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[[Image:Nagasakibomb.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|The [[mushroom cloud]] of the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan]], 1945, rose some 18 kilometers (11 mi) above the [[hypocenter]]]] |
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{{nuclear weapons}} |
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A '''nuclear weapon''' is a type of explosive weapon that derives its destructive force from [[nuclear reaction]]s of [[nuclear fusion|fusion]] or [[nuclear fission|fission]]. As a result, even a nuclear [[weapon]] with a small [[Nuclear weapon yield|yield]] is significantly more powerful than the largest conventional [[explosives]], and a single weapon is capable of destroying an entire city. |
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the h-bomb is a modern day myth. cinfusing many americans to this day. Edwar teller is a hoax and a compulsive liar. he had sex with his niece and mother. and beared children with his sister. The H-bomb was created to scare americans into conforming to americas needs for workers and mind control. thats all that is known to this day. |
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In the [[history of warfare]], two nuclear weapons have been detonated — both by the [[United States]], during the closing days of [[World War II]]. The first was detonated on the morning of [[6 August]] [[1945]], when the [[United States]] dropped a [[uranium]] gun-type device code-named "[[Little Boy]]" on the [[Japan]]ese city of [[Hiroshima]]. The second was detonated three days later when the United States dropped a [[plutonium]] implosion-type device code-named "[[Fat Man]]" on the city of [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]]. These [[bombings]] resulted in the immediate deaths of around 120,000 people from injuries sustained from the explosion and acute radiation sickness, and even more deaths over time from long-term effects of radiation. The use of these weapons was and remains controversial. (See [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] for a full discussion.) |
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Since the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for [[nuclear testing|testing purposes]] and demonstration purposes. The only countries known to have detonated such weapons are (chronologically) the [[United States]], the [[Soviet Union]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[North Korea]]. |
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Various other countries may hold nuclear weapons but have never publicly admitted possession, or their claims to possession have not been verified. For example, [[Israel]] has modern airborne delivery systems and appears to have an extensive nuclear program with hundreds of [[warhead]]s (see [[Israel and weapons of mass destruction]]), officially maintains a policy of "[[ambiguity]]" with respect to its actual possession of nuclear weapons. According to some estimates, it possesses as many as 200 nuclear warheads. [[Iran]] currently stands accused by the [[United States]] of attempting to develop nuclear weapons capabilities, though its government states that its [[Nuclear program of Iran|acknowledged nuclear activities]], such as [[uranium enrichment]], are for non-weapons purposes. [[South Africa]] also secretly developed a small nuclear arsenal, but disassembled it in the early 1990s. (For more information see [[List of states with nuclear weapons]].) |
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Apart from their use as weapons, [[nuclear explosive]]s have been tested and used for various [[Peaceful nuclear explosions|non-military uses]]. Synthetic elements, such as [[einsteinium]] and [[fermium]], created by neutron bombardment of uranium and plutonium during thermonuclear explosions, were discovered in the aftermath of the first hydrogen bomb test. |
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==History== |
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{{main|History of nuclear weapons}} |
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[[Image:Hiroshima aftermath.jpg|thumb|right|The aftermath of the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing]] of [[Hiroshima]]]] |
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The first nuclear weapons were created in the United States by an international team, including many displaced scientists from central Europe, which included Germany, with assistance from the United Kingdom and [[Canada]] during [[World War II]] as part of the top-secret [[Manhattan Project]]. While the first weapons were developed primarily out of fear that [[Nazi Germany]] would develop them first, they were eventually used against the Japanese cities of [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]. The [[Trinity test|first test]] was conducted on [[July 16]], [[1945]] at a site near [[Alamogordo]], [[New Mexico]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wsmr.army.mil/pao/TrinitySite/trinph.htm |title=Trinity Site Pamphlet |publisher=White Sands Missile Range |accessdate=2007-08-15}}</ref> The [[Soviet Union]] developed and tested their first nuclear weapon in 1949, based partially on information obtained from Soviet espionage in the United States. Both the U.S. and USSR would go on to develop weapons powered by [[nuclear fusion]] (hydrogen bombs) by the mid-1950s. With the invention of reliable [[rocketry]] during the 1960s, it became possible for nuclear weapons to be delivered anywhere in the world on a very short notice, and the two [[Cold War]] superpowers adopted a strategy of deterrence to maintain a shaky peace.<ref>Rhodes, Richard. ''The Making of the Atomic Bomb''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986.</ref> |
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[[Image:US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg|thumb|220px||U.S. and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945-2005]] |
