View source for Parliamentary republic

{{Short description|Form of government}}
{{republicanism sidebar}}
A '''parliamentary republic''' is a [[republic]] that operates under a [[parliamentary system]] of government where the [[Executive (government)|executive branch]] (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the [[legislature]] (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the [[head of government]] and the [[head of state]], with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to [[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchies]]. In some countries the head of state has [[reserve powers]] to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |last=Twomey |first=Anne |author-link=Anne Twomey (academic) |title=Australian politics explainer: Gough Whitlam's dismissal as prime minister |language=en |work=The Conversation |url=https://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-gough-whitlams-dismissal-as-prime-minister-74148 |access-date=18 October 2018}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite news |title=The President's Role |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/The-Presidents-role/articleshow/20154333.cms?referral=PM |access-date=18 October 2018}}</ref> Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like [[Presidential system|presidential systems]], but with a dependency upon [[Motion of no confidence|parliamentary confidence]].{{Systems of government}}

== Powers ==
{{more citations needed|section|date=February 2019}}
In contrast to republics operating under either the [[presidential system]] or the [[semi-presidential system]], the [[head of state]] usually does not have executive powers as an [[executive president]] would (some may have [[reserve powers]] or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a [[head of government]] (usually called a [[prime minister]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Twomey |first=Anne |author-link=Anne Twomey (academic) |title=Australian politics explainer: Gough Whitlam's dismissal as prime minister |language=en |work=The Conversation |url=https://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-gough-whitlams-dismissal-as-prime-minister-74148 |access-date=18 October 2018}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=The President's Role |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/The-Presidents-role/articleshow/20154333.cms?referral=PM |access-date=18 October 2018}}</ref>{{Clarify|date=December 2015}}

However, in a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in [[Botswana]], the [[Marshall Islands]], [[Nauru]], and [[South Africa]]), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most [[Westminster System|Westminster systems]]. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament.

In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Iceland) but by convention they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system.

== Historical development ==
Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchies]] with a parliamentary system.<ref name=arend>{{cite book|title=Parliamentary versus presidential government|isbn=978-0-19-878044-1|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|editor=Arend Lijphart|year=1992}}</ref>

Following the defeat of [[Napoleon III]] in the [[Franco-Prussian War]], France once again became a republic – the [[French Third Republic]] – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the [[Battle of France|invasion of France by Nazi Germany]] in 1940. Following the end of the war, the [[French Fourth Republic]] was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle was given power to rule by decree, subsequently legitimized by approval of a new constitution in a referendum on 28 September 1958 that led to the establishment of the [[French Fifth Republic]] in 1959.

[[History of Chile during the Parliamentary Era (1891–1925)|Chile]] became the first parliamentary republic in [[South America]] following a civil war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a [[Presidential Republic (1925–1973)|presidential one]].{{Original research inline|date=January 2016}}

=== Commonwealth of Nations ===
{{main|Commonwealth of Nations}}

Since the [[London Declaration]] of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] declared itself a republic, and excluded itself from the Commonwealth) republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations.

In the case of many [[republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]], it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a [[Governor-General]], to be replaced by a non-executive head of state. This was the case in [[South Africa]] (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic, and later switched to having an executive presidency), [[Malta]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[India]], [[Vanuatu]] and since 30 November 2021, [[Barbados]]. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Pakistan]].

Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence.
{{Clear}}

== List of modern parliamentary republics and related systems ==
{{main|List of countries by system of government#Parliamentary and related systems}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="7" | Full parliamentary republics
|-
!Country/territory
!Head of state
!Head of state elected by
!Cameral structure
!Parliamentary republic adopted
!Previous government form
!Notes
|-
| {{flag|Albania}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Bajram Begaj]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by three-fifths majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1991
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state]]
|
|-
| {{flag|Armenia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Vahagn Khachaturyan]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by absolute majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral 
| style="text-align:center;"|2018<ref group="note" name="Z">Changed after the [[2015 Armenian constitutional referendum|2015 referendum]].</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential republic]]
|
|-
| {{nowrap|{{flag|Bangladesh}}}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Shahabuddin Chuppu|Mohammed Shahabuddin]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1991<ref group="note" name="A">Was, previously, a parliamentary republic between 1972 and 1975.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
|
|-
| {{nowrap|{{flag|Barbados}}}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Sandra Mason]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nomination
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|2021
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy ([[Commonwealth realm]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Christian Schmidt (politician)|Christian Schmidt]]<br>[[Milorad Dodik]]<br>[[Šefik Džaferović]]<br>[[Željko Komšić]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election of collective head of state, by [[first-past-the-post]] vote
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1991
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of [[Yugoslavia]])
|
|-
| {{flagicon|Bulgaria}} [[Bulgaria]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Rumen Radev]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1991
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state
|
|-
