Klein 1992):

*Semantic notions of position signaled morphologically by means of "many devices to situate the visual location of the noun subject or object relative to the speaker; tense, aspect and number are expressed as part of the morphology of location, direction, and motion" (Klein 1992:25).
*palatalization
*more back consonants than front consonants
*SVO basic word order

===Fuegian===
{{Main|Fuegian languages}}
Adelaar and Muysken (2004: 578–582) note that the languages of the [[Tierra del Fuego]], namely [[Chon languages|Chonan]], [[Kawesqaran languages|Kawesqaran]], [[Chono language|Chono]] (isolate), and [[Yahgan language|Yahgan]] (isolate), share areal traits relating to encliticization, suffixation, compounding,  and reduplication, as well as object-initial (OV) word order.<ref>Adelaar, Willem F. H. and Pieter C. Muysken. 2004. ''The Languages of the Andes''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref name="Campbell2024"/>

==See also==
*[[Classification of Indigenous languages of the Americas]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*Birchall, Joshua. 2015. ''Argument marking patterns in South American languages''. Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen: PhD Dissertation.
*[[Lyle Campbell|Campbell, Lyle]]. 1997. ''American Indian languages: the historical linguistics of Native America''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
*[[Lyle Campbell|Campbell, Lyle]]. 2024. ''[https://academic.oup.com/book/57386 The Indigenous Languages of the Americas]''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
*Epps, Patience and Lev Michael. To appear. "The areal linguistics of Amazonia."
*Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. 1991. ''Las lenguas del área intermedia: introducción a su estudio areal''. San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.
*[[Dennis Holt|Holt, Dennis]] and William Bright. 1976. "La lengua paya y las fronteras lingüística de Mesoamérica." Las fronteras de Mesoamérica. ''La 14a mesa redonda, Sociedad Mexicana de Antropología'' 1:149-156.
*Michael, Lev, Will Chang, and Tammy Stark. 2012. [http://www.cabeceras.org/ldm_publications/michael_chang_stark_2014_nbc_LDC.pdf "Exploring phonological areality in the circum-Andean region using a Naive Bayes Classifier."] ''Language Dynamics and Change'' 4(1): 27–86. (Page numbers in this article refer to the pages of the linked PDF, not the journal version.)
*Sherzer, Joel. 1973. "Areal linguistics in North America." In ''Linguistics in North America'', ed. Thomas A. Sebeok, 749–795. (''CTL'', vol. 10.) The Hague: Mouton.
*Sherzer, Joel. 1976. ''An areal-typological study of American Indian languages north of Mexico''. Amsterdam: North-Holland.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Linguistic maps of Indigenous languages of the Americas}}
*[https://huntergatherer.la.utexas.edu/ Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors]: A collection of lexical, grammatical, and other information about languages spoken by hunter-gatherers and their neighbors.
*[https://sails.clld.org/ South American Indigenous Language Structures (SAILS)]

{{North American languages}}
{{South American languages}}

[[Category:Indigenous languages of the Americas]]
[[Category:Linguistic typology]]
[[Category:Sprachbund|Americas]]