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Nuclear weapons were symbols of military and national power, and [[nuclear testing]] was often used both to test new designs as well as to send political messages. Other nations also developed nuclear weapons during this time, including the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], and [[China]]. These five members of the "nuclear club" agreed to attempt to limit the spread of [[nuclear proliferation]] to other nations, though four other countries ([[India]], [[South Africa]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Israel]]) developed or acquired nuclear arms during this time.<ref name="Richelson">Richelson, Jeffrey. ''Spying on the bomb: American nuclear intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea.'' New York: Norton, 2006.</ref> At the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s, the Russian Federation inherited the weapons of the former USSR, and along with the U.S., pledged to reduce their stockpile for increased international safety. [[Nuclear proliferation]] has continued, though, with Pakistan testing their first weapons in 1998, and North Korea performing a test in 2006. In January 2005, Pakistani metallurgist [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]] confessed to selling nuclear technology and information of nuclear weapons to [[Iran]], [[Libya]], and [[North Korea]] in a massive, international proliferation ring.<ref name="Richelson"/> On [[October 9]], [[2006]], North Korea claimed it had conducted an underground nuclear test, though the very small apparent yield of the blast has led many to conclude that it was not fully successful (see [[2006 North Korean nuclear test]]). Additionally, since [[9/11]] increased attention has been given to the threat of [[nuclear terrorism]], whereby non-state actors manage to develop, purchase, or steal nuclear arms and detonate them against civilians. Post-Cold War discussions of nuclear weapons have focused on the fact that the "rationality" of [[nuclear deterrence]], credited with the lack of use of nuclear weapons during the Cold War, may not apply in a world with only one superpower, or a world where the nuclear actors are stateless.<ref>See, for example: Feldman, Noah. "[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/29/magazine/29islam.html Islam, Terror and the Second Nuclear Age]," ''New York Times Magazine'' (29 October 2006).</ref> |
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There have been (at least) four major false alarms, the most recent in 1995, that almost resulted in the U.S. or USSR/Russia launching its weapons in retaliation for a supposed attack.<ref>{{cite web |first=Geoffrey |last=Forden |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/missileers/falsealarms.html |title=False Alarms on the Nuclear Front |publisher=Nova Online |date=October 2001 |accessdate=2006-03-05}}</ref> Additionally, during the Cold War the U.S. and USSR came close to nuclear warfare several times, most notably during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]]. As of [[2006]], there are estimated to be at least 27,000 nuclear weapons held by at least eight countries, 96 percent of them in the possession of the [[United States]] and [[Russia]].<ref>Norris, Robert S., and Hans M. Kristensen. "Global nuclear stockpiles, 1945-2006", ''Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists'' 62, no. 4 (July/August 2006), 64-66.</ref> |
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Nuclear weapons have been at the heart of many national and international political disputes and have played a major part in [[Nuclear weapons in popular culture|popular culture]] since their dramatic public debut in the 1940s and have usually symbolized the ultimate ability of mankind to utilize the strength of nature for destruction. Dozens of movies, books, television shows, plays, and other cultural productions have been made with nuclear weapons as either the explicit subject or an implied leitmotiv.<ref>Weart, Spencer R. ''Nuclear Fear: A History of Images.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988; Boyer, Paul S. ''By the bomb’s early light: American thought and culture at the dawn of the atomic age.'' New York: Pantheon, 1985.</ref> |
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==Types of nuclear weapons== |
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{{main|Nuclear weapon design}} |
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[[Image:Fission bomb assembly methods.svg|right|220px|thumb|The two basic fission weapon designs]] |
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There are two basic types of nuclear weapons. The first are weapons which produce their explosive energy through [[nuclear fission]] reactions alone. These are known colloquially as '''atomic bombs''', '''A-bombs''', or '''fission bombs'''. In fission weapons, a mass of [[fissile]] material ([[enriched uranium]] or [[plutonium]]) is assembled into a [[critical mass|supercritical mass]]—the amount of material needed to start an [[exponential growth|exponentially growing]] [[nuclear chain reaction]]—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the "gun" method), or by compressing a sub-critical sphere of material using [[Explosive material|chemical explosives]] to many times its original density (the "implosion" method). The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former, and only the latter approach can be used if plutonium is the fissile material. |
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A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range between the equivalent of less than a ton of [[trinitrotoluene|TNT]] upwards to around 500,000 tons (500 [[kiloton]]s) of TNT.<ref name="Hansen">The best overall printed sources on nuclear weapons design are: Hansen, Chuck. ''U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History.'' San Antonio, TX: Aerofax, 1988; and the more-updated Hansen, Chuck. ''Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945.'' Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications, 1995.</ref> |