| {{flag|Republic of China (Taiwan)}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Lai Ching-te]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by first-past-the-post<br>{{small|Nominally by the [[National Assembly (Republic of China)|National Assembly]]}}<ref group="note">The [[Constitution of the Republic of China]] went into effect on 25 December 1947 as the [[Chinese Civil War]] was underway. On 1 October 1949, the [[Kuomintang]]-led Republic of China (ROC) was succeeded in [[Mainland China]] by the [[China|People's Republic of China]], a [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|single-party state]] governed by the [[Chinese Communist Party]]. The ROC government was then confined to the [[Taiwan (island)|island of Taiwan]] from 7 December. The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution but are suspended by the [[Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China|Additional Articles]], which established direct presidential elections since 1996.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Unicameralism|Unicameral]]<br>{{small|Nominally Tricameral}}<ref group="note">Under the [[Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China|Additional Articles]], the [[Control Yuan]] ceased to be a parliamentary chamber in 1993 and the [[National Assembly (Republic of China)|National Assembly]] was dissolved in 2005 leaving the [[Legislative Yuan]] as the [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] chamber. Functions of the National Assembly were transferred to the Legislative Yuan and [[Referendums in Taiwan|nationwide referendums]]. According to [[Judicial Yuan]] Interpretation no. 76, ''[https://www2.judicial.gov.tw/FYDownload/en/p03_01.asp?expno=76 Shall the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan be considered en masse as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations?]'' issued on May 3, 1957: The Constitution was enacted according to the exhortation of Dr. Sun Yat-Sen. In addition to the National Assembly, five Yuans have been established, the concept of which is not really analogous to the separation of powers system. The National Assembly representing all the nationals exercises the political power, the Legislative Yuan is the highest legislative institution of the nation and the Control Yuan is the highest monitoring institution of the nation. All of them are composed of representatives or members that are directly or indirectly elected by the people. Their functions and powers are similar to those important powers exercised by the parliaments of democratic nations. Although some of their approaches to the exercise of power, such as a regular annual assembly, quorum and resolution by the majority are not the same as those of parliaments of democratic nations, the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan, from the perspective of the nature of their statuses and functions in the Constitution, should be considered as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|1946<br>{{small|Only nominally a parliamentary republic since 1996}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Dang Guo|One-party military dictatorship]] (Mainland China)<br>Constitutional monarchy (Taiwan as part of the Japanese Empire)
| style="text-align:center;"|Nominally; the Constitution has been partially superseded by [[Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China|additional articles]] that provide for a [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential republic]] with direct presidential elections and a unicameral legislature. These additional articles have a [[sunset clause]] that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.
|-
| {{flagicon|Croatia}} [[Croatia]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Zoran Milanović]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|2000
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential republic]]
|
|-
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Petr Pavel]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority)
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1993
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliamentary republic (part of [[Czechoslovakia]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Dominica}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Sylvanie Burton]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1978
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Associated state]] of the United Kingdom
|
|-
| {{flag|Estonia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Alar Karis]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1991<ref group="note" name="B">Estonia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1918 and 1934 when the system was changed to a presidential system which was thereafter overthrown by a ''coup d'état''. In 1938, Estonia finally adopted a presidential system and in June 1940 was illegally occupied by the [[Soviet Union]]. Became a parliamentary republic again in 1990 with the implementation of an interim period to restore full independence, which was achieved by 1991.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic, thereafter [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states|occupied by a one-party state]]
|
|-
| {{flag|Ethiopia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Sahle-Work Zewde]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1991
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state
|
|-
| {{flag|Fiji}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Wiliame Katonivere]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|2014
| style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship
|
|-
| {{flag|Finland}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Alexander Stubb]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|2000<ref group="note" name="C">Formerly a semi-presidential republic, it is now a parliamentary republic according to David Arter, First Chair of Politics at Aberdeen University. In his "Scandinavian Politics Today" (Manchester University Press, revised 2008 {{ISBN|9780719078538}}), he quotes {{Cite journal | last = Nousiainen | first = Jaakko | title = From semi-presidentialism to parliamentary government: political and constitutional developments in Finland | journal = [[Scandinavian Political Studies]] | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 95–109 | doi = 10.1111/1467-9477.00048 | date = June 2001 }} as follows: "There are hardly any grounds for the epithet 'semi-presidential'." Arter's own conclusions are only slightly more nuanced: "The adoption of a new constitution on 1 March 2000 meant that Finland was no longer a case of semi-presidential government other than in the minimalist sense of a situation where a popularly elected fixed-term president exists alongside a prime minister and cabinet who are responsible to parliament (Elgie 2004: 317)". According to the Finnish Constitution, the president has no possibility to rule the government without the ministerial approval, and does not have the power to dissolve the parliament under his or her own desire. Finland is actually represented by its prime minister, and not by its president, in the Council of the Heads of State and Government of the European Union. The 2012 constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the president even further.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential republic]]
|
|-
| {{flag|Georgia (country)|name=Georgia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Salome Zourabichvili]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and regional delegates, by absolute majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral 
| style="text-align:center;"|2018<ref group="note" name="b">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/29/world/europe/georgia-president-salome-zurabishvili.html |title=Salome Zurabishvili Wins Georgia Presidential Runoff |agency=The Associated Press |work=The New York Times |access-date=3 January 2019 |date=29 November 2018}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential republic]]
|
|-