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The second basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large amount of its energy through [[nuclear fusion]] reactions, and can be over a thousand times more powerful than fission bombs as fusion reactions release much more energy per unit of mass than fission reactions. These are known as '''hydrogen bombs''', '''H-bombs''', '''thermonuclear bombs''', or '''fusion bombs'''. Only five countries—[[United States]], [[Russia]], [[United Kingdom]], [[People's Republic of China]], and [[France]]—have detonated hydrogen bombs. |
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Hydrogen bombs work by using the energy of a fission bomb in order to compress and heat fusion fuel. In the [[Teller-Ulam design]], which accounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs, this is accomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel ([[tritium]], [[deuterium]], or [[lithium deuteride]]) in proximity within a special, radiation-reflecting container. When the fission bomb is detonated, [[gamma radiation|gamma]] and [[X-ray]]s emitted at the speed of light first compress the fusion fuel, then heat it to thermonuclear temperatures. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of high-speed [[neutron]]s, which then can induce fission in materials which normally are not prone to it, such as [[depleted uranium]]. Each of these components are known as a "stage," with the fission bomb as the "primary" and the fusion capsule as the "secondary." In large hydrogen bombs, about half of the yield, and much of the resulting [[nuclear fallout]], comes from the final fissioning of depleted uranium. <ref name="Hansen" /> By chaining together numerous stages with increasing amounts of fusion fuel, thermonuclear weapons can be made to an almost arbitrary yield; the largest ever detonated (the [[Tsar Bomba]] of the [[USSR]]) released an energy equivalent to over 50 million tons ([[megaton]]s) of TNT. Most hydrogen bombs are considerably smaller than this, though, due to constraints in fitting them into the space and weight requirements of missile warheads.<ref name="Sublette">{{cite web |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/ |last=Sublette |first=Carey |title=The Nuclear Weapon Archive |accessdate=2007-03-07}}</ref> |
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There are many other types of nuclear weapons as well. For example, a [[boosted fission weapon]] is a fission bomb which increases its explosive yield through a small amount of fusion reactions, but it is not a hydrogen bomb. In the boosted bomb, the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to increase the efficiency of the fission bomb. Some weapons are designed for special purposes; a [[neutron bomb]] is a nuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of [[radiation]]; such a device could theoretically be used to cause massive casualties while leaving infrastructure mostly intact and creating a minimal amount of fallout. The detonation of a nuclear weapon is accompanied by a blast of [[neutron radiation]]. Surrounding a nuclear weapon with suitable materials (such as [[cobalt]] or [[gold]]) creates a weapon known as a [[cobalt bomb|salted bomb]]. This device can produce exceptionally large quantities of [[radioactive contamination]]. Most variety in [[nuclear weapon design]] is in different yields of nuclear weapons for different types of purposes, and in manipulating design elements to attempt to make weapons extremely small.<ref name="Hansen" /> |
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==Nuclear strategy== |
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{{main|Nuclear warfare}} |
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[[Image:W87 MX Missile schematic.jpg|right|thumb|right|The United States' [[LG-118A Peacekeeper|Peacekeeper missile]] was a [[MIRV]]ed delivery system. Each missile could contain up to ten nuclear warheads (shown in red), each of which could be aimed at a different target. These were developed to make [[missile defense]] very difficult for an enemy country]] |
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[[Nuclear warfare]] strategy is a way for either fighting or avoiding a nuclear war. The policy of trying to ward off a potential attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of [[deterrence theory|nuclear deterrence]]. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike status (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for [[first strike]] status (the ability to completely destroy an [[Enemy (military)|enemy]]'s nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During the [[Cold War]], policy and military theorists in nuclear-enabled countries worked out models of what sorts of policies could prevent one from ever being attacked by a nuclear weapon. |
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Different forms of [[nuclear weapons delivery]] (see below) allow for different types of nuclear strategy, primarily by making it difficult to defend against them and difficult to launch a pre-emptive strike against them. Sometimes this has meant keeping the weapon locations hidden, such as putting them on [[submarine]]s or [[train]] cars whose locations are very hard for an enemy to track, and other times this means burying them in hardened bunkers. Other responses have included attempts to make it seem likely that the country could survive a nuclear attack, by using [[missile defense]] (to destroy the missiles before they land) or by means of [[civil defense]] (using early warning systems to evacuate citizens to a safe area before an attack). Note that weapons which are designed to threaten large populations or to generally deter attacks are known as [[strategic nuclear weapons|"strategic" weapons]]. Weapons which are designed to actually be used on a [[battle]]field in military situations are known as [[tactical nuclear weapons|"tactical" weapons]]. |
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There are critics of the very idea of "nuclear strategy" for waging nuclear war who have suggested that a nuclear war between two nuclear powers would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is purely to deter war because any [[nuclear war]] would immediately escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in [[mutually assured destruction]]. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism. |
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Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. The use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, according to an [[International Court of Justice advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons|advisory opinion]] issued by the [[International Court of Justice]] in 1996. |
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Perhaps the most controversial idea in nuclear strategy is that [[nuclear proliferation]] would be desirable. This view argues that, unlike conventional weapons, nuclear weapons successfully deter all-out war between states, as they did during the [[Cold War]] between the U.S. and the [[Soviet Union]]. Political scientist [[Kenneth Waltz]] is the most prominent advocate of this argument |
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==Weapons delivery== |
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{{main|Nuclear weapons delivery}} |
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[[Image:Fat man.jpg|right|thumb|The first nuclear weapons were [[gravity bomb]]s, such as the "[[Fat Man]]" weapon dropped on [[Nagasaki]], [[Japan]]. These weapons were very large and could only be delivered by a [[bomber]] aircraft]] |
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[[Nuclear weapons delivery]]—the technology and systems used to bring a nuclear weapon to its target—is an important aspect of nuclear weapons relating both to [[nuclear weapon design]] and [[nuclear warfare|nuclear strategy]]. Additionally, developing and maintaining delivery options is among the most resource-intensive aspects of nuclear weapons: according to one estimate, deployment of nuclear weapons accounted for 57% of the total financial resources spent by the United States in relation to nuclear weapons since 1940.<ref>Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., ''Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940.'' Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998. See also [http://www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/figure1.htm Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940-1996], an excerpt from the book.</ref> |
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Historically the first method of delivery, and the method used in the two nuclear weapons actually used in [[war]]fare, is as a [[gravity bomb]], dropped from [[bomber]] [[aircraft]]. This method is usually the first developed by countries as it does not place many restrictions on the size of the weapon, and ''weapon miniaturization'' is something which requires considerable weapons design knowledge. It does, however, limit the range of attack, the response time to an impending attack, and the number of weapons which can be fielded at any given time. Additionally, specialized delivery systems are usually not necessary; especially with the advent of miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both [[strategic bomber]]s and tactical [[fighter-bomber]]s, allowing an air force to use its current fleet with little or no modification. This method may still be considered the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for example, are represented in free-fall gravity bombs, namely the [[B61]].<ref name="Hansen"/> |
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More preferable from a strategic point of view are nuclear weapons mounted onto a [[missile]], which can use a [[Ballistics|ballistic]] trajectory to deliver a warhead over the horizon. While even short range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBMs) and [[submarine-launched ballistic missile]]s (SLBMs) has allowed some nations to plausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success. More advanced systems, such as [[multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]]s (MIRVs) allow multiple warheads to be launched at several targets from any one missile, reducing the chance of any successful [[missile defense]]. Today, missiles are most common among systems designed for delivery of nuclear weapons. Making a warhead small enough to fit onto a missile, though, can be a difficult task.<ref name="Hansen"/> |
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[[Tactical weapons]] (see above) have involved the most variety of delivery types, including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also [[artillery]] shells, [[land mine]]s, and nuclear [[depth charge]]s and [[torpedo]]es for [[anti-submarine warfare]]. An atomic [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]] was also tested at one time by the United States. Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to as [[suitcase bomb]]s), such as the [[Special Atomic Demolition Munition]], have been developed, although the difficulty to combine sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility.<ref name="Hansen"/> |
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==Governance, control, and law== |
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[[Image:Flag of IAEA.svg|thumb|right|The [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] was created in 1957 in order to encourage the peaceful development of nuclear technology while providing international safeguards against [[nuclear proliferation]]]] |
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Because of the immense military power they can confer, the political control of nuclear weapons has been a key issue for as long as they have existed; in most countries the use of nuclear force can only be authorized by the [[head of government]]. |