| {{flag|Germany}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Frank-Walter Steinmeier]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Federal Convention (Germany)|Federal Convention]] (Bundestag and state delegates{{Efn|The Federal Convention is made up of all the members of the Bundestag. The other half is distributed to the 16 Länder, that then each elect Members to elect the President of Germany. Often German celebrities are chosen by the state parliaments.}}), by absolute majority<ref>{{Cite web |title=Art 54 GG - Einzelnorm |url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/gg/art_54.html |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=www.gesetze-im-internet.de}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|Two unicameral institutions{{Efn|The [[Bundesrat of Germany|Bundesrat]] is sometimes referred to as an [[upper chamber]] of the German legislature. This is technically incorrect, since the [[German Constitution]] defines the [[Bundestag]] and Bundesrat as two separate legislative institutions. It describes the Bundesrat as the constitutional organ which is representing the 16 [[States of Germany|Länder (States)]] of Germany. Hence, the federal legislature of Germany consists of two unicameral legislative institutions, not one [[bicameral]] [[parliament]]. However the [[Federal Constitutional Court]] itself referred to the Bundesrat in the English translation of this decision. |group=note}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zusammensetzung des Bundesrates |url=https://www.bundesrat.de/DE/bundesrat/verteilung/verteilung-node.html |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Bundesrat |language=de}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|1949<ref group="note" name="D">In the case of the former [[West Germany|West German]] states, including former [[West Berlin]], the previous one-party state is [[Nazi Germany]], but in the case of the [[New Länder]] and former [[East Berlin]] it is [[East Germany]]. [[German reunification]] took place on 3 October 1990, when the five re-established states of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin was united into a single city-state. Therefore, this date applies to today's Federal Republic of Germany as a whole, although the area of former East Germany was no part of that parliamentary republic until 1990.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state
([[Nazi Germany]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Greece}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Katerina Sakellaropoulou]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1975
| style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship; [[constitutional monarchy]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Hungary}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Tamás Sulyok]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority 
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1990
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state ([[Hungarian People's Republic]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Iceland}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Halla Tómasdóttir]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1944<!-- This is a similar case to that of Austria. -->
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (in a [[personal union]] with [[Denmark]])
|
|-
| {{flag|India}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Droupadi Murmu]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Electoral College (India)|Parliament and state legislature]], by instant-runoff vote
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1950
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (British [[Dominion of India|Dominion]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Iraq}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Abdul Latif Rashid]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral<ref group="note">Officially bicameral, upper house never entered into functions, to present day.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|2005
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state
|
|-
| {{flag|Ireland}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Michael D. Higgins]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Irish presidential election|Direct election, by instant-runoff vote]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1949<ref group="note">The [[Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949|head of state was ambiguous]] from 1936 until the [[Republic of Ireland Act 1948|Republic of Ireland Act]] came into force on 18 April 1949. [[Irish republican legitimism|A minority of Irish republicans assert]] that the [[Irish Republic]] proclaimed in 1919 is still extant.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Monarchy in the Irish Free State|To 1936]]: Constitutional monarchy (British [[Dominion]])<br />1936–1949: [[Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949|ambiguous]]
|
|-
| {{flag|Israel}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Isaac Herzog]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Knesset|Parliament]], by majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|2001
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-parliamentary system|Semi-parliamentary]] republic
|
|-
| {{flag|Italy}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Sergio Mattarella]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and region delegates, by two-thirds majority; by absolute majority, starting from the fourth ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first three ballots
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1946
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy
| style="text-align:center;"|Prime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament. 
|-
| {{flag|Kosovo}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Vjosa Osmani]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballots
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|2008
| style="text-align:center;"|[[United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo|UN-administered Kosovo]] (formally part of [[Serbia]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Latvia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Edgars Rinkēvičs]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1991<ref group="note" name="F">Latvia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1921 and 1934 when the then prime minister Kārlis Ulmanis took power in a ''coup d'état''. In June 1940 Latvia was occupied and annexed by the [[Soviet Union]].</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic, thereafter [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states|occupied by a one-party state]]
|
|-
| {{flag|Lebanon}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Najib Mikati]]<br>(Acting)
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1941
| style="text-align:center;"|Protectorate ([[French mandate of Lebanon]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Malta}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[George Vella]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1974
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy ([[Commonwealth realm]]<ref name=MTRealm>{{cite web|url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/malta/00_1964_74_s.php|title=Malta: Heads of State: 1964-1974|website=Archontology.org|access-date=18 February 2018}}</ref>)<ref name=Realms>{{cite web|url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/uk/01_realms.php|title=British Monarch's Titles: 1867-2018|website=Archontology.org|access-date=18 February 2018}}</ref>
|
|-
| {{flag|Mauritius}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Prithvirajsing Roopun]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1992
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy ([[Commonwealth realm]]<ref name=MURealm>{{cite web|url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/mauritius/00_1968_1992_s.php|title=Mauritius: Heads of State: 1968-1992|website=Archontology.org|access-date=18 February 2018}}</ref><ref name=MUStatesmen>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L027DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|title=The Statesman's Year-Book 1984-85|last1=Paxton|first1=John|page=29|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|date=1984|access-date=18 February 2018|isbn=978-0-333-34731-7}}</ref>)<ref name=Realms/>
|
|-
| {{flag|Moldova}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Maia Sandu]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system<br />(since 2016; previously by parliament, by three-fifths majority)
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|2001
| style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic
|
|-
| {{flag|Montenegro}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Jakov Milatović]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1992<!-- Makes no sense. Country did not exist, as sovereign state, at the time! -->