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In the late 1940s, lack of mutual trust prohibited the United States and the Soviet Union from making ground towards international arms control agreements, but by the 1960s steps were being taken to limit both the [[nuclear proliferation|proliferation]] of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of [[nuclear testing]]. The [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]] (1963) restricted all nuclear testing to [[underground nuclear testing]], to prevent contamination from [[nuclear fallout]], while the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (1968) attempted to place restrictions on the types of activities which signatories could participate in, with the goal of allowing the transference of non-military [[nuclear technology]] to member countries without fear of proliferation. In 1957, the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) was established under the mandate of the [[United Nations]] in order to encourage the development of the peaceful applications of nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. In 1996, many nations signed and ratified the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons, which would impose a significant hindrance to their development by any complying country.<ref name="Richelson"/> |
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Additional treaties have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between individual countries, such as the [[SALT I]] and [[START I]] treaties, which limited the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union. |
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Nuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declared [[Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone]]s, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. The [[Treaty of Tlatelolco]] (1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in [[Latin America]] and the [[Caribbean]], and the [[Treaty of Pelindaba]] (1964) prohibits nuclear weapons in many [[Africa]]n countries. As recently as 2006 a [[Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone]] was established amongst the former Soviet republics of Central Asia prohibiting nuclear weapons. |
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In 1996, the [[International Court of Justice]], the highest court of the United Nations, issued an Advisory Opinion concerned with the "[[International Court of Justice advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons|Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons]]". The court ruled that the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons would violate various articles of [[international law]], including the [[Geneva Conventions]], the [[Hague Conventions]], the [[UN Charter]], and the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]. |
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== Media == |
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{{multi-video start}} |
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{{multi-video item|filename=Enewetak atomic detonations.ogg|title= Enewetak nuclear detonation tests|description= Video clips of three test nuclear explosions in Enewetak, Marshall Islands.|format=[[Theora]]}} |
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{{multi-video end}} |
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==See also== |
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{{WMD}} |
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*More technical details |
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**[[Nuclear weapon design]] |
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**[[Nuclear weapon yield]] |
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**[[Effects of nuclear explosions]] |
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*History |
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**[[History of nuclear weapons]] |
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**[[Manhattan Project]] |
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**[[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] |
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**[[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] |
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**[[Nuclear testing]] |
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***[[Nevada Test Site]] |
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**[[Soviet atomic bomb project]] |
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**[[Stanislav Petrov]] |
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**[[German nuclear energy project]] |
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**[[Japanese atomic program]] |
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**[[Nuclear and radiation accidents]] (including nuclear weapons accidents) |
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*Related technology and science |
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**[[Nuclear physics]] |
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**[[Nuclear fission]] |
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**[[Nuclear fusion]] |
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**[[Nuclear reactor]] |
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**[[Nuclear engineering]] |
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*[[Military strategy]] |
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**[[Nuclear warfare]] |
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**[[Civil Defense]] |
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**[[Nuclear strategy]] |
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**[[Mutual Assured Destruction]] |
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**[[Fractional Orbital Bombardment System]] |
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*Proliferation and politics |
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**[[Nuclear proliferation]] |
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**[[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] |
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**[[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks]] |
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**[[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] |
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**[[Nuclear disarmament]] |
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**[[Three Non-Nuclear Principles]] of Japan |
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**[[Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice of 8 July 1996|International Court of Justice advisory opinion on legality of nuclear weapons]] |
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**[[List of countries with nuclear weapons]] |
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**[[Nuclear weapons and the United States]] |
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**[[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom]] |
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**[[List of nuclear weapons]] |
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*Popular culture |
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**[[Nuclear weapons in popular culture]] |
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**[[The Butter Battle Book]] |
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*Aftermath |
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**[[Nuclear winter]] |
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**[[Nuclear summer]] |
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==Notes== |
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{{reflist}} |
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==References== |
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*[[Hans Bethe|Bethe, Hans Albrecht]]. ''The Road from Los Alamos''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. ISBN 0-671-74012-1 |
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*DeVolpi, Alexander, Minkov, Vladimir E., Simonenko, Vadim A., and Stanford, George S. ''Nuclear Shadowboxing: Contemporary Threats from Cold War Weaponry''. Fidlar Doubleday, 2004 |
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*Glasstone, Samuel and Dolan, Philip J. ''[http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/ The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition).]'' Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. [http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/effects/effects.shtml Available online (PDF).] |
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*''[http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/doctrine/dod/fm8-9/1toc.htm NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I - Nuclear)]''. Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force: Washington, D.C., 1996 |
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*Hansen, Chuck. ''U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History.'' Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1988 |
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*Hansen, Chuck. ''The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945.'' Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications, 1995. [http://www.uscoldwar.com/] |
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*Holloway, David. ''Stalin and the Bomb''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-300-06056-4 |
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* The Manhattan Engineer District, "[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/MED/index.shtml The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]" (1946) |
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*[[Smyth, Henry DeWolf]]. ''[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/SmythReport/index.shtml Atomic Energy for Military Purposes.]'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945. ([[Smyth Report]] – the first declassified report by the US government on nuclear weapons) |
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*''[http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/7906/index.html The Effects of Nuclear War]''. Office of Technology Assessment, May 1979. |
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*[[Richard Rhodes|Rhodes, Richard]]. ''Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995. ISBN 0-684-82414-0 |
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*[[Richard Rhodes|Rhodes, Richard]]. ''The Making of the Atomic Bomb''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986 ISBN 0-684-81378-5 |
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*Weart, Spencer R. ''Nuclear Fear: A History of Images''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988. |
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==External links== |
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{{commons|Nuclear weapons}} |
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{{wikinewscat|Nuclear proliferation}} |
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{{Spoken Wikipedia|Nuclear_Weapon.ogg|2005-12-01}} |
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;Current World Nuclear Arsenals |
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*[http://www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries. |
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;General |
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*[http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/ Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette] is a reliable source of information and has links to other sources and an informative [http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq0.html FAQ]. |
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*The [http://fas.org Federation of American Scientists] provide solid information on weapons of mass destruction, including [http://fas.org/nuke/ nuclear weapons] and their [http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/effects.htm effects] |
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*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/ Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues] – contains many resources related to nuclear weapons, including a historical and technical overview and searchable bibliography of web and print resources. |
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* [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/mech-tech/nuclear Everything you wanted to know about nuclear technology] — Provided by ''[[New Scientist]]''. |
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*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=nuclear+weapons&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Nuclear weapons] |