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (Part of [[Yugoslavia]], and after [[Serbia and Montenegro]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Nepal}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Ram Chandra Poudel]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and state legislators<!-- By majority or instant-runoff vote? -->
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral<ref>[http://constitution.org.np/userfiles/constitution%20of%20nepal%202072-en.pdf Constitution of Nepal] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223153410/http://constitution.org.np/userfiles/constitution%20of%20nepal%202072-en.pdf |date=December 23, 2015 }}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|2008<ref group="note" name="G">Under a transitional government between 2006 and 2015; this Transitional Government was responsible to an elected [[1st Nepalese Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]], which resolved to establish a republic in 2008.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy
|
|-
| {{flag|North Macedonia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Gordana Siljanovska-Davkova]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1991
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of [[Yugoslavia]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Pakistan}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Asif Ali Zardari]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"| 2010<ref>{{Cite web|author=Kiran Khalid|url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/04/09/pakistan.constitution/ |title=Pakistan lawmakers approve weakening of presidential powers |work=CNN|date=9 April 2010 |access-date=14 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nation.com.pk/11-Apr-2010/18th-amendment-to-restore-constitution |title='18th Amendment to restore Constitution' |date=11 April 2010 |publisher=Nation.com.pk |access-date=14 April 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414123429/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Regional/Lahore/11-Apr-2010/18th-Amendment-to-restore-Constitution |archive-date=14 April 2010 }}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|Assembly-independent republic
|
|-
| {{flag|Samoa}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1960
| style="text-align:center;"|Trust Territory of [[New Zealand]]
|
|-
| {{flag|Serbia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Aleksandar Vučić]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1991
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of [[Yugoslavia]], and later [[Serbia and Montenegro]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Singapore}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Tharman Shanmugaratnam]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election (since 1993)
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1965
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Singapore in Malaysia|State of Malaysia]]
|
|-
| {{flag|Slovakia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Peter Pellegrini]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament)
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1993
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliamentary Republic (part of [[Czechoslovakia]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Slovenia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Nataša Pirc Musar]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1991
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)
|
|-
| {{flag|Somalia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Hassan Sheikh Mohamud]] 
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|2012<ref group="note" name="H">Had a transitional government between 1991 and 2012.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state
|
|-
| {{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Christine Kangaloo]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1976
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy ([[Commonwealth realm]]<ref name=TTRealm>{{cite web|url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/trinidad/00_1962_1976_state.php|title=Trinidad and Tobago: Heads of State: 1962-1976|website=Archontology.org|access-date=18 February 2018}}</ref>)<ref name=Realms/>
|
|-
| {{flag|Vanuatu}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Nikenike Vurobaravu]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and regional council presidents, by majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1980
| style="text-align:center;"|British–French [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]] ([[New Hebrides]])
|
|-
! colspan=7|[[List of countries by system of government#Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency|Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency]]
|-
!Country
!Head of state
!Head of state elected by
!Cameral structure
!Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency adopted
!Previous government form
!Notes
|-
| {{flag|Botswana}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Mokgweetsi Masisi]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1966
| style="text-align:center;"|British protectorate ([[Bechuanaland Protectorate]])
| 
|-
|-
| {{flag|Kiribati}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Taneti Maamau]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1979
| style="text-align:center;"|Protectorate
|Following a general election, by which citizens elect the members of the [[House of Assembly (Kiribati)|House of Assembly]], members select from their midst "not less than 3 nor more than 4 candidates" for the presidency. No other person may stand as candidate. The citizens of Kiribati then elect the president from among the proposed candidates with [[first-past-the-post voting]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-04-16 |title=Parliament of Kiribati - Constitution |url=http://www.parliament.gov.ki/constitution.html |access-date=2023-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416024522/http://www.parliament.gov.ki/constitution.html |archive-date=2009-04-16 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Marshall Islands}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[David Kabua]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1979
| style="text-align:center;"|UN Trust Territory (part of [[Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands]])
|
|-
| {{flag|Nauru}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Russ Kun]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1968
| style="text-align:center;"|UN Trusteeship between [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and the [[United Kingdom]].
|
|-
| {{flag|South Africa}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Cyril Ramaphosa]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1961
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy ([[Commonwealth realm]]<ref name=ZARealm>{{cite web|url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/south_africa/00_1910_1961_s.php|title=South Africa: Heads of State: 1910-1961|website=Archontology.org|access-date=18 February 2018}}</ref><ref name=ZAReturn>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/south-africa-returns-to-the-commonwealth-fold-1419686.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220525/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/south-africa-returns-to-the-commonwealth-fold-1419686.html |archive-date=2022-05-25 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=South Africa returns to the Commonwealth fold|last1=Carlin|first1=John|website=[[The Independent]]|date=31 May 1994|access-date=18 February 2018}}</ref><ref name=ZASecessionTalk>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=WUVkAAAAIBAJ&pg=5504,1422353|title=Secession Talked by Some Anti-Republicans|newspaper=[[Saskatoon Star-Phoenix]]|date=11 October 1960|access-date=18 February 2018}}</ref>)<ref name=Realms/>
| style="text-align:center;"|Was a full parliamentary republic from 1961&ndash;1984; adopted an executive presidency in 1984. 
|-
! colspan=7|[[List of countries by system of government#Assembly-independent republics|Assembly-independent systems]]
|-
!Country
!Head of state
!Head of state elected by
!Cameral structure
!Assembly-independent republic adopted
!Previous government form
!Notes
|-
| {{flag|Federated States of Micronesia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Wesley Simina]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1986
| style="text-align:center;"|UN Trust Territory (Part of [[Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands]])
| The president is assisted by the [[Vice President of the Federated States of Micronesia|vice-president]], both of whom are elected by the [[Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia|FSM Congress]] from among the at-large members to serve for four-year terms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Executive |url=https://www.gov.fm/index.php/national-government/executive |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=www.gov.fm |date=8 March 2021 |language=en-gb}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Guyana}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Irfaan Ali]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Semi-direct election, by first-past-the-post vote<ref>Every list of candidates for Parliament must also have a candidate for President, and the having the most votes automatically has its candidate elected President</ref> (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority)
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1980
| style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary republic
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| {{flag|San Marino}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Francesco Mussoni]]<br>[[Giacomo Simoncini]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1291
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Theocracy]] (part of the [[Papal States]])
| style="text-align:center;"|Two collective heads of state and heads of government, the [[Captains Regent]]
|-
| {{flag|Suriname}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Chan Santokhi]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament
| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral
| style="text-align:center;"|1987
| style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary republic
|
|-
!colspan=7 | [[List of systems of government#Directorial republican systems|Directorial systems]]
|-
!Country
!Head of state
!Head of state elected by
!Cameral structure
!Parliamentary republic adopted
!Previous government form
!Notes
|-
| {{flag|Switzerland}}
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Guy Parmelin]]<br>[[Ignazio Cassis]]<br>[[Ueli Maurer]]<br>[[Simonetta Sommaruga]]<br>[[Alain Berset]]<br>[[Karin Keller-Sutter]]<br>[[Viola Amherd]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Federal Assembly of Switzerland|Parliament]] by [[exhaustive ballot]] at a joint sitting of both houses
| style="text-align:center;" | Bicameral
| style="text-align:center;" | 1848
| style="text-align:center;" | Confederation of states
| style="text-align:center;" | Also has [[Popular initiative|citizen-initiated referendums]]
|}

== List of former parliamentary republics and related systems ==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Country
!Became a<br>parliamentary<br>republic
!Status<br>changed
!width=300px|Changed to
!Reason for change
!Notes
|-
! colspan="6" | Full parliamentary republics
|-
|{{flagicon|Abkhazia|SSR}} [[Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia|SSR Abkhazia]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1921
| style="text-align:center;"|1931
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic
| style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the [[Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Abkhaz Regional Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia|Communist Party of Abkhazia]]
|-
|{{flag|Abkhaz ASSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1931
| style="text-align:center;"|1991
| style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary republic
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Abkhaz Regional Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia|Communist Party of Abkhazia]]
|-
|{{flag|Abkhazia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1991 Abkhazian Supreme Soviet election|1991]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1994 Abkhazian presidential election|1994]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Constitution of Abkhazia|New constitution adopted]]
|
|-
|{{flag|First Republic of Armenia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1918
| style="text-align:center;"|1920
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state|One-party]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Armenian SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1920
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1991 Armenian presidential election|1991]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Multi-party system|Multi-party]] [[Semi-presidential republic|semi-presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Armenia (Soviet Union)|Communist Party of Armenia]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Austria}} [[First Austrian Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1920
| style="text-align:center;"|1929
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-presidential republic|Semi-presidential system]] 
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
|
|-
|{{flag|Azerbaijan Democratic Republic}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1918
| style="text-align:center;"|1920
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic
| style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Azerbaijan SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1920
| style="text-align:center;"|1990
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Azerbaijan Communist Party (1920)|Communist Party of Azerbaijan]]
|-
|{{flag|Belarusian Democratic Republic}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1918
| style="text-align:center;"|1920
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic
| style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Byelorussian SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1920
| style="text-align:center;"|1990
| style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary republic
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Byelorussia]]
|-
|{{flag|Belarus|1991}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1990 Belarusian Supreme Soviet election|1990]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1994 Belarusian presidential election|1994]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Constitution of Belarus|New constitution adopted]]
|
|-
|{{BRA}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1961
| style="text-align:center;"|1963
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1963 Brazilian constitutional referendum|Referendum]]
|
|-
|{{flagicon|Burma|1948}} [[Post-independence Burma (1948–1962)|Burma]] <small>''(present-day [[Myanmar]])''</small>
| style="text-align:center;"|1948
| style="text-align:center;"|1962
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Military dictatorship]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1962 Burmese coup d'état]]
|
|-
| rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Chile}} [[History of Chile during the Parliamentary Era (1891–1925)|Chile]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1891
| style="text-align:center;"|1924
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Military junta]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Government Junta of Chile (1924)|1924 Chilean coup d'état]]
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|1925
| style="text-align:center;"|1925
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Chilean Constitution of 1925|New constitution]]
|
|-
| rowspan=2| {{flagicon|ROC}} [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:center;"|1947
| style="text-align:center;"|1972 (de facto)
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion|Constitution suspended]]
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:center;"|The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution which is generally in effect, but are suspended by the [[Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China|Additional Articles]], which have a [[sunset clause]] that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|1991 (de jure; nominally remains parliamentary)
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-presidential republic|Semi-presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China|Additional articles of the Constitution]] adopted
|-
| {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[First Czechoslovak Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1920
| style="text-align:center;"|1939
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state]] 
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Munich agreement]]
|
|-
| {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[Third Czechoslovak Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1945
| style="text-align:center;"|1948
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état|Coup d'état]]
| 
|-
| {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|Fourth Czechoslovak Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1948
| style="text-align:center;"|1989
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Multi-party system|Multi-party]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Velvet Revolution]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[Czech and Slovak Federative Republic|Fifth Czechoslovak Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1989
| style="text-align:center;"|1992
| style="text-align:center;"|''State dissolved''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Velvet Divorce]]
|
|-
| {{flagicon|East Indonesia}} [[State of East Indonesia]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1946
| style="text-align:center;"|1950
| style="text-align:center;"|''State dissolved''
| style="text-align:center;"|Merged to the [[Republic of Indonesia]]
|
|-
| rowspan=2| {{flagicon|Estonia}} [[History of Estonia (1920–1939)|First Republic of Estonia]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1920
| style="text-align:center;"|1934
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state|One-party]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1934 Estonian coup d'état]]
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:center;"|In June 1940, Estonia was occupied and annexed by the [[Soviet Union]].