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* Video archive of [http://sonicbomb.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=39 US, Soviet, UK, Chinese and French Nuclear Weapon Testing] at [http://www.sonicbomb.com sonicbomb.com] |
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;Historical |
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*[http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/mp/index.shtml The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb] at AtomicArchive.com |
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*[http://www.lanl.gov/history/ Los Alamos National Laboratory — History] (U.S. nuclear history) |
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*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/ ''Race for the Superbomb''], PBS website on the history of the H-bomb |
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*[http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/photos/default.htm U.S. nuclear test photographs] from the DOE Nevada Site Office |
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*[http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/films/default.htm U.S. nuclear test film clips] from the DOE Nevada Site Office |
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;Effects |
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* [http://www.peoplesarchive.com/browse/movies/2220/en/off/ ''Hans Bethe talking about his shock of seeing the after effects of Hiroshima''] on [[Peoples Archive]]. |
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*[http://www.fas.org/main/content.jsp?formAction=297&contentId=367 Nuclear weapon simulator for several major US cities], from Federation of American Scientists |
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*[http://meyerweb.com/eric/tools/gmap/hydesim.html HYDESim: High-Yield Detonatonation Effects Simulator] Another Nuclear weapon simulator with a few more features based on the "The Effects of Nuclear Weapons", 3rd Edition, by Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan. |
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*[http://www.fas.org/main/content.jsp?formAction=297&contentId=426 Fallout Calculator for various regions], from Federation of American Scientists |
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*[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Example/index.shtml Example scenarios] – Two scenarios of a nuclear explosion on two United States cities, from AtomicArchive.com |
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*[http://www.bomb-shelter.net/Nuclear-Warfare-Weapons-Effects Effects of Nuclear weapons] These tables describe the effects of various nuclear blast sizes. All figures are for {{convert|15|mi/h|km/h|0|abbr=on}} winds. Thermal burns represent injuries to an unprotected person. The legend describes the data. |
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*[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Effects/index.shtml Effects of nuclear weapons] from AtomicArchive.com |
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*[http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/effects/effects.shtml ''The Effects of Nuclear Weapons''] by [[Samuel Glasstone]] and [[Philip J. Dolan]] (1977 edn.) — an official text of the US government on weapons effects which is generally considered definitive |
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;Issues |
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*[http://us.oneworld.net/article/archive/7565 "The Nuclear Weapons Debate"] - OneWorld.net's ''Perspectives'' Magazine, May 2005 |
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*[http://www.neis.org/literature/Brochures/weapcon.htm "Nuclear Power and Nuclear Weapons: Making the Connections"] – an article about the connections between nuclear power and nuclear weapons development by an anti-nuclear group. |
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*''[http://www.oism.org/nwss/ Nuclear War Survival Skills]'' is a public domain text about civil defense. |
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* [http://www.ippnw.org IPPNW: International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War] – [[Nobel Peace Prize]]-winning organization with information about the medical consequences of nuclear weapons, war and militarization. |
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* [http://www.thebulletin.org ''Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists''] – Magazine founded in 1945 by Manhattan Project scientists. Covers nuclear weapons proliferation and many other global security issues. See [http://www.thebulletin.org/nuclear_weapons_data this page] for comprehensive data on nuclear weapons worldwide. |
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* [http://www.brook.edu/FP/PROJECTS/NUCWCOST/50.htm 50 Facts About U.S. Nuclear Weapons] – Largest, smallest, number, cost, etc. |
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*[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/ Nuclear Files.org] covers the history of nuclear weapons and explores the political, legal and ethical challenges of the Nuclear Age. |
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*[http://www.ucsusa.org/global_security/nuclear_weapons/ Union of Concerned Scientists] – Nuclear Policy, weapons, testing, technical issues, and arms control. |
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*[http://www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/nuclear/index.asp Nuclear Ambitions - The World's Deadly Arsenal] - Independent news on issues relating to nuclear weapons and disarmament by the news agency [[Inter Press Service]] |
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Revision as of 19:30, 29 January 2008
the h-bomb is a modern day myth. cinfusing many americans to this day. Edwar teller is a hoax and a compulsive liar. he had sex with his niece and mother. and beared children with his sister. The H-bomb was created to scare americans into conforming to americas needs for workers and mind control. thats all that is known to this day.