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|1934
| style="text-align:center;"|1938
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state|One-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Constitution of Estonia#Second Constitution (1938–1940/92)|New constitution adopted]]
|-
|{{flagicon|France|1830}} [[French Third Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1870
| style="text-align:center;"|1940
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Puppet state]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Vichy France|World War II German occupation]]
|
|-
|{{flagicon|France|1830}} [[French Fourth Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1946
| style="text-align:center;"|1958
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-presidential republic|Semi-presidential system]] 
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Constitution of France|New constitution adopted]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of Georgia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1918
| style="text-align:center;"|1921
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic
| style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic]] and the [[Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Georgian SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1921
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1991 Georgian presidential election|1991]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Georgia (Soviet Union)|Communist Party of Georgia]]
|-
| {{flag|Guyana}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1970
| style="text-align:center;"|1980
| style="text-align:center;"|Assembly-independent republic
| style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted
|
|-
|{{flagicon|Hungary|1946}} [[Republic of Hungary (1946–1949)|Hungary]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1946
| style="text-align:center;"|1949
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the [[People's Republic of Hungary]]
|
|-
|{{INA}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1945
| style="text-align:center;"|1959
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[President Sukarno's 1959 Decree|Presidential constitution reinstated]]
|
|-
|{{ISR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1948
| style="text-align:center;"|1996
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-parliamentary system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
|
|-
|{{KEN}}
| style="text-align:center;"|2008
| style="text-align:center;"|2013
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[2010 Kenyan constitutional referendum|New constitution]] and [[2013 Kenyan general election|elections]]
| style="text-align:center;"|A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013<br>The switch to a fully presidential system was legislated in 2010, but only took effect in 2013.
|-
|{{flagicon|KOR|1949}} [[Second Republic of Korea]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1960
| style="text-align:center;"|1961
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Military junta]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[May 16 coup|16 May coup]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Kazakh SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1936
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1990 Kazakh presidential election|1990]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Kazakhstan (Soviet Union)|Communist Party of Kazakhstan]]
|-
|{{flag|Kirghiz SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1936
| style="text-align:center;"|1990
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Kirghizia]]
|-
| {{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[2010 Kyrgyz constitutional referendum|2010]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[2021 Kyrgyz constitutional referendum|2021]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[2021 Kyrgyz government system referendum|Referendum]]
| style="text-align:center;"|The [[2010 Constitution of Kyrgyzstan]] introduced a parliamentary system to the country while remaining a ''de facto'' [[Semi-presidential republic|semi-presidential republic]], with the [[President of Kyrgyzstan|President]] retaining many forms of executive powers such as appointing a [[Prime minister|Prime Minister]] as the head of government. The decision was subjected to a parliamentary vote of confidence.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Esengeldiev |first=Almaz |title=Kyrgyzstan's 2016 Constitutional Referendum |url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/analytical-brief/2017/kyrgyzstans-2016-constitutional-referendum |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=Freedom House |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2| {{flagicon|Latvia}} [[History of Latvia#Parliamentary era, 1920–34|First Republic of Latvia]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1922
| style="text-align:center;"|1934
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state|One-party]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1934 Latvian coup d'état]]
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:center;"|In June 1940, Latvia was occupied and annexed by the [[Soviet Union]].
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|1934
| style="text-align:center;"|1940
| style="text-align:center;"|''State dissolved''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940|World War II Soviet occupation]]
|-
|{{flagicon|Lithuania|1918}} [[History of Lithuania#Independence (1918–1940)|First Republic of Lithuania]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1920
| style="text-align:center;"|1926
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1926 Lithuanian coup d'état]]
| style="text-align:center;"|In June 1940, Lithuania was occupied and annexed by the [[Soviet Union]].
|-
|{{flag|Lithuania|1988}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania|1990]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1992 Lithuanian constitutional referendum|1992]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Multi-party system|Multi-party]] [[Semi-presidential republic|semi-presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Constitution of Lithuania|New constitution adopted]]
| style="text-align:center;"|In February 1993, Lithuania holds its [[1993 Lithuanian presidential election|first presidential election]] since the state re-established.
|-
|{{flag|Moldavian SSR}} <small>''(present-day [[Moldova]])''</small>
| style="text-align:center;"|1940
| style="text-align:center;"|1990
| style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Moldavia]]
|-
|{{NGR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1963
| style="text-align:center;"|1966
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Military dictatorship]]<br />(which led in 1979 to the democratic, [[Presidential system|presidential]]  {{nowrap|[[Second Nigerian Republic]])}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Nigerian military juntas of 1966–79 and 1983–98|Coup d'état]]
|
|-
| rowspan=4|{{flag|Pakistan}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1956
| style="text-align:center;"|1958
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan=3| [[Military dictatorship]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1958 Pakistani coup d'état]]
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|1973 || style="text-align:center;"|1978 || style="text-align:center;"|[[1977 Pakistani coup d'état]]
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|1997 || style="text-align:center;"|1999 || style="text-align:center;"|[[1999 Pakistani coup d'état]] 
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2002 || style="text-align:center;"|2003 || style="text-align:center;"| Assembly-independent republic || style="text-align:center;"|[[Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan|Constitutional amendment]]
|
|-
|{{flagicon|Poland|1919}} [[Second Polish Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1919
| style="text-align:center;"|1935
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[April Constitution of Poland|New constitution adopted]]
|
|-
|{{flagicon|Portugal}} [[First Portuguese Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Portuguese Constitution of 1911|1911]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1926
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Military dictatorship]]<br />(which led in 1933<br />to the ''Estado Novo'' {{nowrap|[[One-party state|one-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential republic]])}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[28 May 1926 coup d'état|28 May coup]]
|
|-
|{{flagicon|Philippines|aguinaldo}} [[First Philippine Republic]] ([[Malolos Republic]])
| style="text-align:center;"|1899
| style="text-align:center;"|1901
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Military dictatorship]]<br />(De facto United States [[Colony]])
| style="text-align:center;"|Capture of [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] to the American forces
|
|-
|{{flagicon|Philippines|1936}} [[Fourth Philippine Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1973
| style="text-align:center;"|1981
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-presidential republic|Semi-presidential system]]<br />(de facto [[Military dictatorship]] under [[Martial Law]] between 1972 and 1986.)
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
|
|-
|{{flagicon|Democratic Republic of Congo|1960}} [[Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1960
| style="text-align:center;"|1965
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Military dictatorship]]<br />(De facto [[one-party state]])
| style="text-align:center;"|1965 Congolese coup d'état
|
|-
|{{flag|Rhodesia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1969 Rhodesian constitutional referendum|1970]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Internal Settlement|1979]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Parliamentary system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Creation of [[Zimbabwe-Rhodesia]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Political rights were restricted to the white minority
|-
|{{flag|Russian SFSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election|1917]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1991 Russian presidential election|1991]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1991 Russian presidential referendum|Referendum]]
|
|-
|{{USSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1922
| style="text-align:center;"|1990
| style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1989<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
|-
|{{flagicon|Spain|1873}} [[First Spanish Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Spanish Draft Constitution of 1873|1873]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Restoration (Spain)|1874]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Constitutional monarchy]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Restoration (Spain)|Restoration of the monarchy]]
|
|-
|{{flagicon|Spanish Republic}} [[Second Spanish Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Spanish Constitution of 1931|1931]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Spanish Civil War|1939]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state]]<br><small>(which declared itself a [[constitutional monarchy]] in 1947)</small>
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Spanish Civil War|Coup d'état]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Suriname}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1975
| style="text-align:center;"|1987
| style="text-align:center;"|Assembly-independent republic
| style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted
|
|-
|{{SRI}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Sri Lankan Constitution of 1972|1972]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Constitution of Sri Lanka|1978]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Semi-presidential republic|Semi-presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted
|
|-
|{{flagicon|Syria|1932}} [[First Syrian Republic|Syrian Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1930
| style="text-align:center;"|1958
| style="text-align:center;"|''State dissolved''
| style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the [[United Arab Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Merged into the [[United Arab Republic]], which operated as a [[One-party state|One-party]] [[presidential system]]
|-
|{{flagicon|Syria|1932}} [[Syrian Arab Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1961
| style="text-align:center;"|1963
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state|One-party]] [[presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1963 Syrian coup d'état]]
|
|-
|{{flagicon|Transvaal}} [[Transvaal Republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"| 1852
| style="text-align:center;"| 1902
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Transvaal Colony|Colony of the British Empire]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Second Boer War]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Tajik SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1929
| style="text-align:center;"|1990
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Tajikistan]]
|-
| {{flag|Turkey}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1923
| style="text-align:center;"|[[2018 Turkish general election|2018]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[2017 Turkish constitutional referendum|Referendum]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Turkmen SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1925
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1990 Turkmenistan presidential election|1990]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Turkmenistan]]
|-
|{{UGA}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1963
| style="text-align:center;"|1966
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Suspension of the constitution
|
|-
| rowspan=3| {{flag|Ukrainian People's Republic}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1917
| style="text-align:center;"|1918
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Client state]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1918 Ukrainian coup d'état]]
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan=2|1918
| style="text-align:center;"|1919
| style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic
| style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]]
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|1921
| style="text-align:center;"|''State dissolved''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Treaty of Riga]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Ukrainian SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1919
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1991 Ukrainian presidential election|1991]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)|Communist Party of Ukraine]]
|-
|{{flag|Uzbek SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1924
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1990 Uzbek presidential election|1990]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Uzbekistan]]
|-
|{{flag|Yugoslavia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election|1945]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1953
| style="text-align:center;"|Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency<!--under the original 1946 constitution, the head of state and prime minister were separate posts. They were merged into one in 1953-->
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1953 amendments to the Constitution of Yugoslavia|Constitutional amendment]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman<br>[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[Communist Party of Yugoslavia]]
|-
|{{flag|Zimbabwe Rhodesia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Internal Settlement|1979]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Lancaster House Agreement|1979]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Dependent territory]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Reversion to [[Southern Rhodesia]]
|
|-
|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1980
| style="text-align:center;"|1987
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
|
|-
! colspan="6" |[[List of countries by system of government#Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency|Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency]]
|-
!Country
!Became a<br>parliamentary<br>republic<br>with an executive<br>presidency
!Status<br>changed
!width=300px|Changed to
!Reason for change
!Notes
|-
|{{flag|Gambia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1970
| style="text-align:center;"|1982
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Presidential system]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1982 Gambian general election|Constitutional amendment]]
| The president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based [[double simultaneous vote]], with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed [[Snap elections|snap parliamentary elections]]. Presidential elections were made fully direct and separate from parliamentary elections in 1982.
|-
|{{flag|Kenya}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1964
| style="text-align:center;"|2008
| style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary system
| style="text-align:center;"|Coalition and power-sharing
| Originally, the president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based [[double simultaneous vote]], with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed either the resignation of the president or [[Snap elections|snap parliamentary elections]]. Presidential elections were made fully direct in 1969, including after a vacancy, but their schedule remained linked to the parliamentary elections.<br>A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013.
|-
|{{flag|Yugoslavia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1953
| style="text-align:center;"|1963
| style="text-align:center;"|Assembly-independent republic<!--under the 1946 constitution, as amended in 1953, the President could be removed by the Assembly with a simple majority. However, under the 1963 constitution the President was irremovable.-->
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1963 Constitution of Yugoslavia|New constitution]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[League of Communists of Yugoslavia]]
|-
! colspan="6" |[[List of countries by system of government#Assembly-independent republics|Assembly-independent systems]]
|-
!Country
!Became an<br>assembly-<br>independent<br>republic
!Status<br>changed
!width=300px|Changed to
!Reason for change
!Notes
|-
|{{flagicon|Ghana}} [[First Republic of Ghana]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1960
| style="text-align:center;"|1966
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Military dictatorship]]<br />(Which led to the fully parliamentary [[Second Republic of Ghana]])
| style="text-align:center;"|[[National Liberation Council|Coup d'état]]
|
|-
| rowspan=2|{{flag|Pakistan}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1985
| style="text-align:center;"|1997
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan=2| Full parliamentary republic
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan|Constitutional amendment]]
| rowspan=2|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2003 || style="text-align:center;"|2010 || style="text-align:center;"|[[Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan|Constitutional amendment]]
|-
|{{flag|Serbia and Montenegro}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1992
| style="text-align:center;"|2000
| style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic
| style="text-align:center;"|[[2000 Yugoslavian general election|Constitutional amendment]]
|
|-
|{{flagcountry|Tanganyika (1961–1964)}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1962
| style="text-align:center;"|1964
| style="text-align:center;"|''State dissolved''
| style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the [[United Republic of Tanzania]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Merged into the [[United Republic of Tanzania]], which operated as a [[One-party state|One-party]] [[presidential system]]
|-
|{{flag|Yugoslavia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1963
| style="text-align:center;"|1980
| style="text-align:center;"|Directorial republic
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1973 Constitution of Yugoslavia|New constitution]] and the [[Death and state funeral of Josip Broz Tito|death of Josip Broz Tito]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[League of Communists of Yugoslavia]]<br>The change to a directorial system was legislated in 1973, but only took effect in 1980.
|-
!colspan="6" | [[List of systems of government#Directorial republican systems|Directorial systems]]
|-
|{{flag|Yugoslavia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1980
| style="text-align:center;"|1992
| style="text-align:center;"|—
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Breakup of Yugoslavia]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[One-party state|One-party system]] under the [[League of Communists of Yugoslavia]]
|-
|-
|}

== See also ==
*[[List of countries by system of government]]
*[[Constitutional monarchy]]
*[[Parliamentary system]]
*[[Republic]]
*[[Republicanism]]
*[[Semi-presidential system]]
*[[Semi-parliamentary system]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group="note"}}
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Parliamentary procedure]]
[[Category:Liberalism]]
[[Category:Political terminology]]
[[Category:Types of democracy]]
[[Category:Types of republics]]
[[de:Parlamentarisches Regierungssystem#Parlamentarische Republik]]